Female genital mutilation (English Wikipedia)

"FMG in Sierra Leone" (PDF). 28TooMany, Registered Charity: No. 1150379. Archived from the original (PDF) on 22 December 2021. Retrieved 22 December 2021.

aappublications.org

pediatrics.aappublications.org

"Female Genital Mutilation". Pediatrics. 102 (1): 153–156. 1 July 1998. doi:10.1542/peds.102.1.153. PMID 9651425. Archived from the original on 18 February 2013. Retrieved 22 October 2016.
Withdrawn policy: American Academy of Pediatrics Board of Directors (1 May 2010). "Ritual Genital Cutting of Female Minors". Pediatrics. 125 (5): 1088–1093. doi:10.1542/peds.2010-0187. PMID 20421257. Archived from the original on 20 October 2014. Retrieved 27 October 2014.

Pam Belluck, "Group Backs Ritual 'Nick' as Female Circumcision Option" Archived 18 January 2018 at the Wayback Machine, The New York Times, 6 May 2010.

ag.gov.au

Australia: "Review of Australia's Female Genital Mutilation Legal Framework" Archived 5 March 2016 at the Wayback Machine, Attorney General's Department, Government of Australia.
New Zealand: "Section 204A – Female genital mutilation – Crimes Act 1961" Archived 23 November 2011 at the Wayback Machine, New Zealand Parliamentary Counsel Office.
Europe: "Eliminating female genital mutilation" Archived 8 August 2014 at the Wayback Machine, European Commission.
United States: "18 U.S. Code § 116 – Female genital mutilation" Archived 3 August 2014 at the Wayback Machine, Legal Information Institute, Cornell University Law School.

Canada: Section 268, Criminal Code, Justice Laws website, Government of Canada.

archive.org

Gruenbaum 2001, 50; Mackie and LeJeune (UNICEF) 2008, 8–9. Gruenbaum, Ellen (2001). The Female Circumcision Controversy: An Anthropological Perspective. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press.
Knight 2001, 329–330; Kenyon 1893. Knight, Mary (June 2001). "Curing cut or ritual mutilation? Some remarks on the practice of female and male circumcision in Graeco-Roman Egypt". Isis. 92 (2): 317–338. doi:10.1086/385184. ISSN 0021-1753. JSTOR 3080631. PMID 11590895. S2CID 38351439. Kenyon, F. G. (1893). Greek Papyri in the British Museum. London: British Museum. ISBN 978-0-7141-0486-7.
J. F. C. 1873, 155, cited in Allen 2000, 106. J. F. C. (8 February 1873). "Isaac Baker Brown, F.R.C.S." Medical Times and Gazette. 1 (1180). Archived from the original on 1 August 2020. Retrieved 27 August 2017. Allen, Peter Lewis (2000). The Wages of Sin: Sex and Disease, Past and Present. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0-226-01460-9.
Hoberman 2005, 63. Hoberman, John Milton (2005). Testosterone Dreams: Rejuvenation, Aphrodisia, Doping. Berkeley: University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-22151-2.
Tamale 2011, 19–20. Tamale, Sylvia (2011). "Researching and theorising sexualities in Africa". In Tamale, Sylvia (ed.). African Sexualities: A Reader. Pambazuka Press/Fahamu. pp. 11–36. ISBN 978-0-85749-016-2.

bbc.co.uk

"FGM: Mother guilty of genital mutilation of daughter". BBC News. 1 February 2019. Retrieved 1 February 2019.
"Mother jailed for 11 years over FGM". BBC News. 8 March 2019. Retrieved 8 March 2019.
"FGM: Woman jailed for taking girl, 3, for mutilation loses appeal". BBC News. 4 July 2024.

books.google.com

Raqiya D. Abdalla, "'My Grandmother Called it the Three Feminine Sorrows': The Struggle of Women Against Female Circumcision in Somalia," in Abusharaf 2007, p. 201.
Abdalla 2007, p. 202.
Nussbaum 1999, 119. Nussbaum, Martha (1999). Sex and Social Justice. New York and Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-535501-7. Archived from the original on 25 July 2020. Retrieved 27 August 2017.
Karanja 2009, 93, n. 631. Karanja, James (2009). The Missionary Movement in Colonial Kenya: The Foundation of Africa Inland Church. Göttingen: Cuvillier Verlag.
Zabus 2008, 47. Zabus, Chantal (2008). "The Excised Body in African Texts and Contexts". In Borch, Merete Falck (ed.). Bodies and Voices: The Force-field of Representation and Discourse in Colonial and Postcolonial Studies. New York: Rodopi.
Zabus 2013, 40. Zabus, Chantal (2013). "'Writing with an Accent': From Early Decolonization to Contemporary Gender Issues in the African Novel in French, English, and Arabic". In Bertacco, Simon (ed.). Language and Translation in Postcolonial Literatures. New York: Routledge.
El Guindi 2007, 30. El Guindi, Fadwa (2007). "Had This Been Your Face, Would You Leave It as Is?". In Abusharaf, Rogaia Mustafa (ed.). Female Circumcision: Multicultural Perspectives. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press. ISBN 978-0-8122-0102-4. Archived from the original on 10 March 2021. Retrieved 16 January 2019.
Abdalla 2007, 190. Abdalla, Raqiya D. (2007). "'My Grandmother Called it the Three Feminine Sorrows': The Struggle of Women Against Female Circumcision in Somalia". In Abusharaf, Rogaia Mustafa (ed.). Female Circumcision: Multicultural Perspectives. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press.
El Guindi 2007, 43. El Guindi, Fadwa (2007). "Had This Been Your Face, Would You Leave It as Is?". In Abusharaf, Rogaia Mustafa (ed.). Female Circumcision: Multicultural Perspectives. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press. ISBN 978-0-8122-0102-4. Archived from the original on 10 March 2021. Retrieved 16 January 2019.
Abdalla 2007, 190. Abdalla, Raqiya D. (2007). "'My Grandmother Called it the Three Feminine Sorrows': The Struggle of Women Against Female Circumcision in Somalia". In Abusharaf, Rogaia Mustafa (ed.). Female Circumcision: Multicultural Perspectives. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press.
Abdalla 2007, 190–191, 198. Abdalla, Raqiya D. (2007). "'My Grandmother Called it the Three Feminine Sorrows': The Struggle of Women Against Female Circumcision in Somalia". In Abusharaf, Rogaia Mustafa (ed.). Female Circumcision: Multicultural Perspectives. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press.
For the countries in which labia stretching is found (Botswana, Lesotho, Malawi, Mozambique, Namibia, South Africa, Tanzania, Uganda and Zimbabwe), see Nzegwu 2011, 262; for the rest, Bagnol & Mariano 2011, 272–276 (272 for Uganda). Nzegwu, Nkiru (2011). "'Osunality' (or African eroticism)". African Sexualities: A Reader. Cape Town: Fahamu/Pambazuka. ISBN 978-0-85749-016-2. Archived from the original on 1 August 2020. Retrieved 27 August 2017. Bagnol, Brigitte; Mariano, Esmeralda (2011). "Politics of Naming Sexual Practices". African Sexualities: A Reader. Cape Town: Fahamu/Pambazuka. ISBN 978-0-85749-016-2. Archived from the original on 1 August 2020. Retrieved 27 August 2017.
Mandara 2000, 98, 100; for fistulae, 102; also see Mandara 2004 Mandara, Mairo Usman (2000). "Female genital cutting in Nigeria: View of Nigerian Doctors on the Medicalization Debate". In Shell-Duncan, Bettina; Hernlund, Ylva (eds.). Female "Circumcision" in Africa: Culture Controversy and Change. Boulder: Lynne Rienner Publishers. Mandara, Mairo Usman (March 2004). "Female genital mutilation in Nigeria". International Journal of Gynaecology and Obstetrics. 84 (3): 291–298. doi:10.1016/j.ijgo.2003.06.001. PMID 15001386. S2CID 20969247.
Abdalla 2007, 187. Abdalla, Raqiya D. (2007). "'My Grandmother Called it the Three Feminine Sorrows': The Struggle of Women Against Female Circumcision in Somalia". In Abusharaf, Rogaia Mustafa (ed.). Female Circumcision: Multicultural Perspectives. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press.
El Guindi 2007, 35, 42, 46. El Guindi, Fadwa (2007). "Had This Been Your Face, Would You Leave It as Is?". In Abusharaf, Rogaia Mustafa (ed.). Female Circumcision: Multicultural Perspectives. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press. ISBN 978-0-8122-0102-4. Archived from the original on 10 March 2021. Retrieved 16 January 2019.
El Guindi 2007, 35. El Guindi, Fadwa (2007). "Had This Been Your Face, Would You Leave It as Is?". In Abusharaf, Rogaia Mustafa (ed.). Female Circumcision: Multicultural Perspectives. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press. ISBN 978-0-8122-0102-4. Archived from the original on 10 March 2021. Retrieved 16 January 2019.
Ahmadu 2000, 284–285. Ahmadu, Fuambai (2000). "Rites and Wrongs: An Insider/Outsider Reflects on Power and Excision". In Shell-Duncan, Bettina; Hernlund, Ylva (eds.). Female "Circumcision" in Africa: Culture Controversy and Change. Boulder: Lynne Rienner Publishers.
Abusharaf 2007, 8; El Guindi 2007, 36–37. Abusharaf, Rogaia Mustafa (2007). "Introduction: The Custom in Question". In Abusharaf, Rogaia Mustafa (ed.). Female Circumcision: Multicultural Perspectives. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press. ISBN 978-0-8122-0102-4. Archived from the original on 10 March 2021. Retrieved 16 January 2019. El Guindi, Fadwa (2007). "Had This Been Your Face, Would You Leave It as Is?". In Abusharaf, Rogaia Mustafa (ed.). Female Circumcision: Multicultural Perspectives. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press. ISBN 978-0-8122-0102-4. Archived from the original on 10 March 2021. Retrieved 16 January 2019.
Boddy 2007, 112; also see Boddy 1989, 52–61. Boddy, Janice (2007). Civilizing Women: British Crusades in Colonial Sudan. Princeton: Princeton University Press. Boddy, Janice (1989). Wombs and Alien Spirits: Women, Men, and the Zar Cult in Northern Sudan. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press.
Bagnol & Mariano 2011, 277–281. Bagnol, Brigitte; Mariano, Esmeralda (2011). "Politics of Naming Sexual Practices". African Sexualities: A Reader. Cape Town: Fahamu/Pambazuka. ISBN 978-0-85749-016-2. Archived from the original on 1 August 2020. Retrieved 27 August 2017.
Wensinck 2012. Wensinck, A. J. (2012) [1986]. "K̲h̲itān". In Bosworth, C. E.; van Donzel, E. J.; Lewis, B.; Heinrichs, W. P.; Pellat, Ch. (eds.). Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition. Vol. 5. Leiden and Boston: Brill Publishers. pp. 20–22. doi:10.1163/1573-3912_islam_SIM_4296. ISBN 978-90-04-07819-2. Archived from the original on 30 September 2021. Retrieved 7 February 2020.
Cohen 2005, 59; Berlin 2011, 173. Cohen, Shaye J. D. (2005). Why Aren't Jewish Women Circumcised? Gender and Covenant In Judaism. Berkeley: University of California Press. Berlin, Adele (2011). "Circumcision". The Oxford Dictionary of the Jewish Religion. New York: Oxford University Press.
Strabo, Geographica, Book VII, chapter 2, 17.2.5. Cohen 2005, 59–61 argues that Strabo conflated the Jews with the Egyptians. Cohen, Shaye J. D. (2005). Why Aren't Jewish Women Circumcised? Gender and Covenant In Judaism. Berkeley: University of California Press.
J. F. C. 1873, 155, cited in Allen 2000, 106. J. F. C. (8 February 1873). "Isaac Baker Brown, F.R.C.S." Medical Times and Gazette. 1 (1180). Archived from the original on 1 August 2020. Retrieved 27 August 2017. Allen, Peter Lewis (2000). The Wages of Sin: Sex and Disease, Past and Present. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0-226-01460-9.
Thomas 1813, 585–586; Shorter 2008, 82. Thomas, Robert (1813). The Modern Practice of Physick. London: Longman, Hurst, Rees, Orme, and Brown. Shorter, Edward (2008). From Paralysis to Fatigue: A History of Psychosomatic Illness in the Modern Era. New York: Simon and Schuster.
Elchalal et al. 1997; Shorter 2008, 82. Elchalal, Uriel; Ben-Ami, B.; Gillis, R.; Brzezinski, A. (October 1997). "Ritualistic female genital mutilation: current status and future outlook". Obstetrical & Gynecological Survey. 52 (10): 643–651. doi:10.1097/00006254-199710000-00022. ISSN 0029-7828. PMID 9326757. Shorter, Edward (2008). From Paralysis to Fatigue: A History of Psychosomatic Illness in the Modern Era. New York: Simon and Schuster.
Cutner 1985, cited in Nour 2008. Also see Barker-Benfield 1999, 113. Cutner, Lawrence P. (July 1985). "Female genital mutilation". Obstetrical & Gynecological Survey. 40 (7): 437–443. doi:10.1097/00006254-198507000-00004. ISSN 0029-7828. PMID 4022475. S2CID 22472191. Nour, Nawal M. (2008). "Female Genital Cutting: A Persisting Practice". Reviews in Obstetrics and Gynecology. 1 (3): 135–139. PMC 2582648. PMID 19015765. Barker-Benfield, G. J. (1999). The Horrors of the Half-Known Life: Male Attitudes Toward Women and Sexuality in Nineteenth-Century America. New York: Routledge.
Thomas 2000, 132. For irua, Kenyatta 1962, 129; for irugu as outcasts, Kenyatta 1962, 127. Also see Zabus 2008, 48. Thomas, Lynn M. (2000). "Ngaitana (I will circumcise myself)': Lessons from Colonial Campaigns to Ban Excision in Meru, Kenya". In Shell-Duncan, Bettina; Hernlund, Ylva (eds.). Female "Circumcision" in Africa: Culture Controversy and Change. Boulder: Lynne Rienner Publishers. Kenyatta, Jomo (1962) [1938]. Facing Mount Kenya. New York: Vintage Books. Kenyatta, Jomo (1962) [1938]. Facing Mount Kenya. New York: Vintage Books. Zabus, Chantal (2008). "The Excised Body in African Texts and Contexts". In Borch, Merete Falck (ed.). Bodies and Voices: The Force-field of Representation and Discourse in Colonial and Postcolonial Studies. New York: Rodopi.
Thomas 2000, 132; for the "sexual mutilation of women", Karanja 2009, 93, n. 631. Also see Strayer & Murray 1978, 139ff. Thomas, Lynn M. (2000). "Ngaitana (I will circumcise myself)': Lessons from Colonial Campaigns to Ban Excision in Meru, Kenya". In Shell-Duncan, Bettina; Hernlund, Ylva (eds.). Female "Circumcision" in Africa: Culture Controversy and Change. Boulder: Lynne Rienner Publishers. Karanja, James (2009). The Missionary Movement in Colonial Kenya: The Foundation of Africa Inland Church. Göttingen: Cuvillier Verlag. Strayer, Robert; Murray, Jocelyn (1978). "The CMS and Female Circumcision". In Strayer, Robert (ed.). The Making of Missionary Communities in East Africa. New York: State University of New York Press.
Boddy 2007, 241–245; Hyam 1990, 196; Murray 1976, 92–104. Boddy, Janice (2007). Civilizing Women: British Crusades in Colonial Sudan. Princeton: Princeton University Press. Hyam, Ronald (1990). Empire and Sexuality: The British Experience. Manchester: Manchester University Press. Murray, Jocelyn (1976). "The Church Missionary Society and the 'Female Circumcision' Issue in Kenya 1929–1932". Journal of Religion in Africa. 8 (2): 92–104. doi:10.1163/157006676X00075. JSTOR 1594780.
Boddy 2007, 241, 244; Robert 1996, 230. Boddy, Janice (2007). Civilizing Women: British Crusades in Colonial Sudan. Princeton: Princeton University Press. Robert, Dana Lee (1996). American Women in Mission: A Social History of Their Thought and Practice. Macon: Mercer University Press.
Thomas 2000, 129–131 (131 for the girls as "central actors"); also in Thomas 1996 and Thomas 2003, 89–91. Thomas, Lynn M. (2000). "Ngaitana (I will circumcise myself)': Lessons from Colonial Campaigns to Ban Excision in Meru, Kenya". In Shell-Duncan, Bettina; Hernlund, Ylva (eds.). Female "Circumcision" in Africa: Culture Controversy and Change. Boulder: Lynne Rienner Publishers. Thomas, Lynn M. (November 1996). "'Ngaitana (I will circumcise myself)': The Gender and Generational Politics of the 1956 Ban on Clitoridectomy in Meru, Kenya". Gender and History. 8 (3): 338–363. doi:10.1111/j.1468-0424.1996.tb00062.x. PMID 12322506. Thomas, Lynn (2003). Politics of the Womb: Women, Reproduction, and the State in Kenya. Berkeley: University of California Press.
Boddy 2007, 202, 299. Boddy, Janice (2007). Civilizing Women: British Crusades in Colonial Sudan. Princeton: Princeton University Press.
Bagnol & Mariano 2011, 281. Bagnol, Brigitte; Mariano, Esmeralda (2011). "Politics of Naming Sexual Practices". African Sexualities: A Reader. Cape Town: Fahamu/Pambazuka. ISBN 978-0-85749-016-2. Archived from the original on 1 August 2020. Retrieved 27 August 2017.
El Saadawi 2007, 14. El Saadawi, Nawal (2007) [1980]. The Hidden Face of Eve. London: Zed Books.
Abdalla 2007, 201. Abdalla, Raqiya D. (2007). "'My Grandmother Called it the Three Feminine Sorrows': The Struggle of Women Against Female Circumcision in Somalia". In Abusharaf, Rogaia Mustafa (ed.). Female Circumcision: Multicultural Perspectives. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press.
Boyle 2002, 47; Bagnol & Mariano 2011, 281. Boyle, Elizabeth Heger (2002). Female Genital Cutting: Cultural Conflict in the Global Community. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. Bagnol, Brigitte; Mariano, Esmeralda (2011). "Politics of Naming Sexual Practices". African Sexualities: A Reader. Cape Town: Fahamu/Pambazuka. ISBN 978-0-85749-016-2. Archived from the original on 1 August 2020. Retrieved 27 August 2017.
Anika Rahman and Nahid Toubia, Female Genital Mutilation: A Guide to Laws and Policies Worldwide, New York: Zed Books, 2000, 10–11 Archived 1 August 2020 at the Wayback Machine; for Vienna, UNICEF 2013, 8.
Nnaemeka 2005, 34. Nnaemeka, Obioma (2005). "African Women, Colonial Discourses, and Imperialist Interventions: Female Circumcision as Impetus". In Nnaemeka, Obioma (ed.). Female Circumcision and the Politics of Knowledge: African Women in Imperialist Discourses. Westport, Conn and London: Praeger. pp. 27–46. ISBN 978-0-89789-864-5. Archived from the original on 23 December 2016. Retrieved 27 August 2017.
Kirby 2005, 83. Kirby, Vicky (2005). "Out of Africa: 'Our Bodies Ourselves?'". In Nnaemeka, Obioma (ed.). Female Circumcision and the Politics of Knowledge: African Women in Imperialist Discourses. Westport, Conn and London: Praeger. ISBN 978-0-89789-864-5. Archived from the original on 23 December 2016. Retrieved 27 August 2017.
Nnaemeka 2005, 33. Nnaemeka, Obioma (2005). "African Women, Colonial Discourses, and Imperialist Interventions: Female Circumcision as Impetus". In Nnaemeka, Obioma (ed.). Female Circumcision and the Politics of Knowledge: African Women in Imperialist Discourses. Westport, Conn and London: Praeger. pp. 27–46. ISBN 978-0-89789-864-5. Archived from the original on 23 December 2016. Retrieved 27 August 2017.
Tamale 2011, 19–20. Tamale, Sylvia (2011). "Researching and theorising sexualities in Africa". In Tamale, Sylvia (ed.). African Sexualities: A Reader. Pambazuka Press/Fahamu. pp. 11–36. ISBN 978-0-85749-016-2.
Nnaemeka 2005, 30–33. Nnaemeka, Obioma (2005). "African Women, Colonial Discourses, and Imperialist Interventions: Female Circumcision as Impetus". In Nnaemeka, Obioma (ed.). Female Circumcision and the Politics of Knowledge: African Women in Imperialist Discourses. Westport, Conn and London: Praeger. pp. 27–46. ISBN 978-0-89789-864-5. Archived from the original on 23 December 2016. Retrieved 27 August 2017.
Korieh 2005, 121–122; for the photographs, see "Stephanie Welsh. The 1996 Pulitzer Prize Winners: Feature Photography". The Pulitzer Prizes. 1996. Archived from the original on 7 October 2015. Korieh, Chima (2005). "'Other' Bodies: Western Feminism, Race and Representation in Female Circumcision Discourse". In Nnaemeka, Obioma (ed.). Female Circumcision and the Politics of Knowledge: African Women in Imperialist Discourses. Westport, Conn and London: Praeger. ISBN 978-0-89789-864-5. Archived from the original on 23 December 2016. Retrieved 27 August 2017.
Walley 2002, 18, 34, 43, 60. Walley, Christine J. (2002). ""Searching for 'Voices': Feminism, Anthropology, and the Global Over Female Genital Operations"". In James, Stanlie M.; Robertson, Claire C. (eds.). Genital Cutting and Transnational Sisterhood. Urbana: University of Illinois Press. pp. 54–86.
Nnaemeka 2005, 38–39. Nnaemeka, Obioma (2005). "African Women, Colonial Discourses, and Imperialist Interventions: Female Circumcision as Impetus". In Nnaemeka, Obioma (ed.). Female Circumcision and the Politics of Knowledge: African Women in Imperialist Discourses. Westport, Conn and London: Praeger. pp. 27–46. ISBN 978-0-89789-864-5. Archived from the original on 23 December 2016. Retrieved 27 August 2017.
El Guindi 2007, 33. El Guindi, Fadwa (2007). "Had This Been Your Face, Would You Leave It as Is?". In Abusharaf, Rogaia Mustafa (ed.). Female Circumcision: Multicultural Perspectives. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press. ISBN 978-0-8122-0102-4. Archived from the original on 10 March 2021. Retrieved 16 January 2019.
Nussbaum 1999, 123–124. Nussbaum, Martha (1999). Sex and Social Justice. New York and Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-535501-7. Archived from the original on 25 July 2020. Retrieved 27 August 2017.

bostonreview.net

new.bostonreview.net

Also see Yael Tamir, "Hands Off Clitoridectomy" Archived 8 August 2014 at the Wayback Machine, Boston Review, Summer 1996; Martha Nussbaum, "Double Moral Standards?" Archived 8 August 2014 at the Wayback Machine, Boston Review, October/November 1996.

childinfo.org

"DHS overview" Archived 16 October 2014 at the Wayback Machine, Demographic and Health Surveys; "Questionnaires and Indicator List", Multiple Indicator Cluster Surveys, UNICEF.

cornell.edu

law.cornell.edu

Australia: "Review of Australia's Female Genital Mutilation Legal Framework" Archived 5 March 2016 at the Wayback Machine, Attorney General's Department, Government of Australia.
New Zealand: "Section 204A – Female genital mutilation – Crimes Act 1961" Archived 23 November 2011 at the Wayback Machine, New Zealand Parliamentary Counsel Office.
Europe: "Eliminating female genital mutilation" Archived 8 August 2014 at the Wayback Machine, European Commission.
United States: "18 U.S. Code § 116 – Female genital mutilation" Archived 3 August 2014 at the Wayback Machine, Legal Information Institute, Cornell University Law School.

Canada: Section 268, Criminal Code, Justice Laws website, Government of Canada.

cps.gov.uk

"Female Genital Mutilation Act 2003" Archived 14 July 2017 at the Wayback Machine, legislation.gov.uk, and "Female Genital Mutilation Act 2003" Archived 8 September 2013 at the Wayback Machine (legal guidance), Crown Prosecution Service: "The Act refers to 'girls', though it also applies to women."

degruyter.com

O'Rourke 2007, 166ff (hieroglyphs), 172 (menstruating woman). O'Rourke, Paul F. (1 February 2007). "The 'm't-Woman". Zeitschrift für Ägyptische Sprache und Altertumskunde. 134 (2): 166–172. doi:10.1524/zaes.2007.134.2.166. ISSN 2196-713X. S2CID 141166451. Archived from the original on 2 May 2019. Retrieved 15 October 2017.

dhsprogram.com

Yoder & Khan 2008, 13–14. Yoder, P. Stanley; Khan, Shane (March 2008). "Numbers of women circumcised in Africa: The Production of a Total" (PDF). DHS Working Papers (39). USAID. Archived (PDF) from the original on 22 November 2017. Retrieved 29 July 2014.
"DHS overview" Archived 16 October 2014 at the Wayback Machine, Demographic and Health Surveys; "Questionnaires and Indicator List", Multiple Indicator Cluster Surveys, UNICEF.
Yoder & Khan 2008, 2. Yoder, P. Stanley; Khan, Shane (March 2008). "Numbers of women circumcised in Africa: The Production of a Total" (PDF). DHS Working Papers (39). USAID. Archived (PDF) from the original on 22 November 2017. Retrieved 29 July 2014.

doi.org

A diagram in WHO 2016, copied from Abdulcadir et al. 2016, refers to Type 1a as circumcision.^[39] Abdulcadir, Jasmine; Catania, Lucrezia; Hindin, Michelle Jane; Say, Lale; Petignat, Patrick; Abdulcadir, Omar (November 2016). "Female Genital Mutilation: A Visual Reference and Learning Tool for Health Care Professionals". Obstetrics & Gynecology. 128 (5): 958–963. doi:10.1097/AOG.0000000000001686. ISSN 1873-233X. PMID 27741194. S2CID 46830711.
Abdulcadir et al. 2011. Abdulcadir, Jasmine; Margairaz, Christiane; Boulvain, Michel; Irion, Olivier (6 January 2011). "Care of women with female genital mutilation/cutting". Swiss Medical Weekly. 140: w13137. doi:10.4414/smw.2011.13137. ISSN 1424-3997. PMID 21213149.
UNICEF 2013, 15; Toubia & Sharief 2003. Toubia, Nadia F.; Sharief, E. H. (September 2003). "Female genital mutilation: have we made progress?". International Journal of Gynaecology and Obstetrics. 82 (3): 251–261. doi:10.1016/S0020-7292(03)00229-7. ISSN 0020-7292. PMID 14499972. S2CID 39607405.
UN 2010; Askew et al. 2016. Askew, Ian; Chaiban, Ted; Kalasa, Benoit; Sen, Purna (1 September 2016). "A repeat call for complete abandonment of FGM". Journal of Medical Ethics. 42 (9): 619–620. doi:10.1136/medethics-2016-103553. ISSN 0306-6800. PMC 5013096. PMID 27059789.
Shell-Duncan 2008, 225; Silverman 2004, 420, 427. Shell-Duncan, Bettina (June 2008). "From Health to Human Rights: Female Genital Cutting and the Politics of Intervention". American Anthropologist. 110 (2): 225–236. doi:10.1111/j.1548-1433.2008.00028.x. JSTOR 27563985. Silverman, Eric K. (2004). "Anthropology and Circumcision". Annual Review of Anthropology. 33: 419–445. doi:10.1146/annurev.anthro.33.070203.143706. JSTOR 25064860.
Hayes 1975. Hayes, Rose Oldfield (17 June 1975). "Female Genital Mutilation, Fertility Control, Women's Roles, and the Patrilineage in Modern Sudan: A Functional Analysis". American Ethnologist. 2 (4): 617–633. doi:10.1525/ae.1975.2.4.02a00030. JSTOR 643328.
Kouba & Muasher 1985, 96–97. Kouba, Leonard J.; Muasher, Judith (March 1985). "Female Circumcision in Africa: An Overview". African Studies Review. 28 (1): 95–1100. doi:10.2307/524569. JSTOR 524569. S2CID 144705914.
Kelly & Hillard 2005, 491. Kelly, Elizabeth; Hillard, Paula J. Adams (October 2005). "Female genital mutilation". Current Opinion in Obstetrics and Gynecology. 17 (5): 490–494. doi:10.1097/01.gco.0000183528.18728.57. ISSN 1040-872X. PMID 16141763. S2CID 7706452.
Wakabi 2007. Wakabi, Wairagala (31 March 2007). "Africa battles to make female genital mutilation history". Lancet. 369 (9567): 1069–1070. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(07)60508-X. PMID 17405200. S2CID 29006442. Archived from the original on 14 May 2013. Retrieved 24 April 2013.
Yoder, Wang & Johansen 2013, 190. Yoder, P. Stanley; Wang, Shanxiao; Johansen, Elise (June 2013). "Estimates of female genital mutilation/cutting in 27 African countries and Yemen". Studies in Family Planning. 44 (2): 189–204. doi:10.1111/j.1728-4465.2013.00352.x. ISSN 0039-3665. PMID 23720002.
Jackson et al. 2003. Jackson, Elizabeth F.; Akweongo, Patricia; Sakeah, Evelyn; Hodgson, Abraham; Asuru, Rofina; Phillips, James F. (September 2003). "Inconsistent reporting of female genital cutting status in northern Ghana: explanatory factors and analytical consequences". Studies in Family Planning. 34 (3): 200–210. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.233.6248. doi:10.1111/j.1728-4465.2003.00200.x. ISSN 0039-3665. PMID 14558322.
Klouman, Manongi & Klepp 2005. Klouman, Elise; Manongi, Rachel; Klepp, Knut-Inge (January 2005). "Self-reported and observed female genital cutting in rural Tanzania: associated demographic factors, HIV and sexually transmitted infections". Tropical Medicine & International Health. 10 (1): 105–115. doi:10.1111/j.1365-3156.2004.01350.x. ISSN 1360-2276. PMID 15655020. S2CID 12050442.
Elmusharaf, Elhadi & Almroth 2006. Elmusharaf, Susan; Elhadi, Nagla; Almroth, Lars (15 July 2006). "Reliability of self reported form of female genital mutilation and WHO classification: cross sectional study". BMJ (Clinical Research Ed.). 333 (7559): 124. doi:10.1136/bmj.38873.649074.55. ISSN 1756-1833. PMC 1502195. PMID 16803943.
Yoder, Wang & Johansen 2013, 189; UNICEF 2013, 47. Yoder, P. Stanley; Wang, Shanxiao; Johansen, Elise (June 2013). "Estimates of female genital mutilation/cutting in 27 African countries and Yemen". Studies in Family Planning. 44 (2): 189–204. doi:10.1111/j.1728-4465.2013.00352.x. ISSN 0039-3665. PMID 23720002.
WHO 2008, 4, 23–28; Abdulcadir et al. 2016. Abdulcadir, Jasmine; Catania, Lucrezia; Hindin, Michelle Jane; Say, Lale; Petignat, Patrick; Abdulcadir, Omar (November 2016). "Female Genital Mutilation: A Visual Reference and Learning Tool for Health Care Professionals". Obstetrics & Gynecology. 128 (5): 958–963. doi:10.1097/AOG.0000000000001686. ISSN 1873-233X. PMID 27741194. S2CID 46830711.
WHO 2008, 25. Also see Toubia 1994 and Horowitz, Jackson & Teklemariam 1995. Toubia, Nadia (15 September 1994). "Female Circumcision as a Public Health Issue". The New England Journal of Medicine. 331 (11): 712–716. doi:10.1056/NEJM199409153311106. ISSN 0028-4793. PMID 8058079. Horowitz, Carol R.; Jackson, J. Carey; Teklemariam, Mamae (19 January 1995). "Female Circumcision". New England Journal of Medicine. 332 (3): 188–190. doi:10.1056/nejm199501193320313. ISSN 0028-4793. PMID 7695718.
Lightfoot-Klein 1989, 380; also see El Dareer 1982, 42–49. Lightfoot-Klein, Hanny (1989). "The Sexual Experience and Marital Adjustment of Genitally Circumcised and Infibulated Females in The Sudan". The Journal of Sex Research. 26 (3): (375–392), 380. doi:10.1080/00224498909551521. JSTOR 3812643. El Dareer, Asma (1982). Woman, Why Do You Weep: Circumcision and its Consequences. London: Zed Books.
Mandara 2000, 98, 100; for fistulae, 102; also see Mandara 2004 Mandara, Mairo Usman (2000). "Female genital cutting in Nigeria: View of Nigerian Doctors on the Medicalization Debate". In Shell-Duncan, Bettina; Hernlund, Ylva (eds.). Female "Circumcision" in Africa: Culture Controversy and Change. Boulder: Lynne Rienner Publishers. Mandara, Mairo Usman (March 2004). "Female genital mutilation in Nigeria". International Journal of Gynaecology and Obstetrics. 84 (3): 291–298. doi:10.1016/j.ijgo.2003.06.001. PMID 15001386. S2CID 20969247.
Berg et al. 2014. Berg, Rigmor C.; Underland, Vigdis; Odgaard-Jensen, Jan; Fretheim, Atle; Vist, Gunn E. (21 November 2014). "Effects of female genital cutting on physical health outcomes: a systematic review and meta-analysis". BMJ Open. 4 (11): e006316. doi:10.1136/bmjopen-2014-006316. ISSN 2044-6055. PMC 4244458. PMID 25416059.
Reisel & Creighton 2015, 49. Reisel, Dan; Creighton, Sarah M. (January 2015). "Long term health consequences of Female Genital Mutilation (FGM)". Maturitas. 80 (1): 48–51. doi:10.1016/j.maturitas.2014.10.009. ISSN 1873-4111. PMID 25466303. S2CID 40413987.
Reisel & Creighton 2015, 49; Iavazzo, Sardi & Gkegkes 2013; Abdulcadir et al. 2011. Reisel, Dan; Creighton, Sarah M. (January 2015). "Long term health consequences of Female Genital Mutilation (FGM)". Maturitas. 80 (1): 48–51. doi:10.1016/j.maturitas.2014.10.009. ISSN 1873-4111. PMID 25466303. S2CID 40413987. Iavazzo, Christos; Sardi, Thalia A.; Gkegkes, Ioannis D. (June 2013). "Female genital mutilation and infections: a systematic review of the clinical evidence". Archives of Gynecology and Obstetrics. 287 (6): 1137–1149. doi:10.1007/s00404-012-2708-5. ISSN 1432-0711. PMID 23315098. S2CID 11973412. Abdulcadir, Jasmine; Margairaz, Christiane; Boulvain, Michel; Irion, Olivier (6 January 2011). "Care of women with female genital mutilation/cutting". Swiss Medical Weekly. 140: w13137. doi:10.4414/smw.2011.13137. ISSN 1424-3997. PMID 21213149.
Reisel & Creighton 2015, 50. Reisel, Dan; Creighton, Sarah M. (January 2015). "Long term health consequences of Female Genital Mutilation (FGM)". Maturitas. 80 (1): 48–51. doi:10.1016/j.maturitas.2014.10.009. ISSN 1873-4111. PMID 25466303. S2CID 40413987.
Kelly & Hillard 2005, 491–492. Kelly, Elizabeth; Hillard, Paula J. Adams (October 2005). "Female genital mutilation". Current Opinion in Obstetrics and Gynecology. 17 (5): 490–494. doi:10.1097/01.gco.0000183528.18728.57. ISSN 1040-872X. PMID 16141763. S2CID 7706452.
Dave, Sethi & Morrone 2011. Dave, Amish J.; Sethi, Aisha; Morrone, Aldo (January 2011). "Female genital mutilation: what every American dermatologist needs to know". Dermatologic Clinics. 29 (1): 103–109. doi:10.1016/j.det.2010.09.002. ISSN 1558-0520. PMID 21095534.
Rushwan 2013, 132. Rushwan, Hamid (September 2013). "Female genital mutilation: A tragedy for women's reproductive health". African Journal of Urology. 19 (3): 130–133. doi:10.1016/j.afju.2013.03.002.
Rashid & Rashid 2007, 97. Rashid, Mumtaz; Rashid, Mohammed H (April 2007). "Obstetric management of women with female genital mutilation". The Obstetrician & Gynaecologist. 9 (2): 95–101. doi:10.1576/toag.9.2.095.27310. S2CID 58404665.
Banks et al. 2006. Banks, Emily; Meirik, Olav; Farley, Tim; Akande, Oluwole; Bathija, Heli; Ali, Mohamed; WHO study group on female genital mutilation and obstetric outcome (3 June 2006). "Female genital mutilation and obstetric outcome: WHO collaborative prospective study in six African countries". Lancet. 367 (9525): 1835–1841. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(06)68805-3. ISSN 1474-547X. PMID 16753486. S2CID 1077505.
Berg & Denison 2013; Reisel & Creighton 2015, 51; Sibiani & Rouzi 2008 Berg, Rigmor C.; Denison, Eva (October 2013). "A tradition in transition: factors perpetuating and hindering the continuance of female genital mutilation/cutting (FGM/C) summarized in a systematic review". Health Care for Women International. 34 (10): 837–859. doi:10.1080/07399332.2012.721417. ISSN 1096-4665. PMC 3783896. PMID 23489149. Reisel, Dan; Creighton, Sarah M. (January 2015). "Long term health consequences of Female Genital Mutilation (FGM)". Maturitas. 80 (1): 48–51. doi:10.1016/j.maturitas.2014.10.009. ISSN 1873-4111. PMID 25466303. S2CID 40413987. Sibiani, Sharifa A.; Rouzi, Abdulrahim A. (September 2008). "Sexual function in women with female genital mutilation". Fertility and Sterility. 93 (3): 722–724. doi:10.1016/j.fertnstert.2008.10.035. ISSN 1556-5653. PMID 19028385. Archived from the original on 28 August 2021. Retrieved 28 October 2014.
Yoder, Wang & Johansen 2013, 193. Yoder, P. Stanley; Wang, Shanxiao; Johansen, Elise (June 2013). "Estimates of female genital mutilation/cutting in 27 African countries and Yemen". Studies in Family Planning. 44 (2): 189–204. doi:10.1111/j.1728-4465.2013.00352.x. ISSN 0039-3665. PMID 23720002.
Yoder, Wang & Johansen 2013. Yoder, P. Stanley; Wang, Shanxiao; Johansen, Elise (June 2013). "Estimates of female genital mutilation/cutting in 27 African countries and Yemen". Studies in Family Planning. 44 (2): 189–204. doi:10.1111/j.1728-4465.2013.00352.x. ISSN 0039-3665. PMID 23720002.
UNICEF 2013, 47, table 5.2; Yoder, Wang & Johansen 2013, 189. Yoder, P. Stanley; Wang, Shanxiao; Johansen, Elise (June 2013). "Estimates of female genital mutilation/cutting in 27 African countries and Yemen". Studies in Family Planning. 44 (2): 189–204. doi:10.1111/j.1728-4465.2013.00352.x. ISSN 0039-3665. PMID 23720002.
Rasheed, Abd-Ellah & Yousef 2011. Rasheed, Salah M.; Abd-Ellah, Ahmed H.; Yousef, Fouad M. (July 2011). "Female genital mutilation in Upper Egypt in the new millennium". International Journal of Gynaecology and Obstetrics. 114 (1): 47–50. doi:10.1016/j.ijgo.2011.02.003. ISSN 1879-3479. PMID 21513937. S2CID 28600501.
Okeke, Anyaehie & Ezenyeaku 2012, 70–73. Okeke, T. C.; Anyaehie, Usb; Ezenyeaku, C. C. K. (January 2012). "An overview of female genital mutilation in Nigeria". Annals of Medical and Health Sciences Research. 2 (1): 70–73. doi:10.4103/2141-9248.96942. ISSN 2141-9248. PMC 3507121. PMID 23209995.
Milaat, Waleed Abdullah; Ibrahim, Nahla Khamis; Albar, Hussain Mohammed (1 March 2018). "Reproductive health profile and circumcision of females in the Hali semi-urban region, Saudi Arabia: A community-based cross-sectional survey". Annals of Saudi Medicine. 38 (2): 81–89. doi:10.5144/0256-4947.2018.81. ISSN 0256-4947. PMC 6074365. PMID 29620540.
Rouzi, Abdulrahim A; Berg, Rigmor C; Alamoudi, Rana; Alzaban, Faten; Sehlo, Mohammad (1 June 2019). "Survey on female genital mutilation/cutting in Jeddah, Saudi Arabia". BMJ Open. 9 (5): e024684. doi:10.1136/bmjopen-2018-024684. ISSN 2044-6055. PMC 6549616. PMID 31154295.
UNICEF 2013, 25, 100; Yoder, Wang & Johansen 2013, 196. Yoder, P. Stanley; Wang, Shanxiao; Johansen, Elise (June 2013). "Estimates of female genital mutilation/cutting in 27 African countries and Yemen". Studies in Family Planning. 44 (2): 189–204. doi:10.1111/j.1728-4465.2013.00352.x. ISSN 0039-3665. PMID 23720002.
Yoder, Wang & Johansen 2013, 194; UNICEF 2013, 25. Yoder, P. Stanley; Wang, Shanxiao; Johansen, Elise (June 2013). "Estimates of female genital mutilation/cutting in 27 African countries and Yemen". Studies in Family Planning. 44 (2): 189–204. doi:10.1111/j.1728-4465.2013.00352.x. ISSN 0039-3665. PMID 23720002.
Kandala et al. 2018; Ratcliffe, Rebecca (7 November 2018). "FGM rates in east Africa drop from 71% to 8% in 20 years, study shows". The Guardian. Archived from the original on 15 August 2020. Retrieved 7 November 2018. Kandala, Ngianga-Bakwin; Ezejimofor, Martinsixtus C.; Uthman, Olalekan A.; Komba, Paul (2018). "Secular trends in the prevalence of female genital mutilation/cutting among girls: a systematic analysis". BMJ Global Health. 3 (5): e000549. doi:10.1136/bmjgh-2017-000549. PMC 6231106. PMID 30483404.
UNICEF 2013 Archived 5 April 2015 at the Wayback Machine. For eight percent in Iraq, 27, box 4.4, group 5; for the regions in Iraq, 31, map 4.6). Also see Yasin et al. 2013. Yasin, Berivan A.; Al-Tawil, Namir G.; Shabila, Nazar P.; Al-Hadithi, Tariq S. (8 September 2013). "Female genital mutilation among Iraqi Kurdish women: A cross-sectional study from Erbil city". BMC Public Health. 13: 809. doi:10.1186/1471-2458-13-809. ISSN 1471-2458. PMC 3844478. PMID 24010850.
Yoder, Wang & Johansen 2013, 196, 198. Yoder, P. Stanley; Wang, Shanxiao; Johansen, Elise (June 2013). "Estimates of female genital mutilation/cutting in 27 African countries and Yemen". Studies in Family Planning. 44 (2): 189–204. doi:10.1111/j.1728-4465.2013.00352.x. ISSN 0039-3665. PMID 23720002.
Chad: UNICEF 2013, 35–36; Nigeria: Okeke, Anyaehie & Ezenyeaku 2012, 70–73. FGM is practised in Nigeria by the Yoruba, Hausa, Ibo, Ijaw, and Kanuri people. Okeke, T. C.; Anyaehie, Usb; Ezenyeaku, C. C. K. (January 2012). "An overview of female genital mutilation in Nigeria". Annals of Medical and Health Sciences Research. 2 (1): 70–73. doi:10.4103/2141-9248.96942. ISSN 2141-9248. PMC 3507121. PMID 23209995.
Mackie 1996, 1003. Mackie, Gerry (December 1996). "Ending Footbinding and Infibulation: A Convention Account" (PDF). American Sociological Review. 61 (6): 999–1017. doi:10.2307/2096305. JSTOR 2096305. Archived (PDF) from the original on 20 July 2019. Retrieved 6 September 2014.
Shell-Duncan 2008, 228. Shell-Duncan, Bettina (June 2008). "From Health to Human Rights: Female Genital Cutting and the Politics of Intervention". American Anthropologist. 110 (2): 225–236. doi:10.1111/j.1548-1433.2008.00028.x. JSTOR 27563985.
Hayes 1975, 620, 624. Hayes, Rose Oldfield (17 June 1975). "Female Genital Mutilation, Fertility Control, Women's Roles, and the Patrilineage in Modern Sudan: A Functional Analysis". American Ethnologist. 2 (4): 617–633. doi:10.1525/ae.1975.2.4.02a00030. JSTOR 643328.
Mackie 1996, 999–1000. Mackie, Gerry (December 1996). "Ending Footbinding and Infibulation: A Convention Account" (PDF). American Sociological Review. 61 (6): 999–1017. doi:10.2307/2096305. JSTOR 2096305. Archived (PDF) from the original on 20 July 2019. Retrieved 6 September 2014.
Gruenbaum 2005, 435–436. Gruenbaum, Ellen (September–October 2005). "Socio-Cultural Dynamics of Female Genital Cutting: Research Findings, Gaps, and Directions". Culture, Health & Sexuality. 7 (5): 429–441. doi:10.1080/13691050500262953. JSTOR 4005473. PMID 16864214. S2CID 4999356.
Gruenbaum 2005, 437; Gruenbaum 2001, 140. Gruenbaum, Ellen (September–October 2005). "Socio-Cultural Dynamics of Female Genital Cutting: Research Findings, Gaps, and Directions". Culture, Health & Sexuality. 7 (5): 429–441. doi:10.1080/13691050500262953. JSTOR 4005473. PMID 16864214. S2CID 4999356. Gruenbaum, Ellen (2001). The Female Circumcision Controversy: An Anthropological Perspective. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press.
Gruenbaum 2005, 437. Gruenbaum, Ellen (September–October 2005). "Socio-Cultural Dynamics of Female Genital Cutting: Research Findings, Gaps, and Directions". Culture, Health & Sexuality. 7 (5): 429–441. doi:10.1080/13691050500262953. JSTOR 4005473. PMID 16864214. S2CID 4999356.
El Dareer 1983, 140. El Dareer, A. (June 1983). "Attitudes of Sudanese people to the practice of female circumcision". International Journal of Epidemiology. 12 (2): 138–144. doi:10.1093/ije/12.2.138. ISSN 0300-5771. PMID 6874206.
Gruenbaum 2005, 432–433. Gruenbaum, Ellen (September–October 2005). "Socio-Cultural Dynamics of Female Genital Cutting: Research Findings, Gaps, and Directions". Culture, Health & Sexuality. 7 (5): 429–441. doi:10.1080/13691050500262953. JSTOR 4005473. PMID 16864214. S2CID 4999356.
Mackie 2003, 147–148. Mackie, Gerry (June 2003). "Female Genital Cutting: A Harmless Practice?" (PDF). Medical Anthropology Quarterly. 17 (2): 135–158. doi:10.1525/maq.2003.17.2.135. JSTOR 3655332. PMID 12846114. Archived (PDF) from the original on 8 August 2017. Retrieved 8 January 2016.
Mackie 1996, 1008. Mackie, Gerry (December 1996). "Ending Footbinding and Infibulation: A Convention Account" (PDF). American Sociological Review. 61 (6): 999–1017. doi:10.2307/2096305. JSTOR 2096305. Archived (PDF) from the original on 20 July 2019. Retrieved 6 September 2014.
Mackie 1996, 1004–1005. Mackie, Gerry (December 1996). "Ending Footbinding and Infibulation: A Convention Account" (PDF). American Sociological Review. 61 (6): 999–1017. doi:10.2307/2096305. JSTOR 2096305. Archived (PDF) from the original on 20 July 2019. Retrieved 6 September 2014.
Wensinck 2012. Wensinck, A. J. (2012) [1986]. "K̲h̲itān". In Bosworth, C. E.; van Donzel, E. J.; Lewis, B.; Heinrichs, W. P.; Pellat, Ch. (eds.). Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition. Vol. 5. Leiden and Boston: Brill Publishers. pp. 20–22. doi:10.1163/1573-3912_islam_SIM_4296. ISBN 978-90-04-07819-2. Archived from the original on 30 September 2021. Retrieved 7 February 2020.
Nanda, Anjani; Ramani, Vandanee (31 May 2022). "The Prevalence of Female Genital Mutilation in India". Journal of Student Research. 11 (2). doi:10.47611/jsrhs.v11i2.3285. ISSN 2167-1907.
Murray 1976. Murray, Jocelyn (1976). "The Church Missionary Society and the 'Female Circumcision' Issue in Kenya 1929–1932". Journal of Religion in Africa. 8 (2): 92–104. doi:10.1163/157006676X00075. JSTOR 1594780.
Knight 2001, 330. Knight, Mary (June 2001). "Curing cut or ritual mutilation? Some remarks on the practice of female and male circumcision in Graeco-Roman Egypt". Isis. 92 (2): 317–338. doi:10.1086/385184. ISSN 0021-1753. JSTOR 3080631. PMID 11590895. S2CID 38351439.
O'Rourke 2007, 166ff (hieroglyphs), 172 (menstruating woman). O'Rourke, Paul F. (1 February 2007). "The 'm't-Woman". Zeitschrift für Ägyptische Sprache und Altertumskunde. 134 (2): 166–172. doi:10.1524/zaes.2007.134.2.166. ISSN 2196-713X. S2CID 141166451. Archived from the original on 2 May 2019. Retrieved 15 October 2017.
Knight 2001, 329–330; Kenyon 1893. Knight, Mary (June 2001). "Curing cut or ritual mutilation? Some remarks on the practice of female and male circumcision in Graeco-Roman Egypt". Isis. 92 (2): 317–338. doi:10.1086/385184. ISSN 0021-1753. JSTOR 3080631. PMID 11590895. S2CID 38351439. Kenyon, F. G. (1893). Greek Papyri in the British Museum. London: British Museum. ISBN 978-0-7141-0486-7.
Knight 2001, 331. Knight, Mary (June 2001). "Curing cut or ritual mutilation? Some remarks on the practice of female and male circumcision in Graeco-Roman Egypt". Isis. 92 (2): 317–338. doi:10.1086/385184. ISSN 0021-1753. JSTOR 3080631. PMID 11590895. S2CID 38351439.
Strabo, Geographica, c. 25 BCE, cited in Knight 2001, 318 Knight, Mary (June 2001). "Curing cut or ritual mutilation? Some remarks on the practice of female and male circumcision in Graeco-Roman Egypt". Isis. 92 (2): 317–338. doi:10.1086/385184. ISSN 0021-1753. JSTOR 3080631. PMID 11590895. S2CID 38351439.
Knight 2001, 326. Knight, Mary (June 2001). "Curing cut or ritual mutilation? Some remarks on the practice of female and male circumcision in Graeco-Roman Egypt". Isis. 92 (2): 317–338. doi:10.1086/385184. ISSN 0021-1753. JSTOR 3080631. PMID 11590895. S2CID 38351439.
Knight 2001, 333. Knight, Mary (June 2001). "Curing cut or ritual mutilation? Some remarks on the practice of female and male circumcision in Graeco-Roman Egypt". Isis. 92 (2): 317–338. doi:10.1086/385184. ISSN 0021-1753. JSTOR 3080631. PMID 11590895. S2CID 38351439.
Knight 2001, 336. Knight, Mary (June 2001). "Curing cut or ritual mutilation? Some remarks on the practice of female and male circumcision in Graeco-Roman Egypt". Isis. 92 (2): 317–338. doi:10.1086/385184. ISSN 0021-1753. JSTOR 3080631. PMID 11590895. S2CID 38351439.
Knight 2001, 327–328. Knight, Mary (June 2001). "Curing cut or ritual mutilation? Some remarks on the practice of female and male circumcision in Graeco-Roman Egypt". Isis. 92 (2): 317–338. doi:10.1086/385184. ISSN 0021-1753. JSTOR 3080631. PMID 11590895. S2CID 38351439.
Knight 2001, 328. Knight, Mary (June 2001). "Curing cut or ritual mutilation? Some remarks on the practice of female and male circumcision in Graeco-Roman Egypt". Isis. 92 (2): 317–338. doi:10.1086/385184. ISSN 0021-1753. JSTOR 3080631. PMID 11590895. S2CID 38351439.
Mackie 1996, 1003, 1009. Mackie, Gerry (December 1996). "Ending Footbinding and Infibulation: A Convention Account" (PDF). American Sociological Review. 61 (6): 999–1017. doi:10.2307/2096305. JSTOR 2096305. Archived (PDF) from the original on 20 July 2019. Retrieved 6 September 2014.
Rodriguez 2008. Rodriguez, Sarah (July 2008). "Rethinking the history of female circumcision and clitoridectomy: American medicine and female sexuality in the late nineteenth century". Journal of the History of Medicine and Allied Sciences. 63 (3): 323–347. doi:10.1093/jhmas/jrm044. ISSN 1468-4373. PMID 18065832. S2CID 9234753.
Elchalal et al. 1997; Shorter 2008, 82. Elchalal, Uriel; Ben-Ami, B.; Gillis, R.; Brzezinski, A. (October 1997). "Ritualistic female genital mutilation: current status and future outlook". Obstetrical & Gynecological Survey. 52 (10): 643–651. doi:10.1097/00006254-199710000-00022. ISSN 0029-7828. PMID 9326757. Shorter, Edward (2008). From Paralysis to Fatigue: A History of Psychosomatic Illness in the Modern Era. New York: Simon and Schuster.
Elchalal et al. 1997. Elchalal, Uriel; Ben-Ami, B.; Gillis, R.; Brzezinski, A. (October 1997). "Ritualistic female genital mutilation: current status and future outlook". Obstetrical & Gynecological Survey. 52 (10): 643–651. doi:10.1097/00006254-199710000-00022. ISSN 0029-7828. PMID 9326757.
Sheehan 1981, 14; Black 1997, 405. Sheehan, E. (August 1981). "Victorian clitoridectomy: Isaac Baker Brown and his harmless operative procedure". Medical Anthropology Newsletter. 12 (4): 9–15. doi:10.1525/maq.1981.12.4.02a00120. ISSN 0543-2499. JSTOR 647794. PMID 12263443. Black, John (July 1997). "Female genital mutilation: a contemporary issue, and a Victorian obsession". Journal of the Royal Society of Medicine. 90 (7): 402–405. doi:10.1177/014107689709000712. ISSN 0141-0768. PMC 1296388. PMID 9290425.
Cutner 1985, cited in Nour 2008. Also see Barker-Benfield 1999, 113. Cutner, Lawrence P. (July 1985). "Female genital mutilation". Obstetrical & Gynecological Survey. 40 (7): 437–443. doi:10.1097/00006254-198507000-00004. ISSN 0029-7828. PMID 4022475. S2CID 22472191. Nour, Nawal M. (2008). "Female Genital Cutting: A Persisting Practice". Reviews in Obstetrics and Gynecology. 1 (3): 135–139. PMC 2582648. PMID 19015765. Barker-Benfield, G. J. (1999). The Horrors of the Half-Known Life: Male Attitudes Toward Women and Sexuality in Nineteenth-Century America. New York: Routledge.
Boddy 2007, 241–245; Hyam 1990, 196; Murray 1976, 92–104. Boddy, Janice (2007). Civilizing Women: British Crusades in Colonial Sudan. Princeton: Princeton University Press. Hyam, Ronald (1990). Empire and Sexuality: The British Experience. Manchester: Manchester University Press. Murray, Jocelyn (1976). "The Church Missionary Society and the 'Female Circumcision' Issue in Kenya 1929–1932". Journal of Religion in Africa. 8 (2): 92–104. doi:10.1163/157006676X00075. JSTOR 1594780.
Thomas 2000, 129–131 (131 for the girls as "central actors"); also in Thomas 1996 and Thomas 2003, 89–91. Thomas, Lynn M. (2000). "Ngaitana (I will circumcise myself)': Lessons from Colonial Campaigns to Ban Excision in Meru, Kenya". In Shell-Duncan, Bettina; Hernlund, Ylva (eds.). Female "Circumcision" in Africa: Culture Controversy and Change. Boulder: Lynne Rienner Publishers. Thomas, Lynn M. (November 1996). "'Ngaitana (I will circumcise myself)': The Gender and Generational Politics of the 1956 Ban on Clitoridectomy in Meru, Kenya". Gender and History. 8 (3): 338–363. doi:10.1111/j.1468-0424.1996.tb00062.x. PMID 12322506. Thomas, Lynn (2003). Politics of the Womb: Women, Reproduction, and the State in Kenya. Berkeley: University of California Press.
Elduma 2018. Elduma, Adel Hussein (15 February 2018). "Female Genital Mutilation in Sudan". Open Access Macedonian Journal of Medical Sciences. 6 (2): 430–434. doi:10.3889/oamjms.2018.099 (inactive 1 November 2024). PMC 5839462. PMID 29531618.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of November 2024 (link)
Hayes 1975, 21. Hayes, Rose Oldfield (17 June 1975). "Female Genital Mutilation, Fertility Control, Women's Roles, and the Patrilineage in Modern Sudan: A Functional Analysis". American Ethnologist. 2 (4): 617–633. doi:10.1525/ae.1975.2.4.02a00030. JSTOR 643328.
Mackie 2003, 139. Mackie, Gerry (June 2003). "Female Genital Cutting: A Harmless Practice?" (PDF). Medical Anthropology Quarterly. 17 (2): 135–158. doi:10.1525/maq.2003.17.2.135. JSTOR 3655332. PMID 12846114. Archived (PDF) from the original on 8 August 2017. Retrieved 8 January 2016.
"Female Genital Mutilation". Pediatrics. 102 (1): 153–156. 1 July 1998. doi:10.1542/peds.102.1.153. PMID 9651425. Archived from the original on 18 February 2013. Retrieved 22 October 2016.
Withdrawn policy: American Academy of Pediatrics Board of Directors (1 May 2010). "Ritual Genital Cutting of Female Minors". Pediatrics. 125 (5): 1088–1093. doi:10.1542/peds.2010-0187. PMID 20421257. Archived from the original on 20 October 2014. Retrieved 27 October 2014.

Pam Belluck, "Group Backs Ritual 'Nick' as Female Circumcision Option" Archived 18 January 2018 at the Wayback Machine, The New York Times, 6 May 2010.
Yoder, Wang & Johansen 2013, 195. Yoder, P. Stanley; Wang, Shanxiao; Johansen, Elise (June 2013). "Estimates of female genital mutilation/cutting in 27 African countries and Yemen". Studies in Family Planning. 44 (2): 189–204. doi:10.1111/j.1728-4465.2013.00352.x. ISSN 0039-3665. PMID 23720002.
Gallard 1995, 1592. Gallard, Colette (17 June 1995). "Female genital mutilation in France". BMJ (Clinical Research Ed.). 310 (6994): 1592–1593. doi:10.1136/bmj.310.6994.1592. ISSN 0959-8138. PMC 2549952. PMID 7787655.
Alison Macfarlane and Efua Dorkenoo, "Female Genital Mutilation in England and Wales" Archived 15 August 2015 at the Wayback Machine, City University of London and Equality Now, 21 July 2014, 3.
"Country Report: United Kingdom" Archived 19 March 2017 at the Wayback Machine, Study to map the current situation and trends of FGM: Country reports, European Institute for Gender Equality, Luxembourg: Publications Office of the European Union, 2013, 487–532.

For an early article on FGM in the UK, see Black & Debelle 1995
Black, J. A.; Debelle, G. D. (17 June 1995). "Female genital mutilation in Britain". BMJ. 310 (6994): 1590–1592. doi:10.1136/bmj.310.6994.1590. ISSN 0959-8138. PMC 2549951. PMID 7787654.
Silverman 2004, 420. Silverman, Eric K. (2004). "Anthropology and Circumcision". Annual Review of Anthropology. 33: 419–445. doi:10.1146/annurev.anthro.33.070203.143706. JSTOR 25064860.
Johnsdotter & Essén 2010, 32; Berer 2007, 1335. Johnsdotter, Sara; Essén, Birgitta (May 2010). "Genitals and ethnicity: the politics of genital modifications" (PDF). Reproductive Health Matters. 18 (35): 29–37. doi:10.1016/S0968-8080(10)35495-4. ISSN 1460-9576. PMID 20541081. S2CID 2261601. Archived from the original (PDF) on 21 September 2013. Berer, Marge (30 June 2007). "Cosmetic genitoplasty: It's female genital mutilation and should be prosecuted". BMJ. 334 (7608): 1335.2–1335. doi:10.1136/bmj.39252.646042.3A. ISSN 1756-1833. PMC 1906631. PMID 17599983.
Conroy 2006. Conroy, Ronán M (15 July 2006). "Female genital mutilation: whose problem, whose solution?". BMJ. 333 (7559): 106–107. doi:10.1136/bmj.333.7559.106. ISSN 0959-8138. PMC 1502236. PMID 16840444.
Johnsdotter & Essén 2010, 33; Essén & Johnsdotter 2004, 32. Johnsdotter, Sara; Essén, Birgitta (May 2010). "Genitals and ethnicity: the politics of genital modifications" (PDF). Reproductive Health Matters. 18 (35): 29–37. doi:10.1016/S0968-8080(10)35495-4. ISSN 1460-9576. PMID 20541081. S2CID 2261601. Archived from the original (PDF) on 21 September 2013. Essén, Birgitta; Johnsdotter, Sara (July 2004). "Female genital mutilation in the West: traditional circumcision versus genital cosmetic surgery" (PDF). Acta Obstetricia et Gynecologica Scandinavica. 83 (7): 611–613. doi:10.1111/j.0001-6349.2004.00590.x. ISSN 0001-6349. PMID 15225183. S2CID 44583626. Archived from the original (PDF) on 14 April 2013.

ednahospital.org

Ismail 2016, 12. Ismail, Edna Adan (2016). "Female genital mutilation survey in Somaliland" (PDF). Edna Adan University Hospital. Archived (PDF) from the original on 11 September 2017. Retrieved 10 September 2017.
Ismail 2016, 14. Ismail, Edna Adan (2016). "Female genital mutilation survey in Somaliland" (PDF). Edna Adan University Hospital. Archived (PDF) from the original on 11 September 2017. Retrieved 10 September 2017.

endfgm.eu

"Female genital mutilation/cutting: a call for a global response" (PDF). End FGM European Network, U.S. End FGM/C Network and Equality Now. March 2020. Retrieved 6 May 2020.

equalitynow.org

Alison Macfarlane and Efua Dorkenoo, "Female Genital Mutilation in England and Wales" Archived 15 August 2015 at the Wayback Machine, City University of London and Equality Now, 21 July 2014, 3.
"Country Report: United Kingdom" Archived 19 March 2017 at the Wayback Machine, Study to map the current situation and trends of FGM: Country reports, European Institute for Gender Equality, Luxembourg: Publications Office of the European Union, 2013, 487–532.

For an early article on FGM in the UK, see Black & Debelle 1995
Black, J. A.; Debelle, G. D. (17 June 1995). "Female genital mutilation in Britain". BMJ. 310 (6994): 1590–1592. doi:10.1136/bmj.310.6994.1590. ISSN 0959-8138. PMC 2549951. PMID 7787654.

europa.eu

eige.europa.eu

"Current situation of female genital mutilation in Sweden" Archived 19 March 2017 at the Wayback Machine, European Institute for Gender Equality, European Union.
"Current situation of female genital mutilation in France" Archived 7 February 2016 at the Wayback Machine, European Institute for Gender Equality, European Union.
Alison Macfarlane and Efua Dorkenoo, "Female Genital Mutilation in England and Wales" Archived 15 August 2015 at the Wayback Machine, City University of London and Equality Now, 21 July 2014, 3.
"Country Report: United Kingdom" Archived 19 March 2017 at the Wayback Machine, Study to map the current situation and trends of FGM: Country reports, European Institute for Gender Equality, Luxembourg: Publications Office of the European Union, 2013, 487–532.

For an early article on FGM in the UK, see Black & Debelle 1995
Black, J. A.; Debelle, G. D. (17 June 1995). "Female genital mutilation in Britain". BMJ. 310 (6994): 1590–1592. doi:10.1136/bmj.310.6994.1590. ISSN 0959-8138. PMC 2549951. PMID 7787654.

ec.europa.eu

Australia: "Review of Australia's Female Genital Mutilation Legal Framework" Archived 5 March 2016 at the Wayback Machine, Attorney General's Department, Government of Australia.
New Zealand: "Section 204A – Female genital mutilation – Crimes Act 1961" Archived 23 November 2011 at the Wayback Machine, New Zealand Parliamentary Counsel Office.
Europe: "Eliminating female genital mutilation" Archived 8 August 2014 at the Wayback Machine, European Commission.
United States: "18 U.S. Code § 116 – Female genital mutilation" Archived 3 August 2014 at the Wayback Machine, Legal Information Institute, Cornell University Law School.

Canada: Section 268, Criminal Code, Justice Laws website, Government of Canada.

fertstert.org

Berg & Denison 2013; Reisel & Creighton 2015, 51; Sibiani & Rouzi 2008 Berg, Rigmor C.; Denison, Eva (October 2013). "A tradition in transition: factors perpetuating and hindering the continuance of female genital mutilation/cutting (FGM/C) summarized in a systematic review". Health Care for Women International. 34 (10): 837–859. doi:10.1080/07399332.2012.721417. ISSN 1096-4665. PMC 3783896. PMID 23489149. Reisel, Dan; Creighton, Sarah M. (January 2015). "Long term health consequences of Female Genital Mutilation (FGM)". Maturitas. 80 (1): 48–51. doi:10.1016/j.maturitas.2014.10.009. ISSN 1873-4111. PMID 25466303. S2CID 40413987. Sibiani, Sharifa A.; Rouzi, Abdulrahim A. (September 2008). "Sexual function in women with female genital mutilation". Fertility and Sterility. 93 (3): 722–724. doi:10.1016/j.fertnstert.2008.10.035. ISSN 1556-5653. PMID 19028385. Archived from the original on 28 August 2021. Retrieved 28 October 2014.

go.com

abcnews.go.com

Wilkerson, Isabel (11 December 1988). "Charges Against Doctor Bring Ire and Questions". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 16 August 2009. Retrieved 10 February 2018.

Donaldson James, Susan (13 December 2012). "Ohio Woman Still Scarred By 'Love' Doctor's Sex Surgery". ABC News. Archived from the original on 6 August 2020. Retrieved 6 February 2018.

harvard.edu

law.harvard.edu

Nancy Ehrenreich, Mark Barr, [1]Archived 17 May 2017 at the Wayback Machine "Intersex Surgery, Female Genital Cutting, and the Selective Condemnation of 'Cultural Practices'", Harvard Civil Rights-Civil Liberties Law Review, 40(1), 2005 (71–140), 74–75.

Gregorio, I. W. (26 April 2017). "Should Surgeons Perform Irreversible Genital Surgery on Children?". Newsweek. Archived from the original on 6 August 2020. Retrieved 9 April 2018.

hokudai.ac.jp

src-h.slav.hokudai.ac.jp

Engelstein, Laura. "From Heresy to Harm: Self-Castrators in the Civic Discourse of Late Tsarist Russia" (PDF). Retrieved 10 November 2019.

hrw.org

"Q&A on what Female Genital Mutilation is". 16 June 2010. Retrieved 15 August 2024.

iscgmedia.com

Johnsdotter & Essén 2010, 32; Berer 2007, 1335. Johnsdotter, Sara; Essén, Birgitta (May 2010). "Genitals and ethnicity: the politics of genital modifications" (PDF). Reproductive Health Matters. 18 (35): 29–37. doi:10.1016/S0968-8080(10)35495-4. ISSN 1460-9576. PMID 20541081. S2CID 2261601. Archived from the original (PDF) on 21 September 2013. Berer, Marge (30 June 2007). "Cosmetic genitoplasty: It's female genital mutilation and should be prosecuted". BMJ. 334 (7608): 1335.2–1335. doi:10.1136/bmj.39252.646042.3A. ISSN 1756-1833. PMC 1906631. PMID 17599983.
Johnsdotter & Essén 2010, 33; Essén & Johnsdotter 2004, 32. Johnsdotter, Sara; Essén, Birgitta (May 2010). "Genitals and ethnicity: the politics of genital modifications" (PDF). Reproductive Health Matters. 18 (35): 29–37. doi:10.1016/S0968-8080(10)35495-4. ISSN 1460-9576. PMID 20541081. S2CID 2261601. Archived from the original (PDF) on 21 September 2013. Essén, Birgitta; Johnsdotter, Sara (July 2004). "Female genital mutilation in the West: traditional circumcision versus genital cosmetic surgery" (PDF). Acta Obstetricia et Gynecologica Scandinavica. 83 (7): 611–613. doi:10.1111/j.0001-6349.2004.00590.x. ISSN 0001-6349. PMID 15225183. S2CID 44583626. Archived from the original (PDF) on 14 April 2013.

jstor.org

Oldfield Hayes 1975, p. 618.
Elizabeth Fee, "Review of The Hosken Report", Signs, 5(4), Summer 1980 (pp. 807–809), p. 809.
Shell-Duncan 2008, 225; Silverman 2004, 420, 427. Shell-Duncan, Bettina (June 2008). "From Health to Human Rights: Female Genital Cutting and the Politics of Intervention". American Anthropologist. 110 (2): 225–236. doi:10.1111/j.1548-1433.2008.00028.x. JSTOR 27563985. Silverman, Eric K. (2004). "Anthropology and Circumcision". Annual Review of Anthropology. 33: 419–445. doi:10.1146/annurev.anthro.33.070203.143706. JSTOR 25064860.
Hayes 1975. Hayes, Rose Oldfield (17 June 1975). "Female Genital Mutilation, Fertility Control, Women's Roles, and the Patrilineage in Modern Sudan: A Functional Analysis". American Ethnologist. 2 (4): 617–633. doi:10.1525/ae.1975.2.4.02a00030. JSTOR 643328.
Kouba & Muasher 1985, 96–97. Kouba, Leonard J.; Muasher, Judith (March 1985). "Female Circumcision in Africa: An Overview". African Studies Review. 28 (1): 95–1100. doi:10.2307/524569. JSTOR 524569. S2CID 144705914.
Lightfoot-Klein 1989, 380; also see El Dareer 1982, 42–49. Lightfoot-Klein, Hanny (1989). "The Sexual Experience and Marital Adjustment of Genitally Circumcised and Infibulated Females in The Sudan". The Journal of Sex Research. 26 (3): (375–392), 380. doi:10.1080/00224498909551521. JSTOR 3812643. El Dareer, Asma (1982). Woman, Why Do You Weep: Circumcision and its Consequences. London: Zed Books.
Mackie 1996, 1003. Mackie, Gerry (December 1996). "Ending Footbinding and Infibulation: A Convention Account" (PDF). American Sociological Review. 61 (6): 999–1017. doi:10.2307/2096305. JSTOR 2096305. Archived (PDF) from the original on 20 July 2019. Retrieved 6 September 2014.
Shell-Duncan 2008, 228. Shell-Duncan, Bettina (June 2008). "From Health to Human Rights: Female Genital Cutting and the Politics of Intervention". American Anthropologist. 110 (2): 225–236. doi:10.1111/j.1548-1433.2008.00028.x. JSTOR 27563985.
Hayes 1975, 620, 624. Hayes, Rose Oldfield (17 June 1975). "Female Genital Mutilation, Fertility Control, Women's Roles, and the Patrilineage in Modern Sudan: A Functional Analysis". American Ethnologist. 2 (4): 617–633. doi:10.1525/ae.1975.2.4.02a00030. JSTOR 643328.
Mackie 1996, 999–1000. Mackie, Gerry (December 1996). "Ending Footbinding and Infibulation: A Convention Account" (PDF). American Sociological Review. 61 (6): 999–1017. doi:10.2307/2096305. JSTOR 2096305. Archived (PDF) from the original on 20 July 2019. Retrieved 6 September 2014.
Gruenbaum 2005, 435–436. Gruenbaum, Ellen (September–October 2005). "Socio-Cultural Dynamics of Female Genital Cutting: Research Findings, Gaps, and Directions". Culture, Health & Sexuality. 7 (5): 429–441. doi:10.1080/13691050500262953. JSTOR 4005473. PMID 16864214. S2CID 4999356.
Gruenbaum 2005, 437; Gruenbaum 2001, 140. Gruenbaum, Ellen (September–October 2005). "Socio-Cultural Dynamics of Female Genital Cutting: Research Findings, Gaps, and Directions". Culture, Health & Sexuality. 7 (5): 429–441. doi:10.1080/13691050500262953. JSTOR 4005473. PMID 16864214. S2CID 4999356. Gruenbaum, Ellen (2001). The Female Circumcision Controversy: An Anthropological Perspective. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press.
Gruenbaum 2005, 437. Gruenbaum, Ellen (September–October 2005). "Socio-Cultural Dynamics of Female Genital Cutting: Research Findings, Gaps, and Directions". Culture, Health & Sexuality. 7 (5): 429–441. doi:10.1080/13691050500262953. JSTOR 4005473. PMID 16864214. S2CID 4999356.
Gruenbaum 2005, 432–433. Gruenbaum, Ellen (September–October 2005). "Socio-Cultural Dynamics of Female Genital Cutting: Research Findings, Gaps, and Directions". Culture, Health & Sexuality. 7 (5): 429–441. doi:10.1080/13691050500262953. JSTOR 4005473. PMID 16864214. S2CID 4999356.
Mackie 2003, 147–148. Mackie, Gerry (June 2003). "Female Genital Cutting: A Harmless Practice?" (PDF). Medical Anthropology Quarterly. 17 (2): 135–158. doi:10.1525/maq.2003.17.2.135. JSTOR 3655332. PMID 12846114. Archived (PDF) from the original on 8 August 2017. Retrieved 8 January 2016.
Mackie 1996, 1008. Mackie, Gerry (December 1996). "Ending Footbinding and Infibulation: A Convention Account" (PDF). American Sociological Review. 61 (6): 999–1017. doi:10.2307/2096305. JSTOR 2096305. Archived (PDF) from the original on 20 July 2019. Retrieved 6 September 2014.
Mackie 1996, 1004–1005. Mackie, Gerry (December 1996). "Ending Footbinding and Infibulation: A Convention Account" (PDF). American Sociological Review. 61 (6): 999–1017. doi:10.2307/2096305. JSTOR 2096305. Archived (PDF) from the original on 20 July 2019. Retrieved 6 September 2014.
Murray 1976. Murray, Jocelyn (1976). "The Church Missionary Society and the 'Female Circumcision' Issue in Kenya 1929–1932". Journal of Religion in Africa. 8 (2): 92–104. doi:10.1163/157006676X00075. JSTOR 1594780.
Knight 2001, 330. Knight, Mary (June 2001). "Curing cut or ritual mutilation? Some remarks on the practice of female and male circumcision in Graeco-Roman Egypt". Isis. 92 (2): 317–338. doi:10.1086/385184. ISSN 0021-1753. JSTOR 3080631. PMID 11590895. S2CID 38351439.
Knight 2001, 329–330; Kenyon 1893. Knight, Mary (June 2001). "Curing cut or ritual mutilation? Some remarks on the practice of female and male circumcision in Graeco-Roman Egypt". Isis. 92 (2): 317–338. doi:10.1086/385184. ISSN 0021-1753. JSTOR 3080631. PMID 11590895. S2CID 38351439. Kenyon, F. G. (1893). Greek Papyri in the British Museum. London: British Museum. ISBN 978-0-7141-0486-7.
Knight 2001, 331. Knight, Mary (June 2001). "Curing cut or ritual mutilation? Some remarks on the practice of female and male circumcision in Graeco-Roman Egypt". Isis. 92 (2): 317–338. doi:10.1086/385184. ISSN 0021-1753. JSTOR 3080631. PMID 11590895. S2CID 38351439.
Strabo, Geographica, c. 25 BCE, cited in Knight 2001, 318 Knight, Mary (June 2001). "Curing cut or ritual mutilation? Some remarks on the practice of female and male circumcision in Graeco-Roman Egypt". Isis. 92 (2): 317–338. doi:10.1086/385184. ISSN 0021-1753. JSTOR 3080631. PMID 11590895. S2CID 38351439.
Knight 2001, 326. Knight, Mary (June 2001). "Curing cut or ritual mutilation? Some remarks on the practice of female and male circumcision in Graeco-Roman Egypt". Isis. 92 (2): 317–338. doi:10.1086/385184. ISSN 0021-1753. JSTOR 3080631. PMID 11590895. S2CID 38351439.
Knight 2001, 333. Knight, Mary (June 2001). "Curing cut or ritual mutilation? Some remarks on the practice of female and male circumcision in Graeco-Roman Egypt". Isis. 92 (2): 317–338. doi:10.1086/385184. ISSN 0021-1753. JSTOR 3080631. PMID 11590895. S2CID 38351439.
Knight 2001, 336. Knight, Mary (June 2001). "Curing cut or ritual mutilation? Some remarks on the practice of female and male circumcision in Graeco-Roman Egypt". Isis. 92 (2): 317–338. doi:10.1086/385184. ISSN 0021-1753. JSTOR 3080631. PMID 11590895. S2CID 38351439.
Knight 2001, 327–328. Knight, Mary (June 2001). "Curing cut or ritual mutilation? Some remarks on the practice of female and male circumcision in Graeco-Roman Egypt". Isis. 92 (2): 317–338. doi:10.1086/385184. ISSN 0021-1753. JSTOR 3080631. PMID 11590895. S2CID 38351439.
Knight 2001, 328. Knight, Mary (June 2001). "Curing cut or ritual mutilation? Some remarks on the practice of female and male circumcision in Graeco-Roman Egypt". Isis. 92 (2): 317–338. doi:10.1086/385184. ISSN 0021-1753. JSTOR 3080631. PMID 11590895. S2CID 38351439.
Mackie 1996, 1003, 1009. Mackie, Gerry (December 1996). "Ending Footbinding and Infibulation: A Convention Account" (PDF). American Sociological Review. 61 (6): 999–1017. doi:10.2307/2096305. JSTOR 2096305. Archived (PDF) from the original on 20 July 2019. Retrieved 6 September 2014.
Sheehan 1981, 14; Black 1997, 405. Sheehan, E. (August 1981). "Victorian clitoridectomy: Isaac Baker Brown and his harmless operative procedure". Medical Anthropology Newsletter. 12 (4): 9–15. doi:10.1525/maq.1981.12.4.02a00120. ISSN 0543-2499. JSTOR 647794. PMID 12263443. Black, John (July 1997). "Female genital mutilation: a contemporary issue, and a Victorian obsession". Journal of the Royal Society of Medicine. 90 (7): 402–405. doi:10.1177/014107689709000712. ISSN 0141-0768. PMC 1296388. PMID 9290425.
Boddy 2007, 241–245; Hyam 1990, 196; Murray 1976, 92–104. Boddy, Janice (2007). Civilizing Women: British Crusades in Colonial Sudan. Princeton: Princeton University Press. Hyam, Ronald (1990). Empire and Sexuality: The British Experience. Manchester: Manchester University Press. Murray, Jocelyn (1976). "The Church Missionary Society and the 'Female Circumcision' Issue in Kenya 1929–1932". Journal of Religion in Africa. 8 (2): 92–104. doi:10.1163/157006676X00075. JSTOR 1594780.
Hayes 1975, 21. Hayes, Rose Oldfield (17 June 1975). "Female Genital Mutilation, Fertility Control, Women's Roles, and the Patrilineage in Modern Sudan: A Functional Analysis". American Ethnologist. 2 (4): 617–633. doi:10.1525/ae.1975.2.4.02a00030. JSTOR 643328.
Mackie 2003, 139. Mackie, Gerry (June 2003). "Female Genital Cutting: A Harmless Practice?" (PDF). Medical Anthropology Quarterly. 17 (2): 135–158. doi:10.1525/maq.2003.17.2.135. JSTOR 3655332. PMID 12846114. Archived (PDF) from the original on 8 August 2017. Retrieved 8 January 2016.
Silverman 2004, 420. Silverman, Eric K. (2004). "Anthropology and Circumcision". Annual Review of Anthropology. 33: 419–445. doi:10.1146/annurev.anthro.33.070203.143706. JSTOR 25064860.
Obermeyer, Carla. "Female Genital Surgeries: The Known, the Unknown and the Unknowable" Archived 9 August 2020 at the Wayback Machine, Medical Anthropology Quarterly, 31(1), 1999, pp. 79–106 (hereafter Obermeyer 1999), 94.

justice.gc.ca

laws-lois.justice.gc.ca

Australia: "Review of Australia's Female Genital Mutilation Legal Framework" Archived 5 March 2016 at the Wayback Machine, Attorney General's Department, Government of Australia.
New Zealand: "Section 204A – Female genital mutilation – Crimes Act 1961" Archived 23 November 2011 at the Wayback Machine, New Zealand Parliamentary Counsel Office.
Europe: "Eliminating female genital mutilation" Archived 8 August 2014 at the Wayback Machine, European Commission.
United States: "18 U.S. Code § 116 – Female genital mutilation" Archived 3 August 2014 at the Wayback Machine, Legal Information Institute, Cornell University Law School.

Canada: Section 268, Criminal Code, Justice Laws website, Government of Canada.
Section 268 Archived 2 May 2019 at the Wayback Machine. Criminal Code of Canada.

justice.gov

Dugger, Celia W. (16 June 1996). "June 9–15; Asylum From Mutilation" Archived 21 June 2020 at the Wayback Machine. The New York Times.

"In re Fauziya KASINGA, file A73 476 695" Archived 4 March 2017 at the Wayback Machine. U.S. Department of Justice. Executive Office for Immigration Review, decided 13 June 1996.

legislation.gov.uk

Prohibition of Female Circumcision Act 1985 Archived 1 January 2017 at the Wayback Machine, legislation.gov.uk, The National Archives.
Female Genital Mutilation Act 2003 Archived 14 July 2017 at the Wayback Machine and "Prohibition of Female Genital Mutilation (Scotland) Act 2005", legislation.gov.uk.
"Female Genital Mutilation Act 2003" Archived 14 July 2017 at the Wayback Machine, legislation.gov.uk, and "Female Genital Mutilation Act 2003" Archived 8 September 2013 at the Wayback Machine (legal guidance), Crown Prosecution Service: "The Act refers to 'girls', though it also applies to women."

legislation.govt.nz

Australia: "Review of Australia's Female Genital Mutilation Legal Framework" Archived 5 March 2016 at the Wayback Machine, Attorney General's Department, Government of Australia.
New Zealand: "Section 204A – Female genital mutilation – Crimes Act 1961" Archived 23 November 2011 at the Wayback Machine, New Zealand Parliamentary Counsel Office.
Europe: "Eliminating female genital mutilation" Archived 8 August 2014 at the Wayback Machine, European Commission.
United States: "18 U.S. Code § 116 – Female genital mutilation" Archived 3 August 2014 at the Wayback Machine, Legal Information Institute, Cornell University Law School.

Canada: Section 268, Criminal Code, Justice Laws website, Government of Canada.

mwnhelpline.co.uk

https://www.mwnhelpline.co.uk//go_files/issue/968436-MWNU%20FGM%20leaflet_WEB..pdf

nationalreview.com

Kearns, Madeleine (25 October 2022). "'Gender Affirmation': The New Female Genital Mutilation". National Review. Retrieved 24 December 2022.

newint.org

"Female genital mutilation", New International, 5 June 1997.

newsweek.com

Nancy Ehrenreich, Mark Barr, [1]Archived 17 May 2017 at the Wayback Machine "Intersex Surgery, Female Genital Cutting, and the Selective Condemnation of 'Cultural Practices'", Harvard Civil Rights-Civil Liberties Law Review, 40(1), 2005 (71–140), 74–75.

Gregorio, I. W. (26 April 2017). "Should Surgeons Perform Irreversible Genital Surgery on Children?". Newsweek. Archived from the original on 6 August 2020. Retrieved 9 April 2018.

newyorker.com

Jenna Krajeski, "Rebellion", The New Yorker, 14 March 2011.

nih.gov

pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov

A diagram in WHO 2016, copied from Abdulcadir et al. 2016, refers to Type 1a as circumcision.^[39] Abdulcadir, Jasmine; Catania, Lucrezia; Hindin, Michelle Jane; Say, Lale; Petignat, Patrick; Abdulcadir, Omar (November 2016). "Female Genital Mutilation: A Visual Reference and Learning Tool for Health Care Professionals". Obstetrics & Gynecology. 128 (5): 958–963. doi:10.1097/AOG.0000000000001686. ISSN 1873-233X. PMID 27741194. S2CID 46830711.
Abdulcadir et al. 2011. Abdulcadir, Jasmine; Margairaz, Christiane; Boulvain, Michel; Irion, Olivier (6 January 2011). "Care of women with female genital mutilation/cutting". Swiss Medical Weekly. 140: w13137. doi:10.4414/smw.2011.13137. ISSN 1424-3997. PMID 21213149.
UNICEF 2013, 15; Toubia & Sharief 2003. Toubia, Nadia F.; Sharief, E. H. (September 2003). "Female genital mutilation: have we made progress?". International Journal of Gynaecology and Obstetrics. 82 (3): 251–261. doi:10.1016/S0020-7292(03)00229-7. ISSN 0020-7292. PMID 14499972. S2CID 39607405.
UN 2010; Askew et al. 2016. Askew, Ian; Chaiban, Ted; Kalasa, Benoit; Sen, Purna (1 September 2016). "A repeat call for complete abandonment of FGM". Journal of Medical Ethics. 42 (9): 619–620. doi:10.1136/medethics-2016-103553. ISSN 0306-6800. PMC 5013096. PMID 27059789.
Kelly & Hillard 2005, 491. Kelly, Elizabeth; Hillard, Paula J. Adams (October 2005). "Female genital mutilation". Current Opinion in Obstetrics and Gynecology. 17 (5): 490–494. doi:10.1097/01.gco.0000183528.18728.57. ISSN 1040-872X. PMID 16141763. S2CID 7706452.
Wakabi 2007. Wakabi, Wairagala (31 March 2007). "Africa battles to make female genital mutilation history". Lancet. 369 (9567): 1069–1070. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(07)60508-X. PMID 17405200. S2CID 29006442. Archived from the original on 14 May 2013. Retrieved 24 April 2013.
Yoder, Wang & Johansen 2013, 190. Yoder, P. Stanley; Wang, Shanxiao; Johansen, Elise (June 2013). "Estimates of female genital mutilation/cutting in 27 African countries and Yemen". Studies in Family Planning. 44 (2): 189–204. doi:10.1111/j.1728-4465.2013.00352.x. ISSN 0039-3665. PMID 23720002.
Jackson et al. 2003. Jackson, Elizabeth F.; Akweongo, Patricia; Sakeah, Evelyn; Hodgson, Abraham; Asuru, Rofina; Phillips, James F. (September 2003). "Inconsistent reporting of female genital cutting status in northern Ghana: explanatory factors and analytical consequences". Studies in Family Planning. 34 (3): 200–210. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.233.6248. doi:10.1111/j.1728-4465.2003.00200.x. ISSN 0039-3665. PMID 14558322.
Klouman, Manongi & Klepp 2005. Klouman, Elise; Manongi, Rachel; Klepp, Knut-Inge (January 2005). "Self-reported and observed female genital cutting in rural Tanzania: associated demographic factors, HIV and sexually transmitted infections". Tropical Medicine & International Health. 10 (1): 105–115. doi:10.1111/j.1365-3156.2004.01350.x. ISSN 1360-2276. PMID 15655020. S2CID 12050442.
Elmusharaf, Elhadi & Almroth 2006. Elmusharaf, Susan; Elhadi, Nagla; Almroth, Lars (15 July 2006). "Reliability of self reported form of female genital mutilation and WHO classification: cross sectional study". BMJ (Clinical Research Ed.). 333 (7559): 124. doi:10.1136/bmj.38873.649074.55. ISSN 1756-1833. PMC 1502195. PMID 16803943.
Yoder, Wang & Johansen 2013, 189; UNICEF 2013, 47. Yoder, P. Stanley; Wang, Shanxiao; Johansen, Elise (June 2013). "Estimates of female genital mutilation/cutting in 27 African countries and Yemen". Studies in Family Planning. 44 (2): 189–204. doi:10.1111/j.1728-4465.2013.00352.x. ISSN 0039-3665. PMID 23720002.
WHO 2008, 4, 23–28; Abdulcadir et al. 2016. Abdulcadir, Jasmine; Catania, Lucrezia; Hindin, Michelle Jane; Say, Lale; Petignat, Patrick; Abdulcadir, Omar (November 2016). "Female Genital Mutilation: A Visual Reference and Learning Tool for Health Care Professionals". Obstetrics & Gynecology. 128 (5): 958–963. doi:10.1097/AOG.0000000000001686. ISSN 1873-233X. PMID 27741194. S2CID 46830711.
WHO 2008, 25. Also see Toubia 1994 and Horowitz, Jackson & Teklemariam 1995. Toubia, Nadia (15 September 1994). "Female Circumcision as a Public Health Issue". The New England Journal of Medicine. 331 (11): 712–716. doi:10.1056/NEJM199409153311106. ISSN 0028-4793. PMID 8058079. Horowitz, Carol R.; Jackson, J. Carey; Teklemariam, Mamae (19 January 1995). "Female Circumcision". New England Journal of Medicine. 332 (3): 188–190. doi:10.1056/nejm199501193320313. ISSN 0028-4793. PMID 7695718.
Mandara 2000, 98, 100; for fistulae, 102; also see Mandara 2004 Mandara, Mairo Usman (2000). "Female genital cutting in Nigeria: View of Nigerian Doctors on the Medicalization Debate". In Shell-Duncan, Bettina; Hernlund, Ylva (eds.). Female "Circumcision" in Africa: Culture Controversy and Change. Boulder: Lynne Rienner Publishers. Mandara, Mairo Usman (March 2004). "Female genital mutilation in Nigeria". International Journal of Gynaecology and Obstetrics. 84 (3): 291–298. doi:10.1016/j.ijgo.2003.06.001. PMID 15001386. S2CID 20969247.
Berg et al. 2014. Berg, Rigmor C.; Underland, Vigdis; Odgaard-Jensen, Jan; Fretheim, Atle; Vist, Gunn E. (21 November 2014). "Effects of female genital cutting on physical health outcomes: a systematic review and meta-analysis". BMJ Open. 4 (11): e006316. doi:10.1136/bmjopen-2014-006316. ISSN 2044-6055. PMC 4244458. PMID 25416059.
Reisel & Creighton 2015, 49. Reisel, Dan; Creighton, Sarah M. (January 2015). "Long term health consequences of Female Genital Mutilation (FGM)". Maturitas. 80 (1): 48–51. doi:10.1016/j.maturitas.2014.10.009. ISSN 1873-4111. PMID 25466303. S2CID 40413987.
Berg & Underland 2014, 2. Berg, Rigmor C.; Underland, Vigdis (27 March 2014). Immediate health consequences of female genital mutilation/cutting (FGM/C) (PDF). Oslo: Norwegian Knowledge Centre for the Health Services (Kunnskapssenteret). pp. 837–859. ISBN 978-82-8121-856-7. ISSN 1890-1298. PMID 29320014. Archived (PDF) from the original on 28 August 2021. Retrieved 11 April 2018.
Reisel & Creighton 2015, 49; Iavazzo, Sardi & Gkegkes 2013; Abdulcadir et al. 2011. Reisel, Dan; Creighton, Sarah M. (January 2015). "Long term health consequences of Female Genital Mutilation (FGM)". Maturitas. 80 (1): 48–51. doi:10.1016/j.maturitas.2014.10.009. ISSN 1873-4111. PMID 25466303. S2CID 40413987. Iavazzo, Christos; Sardi, Thalia A.; Gkegkes, Ioannis D. (June 2013). "Female genital mutilation and infections: a systematic review of the clinical evidence". Archives of Gynecology and Obstetrics. 287 (6): 1137–1149. doi:10.1007/s00404-012-2708-5. ISSN 1432-0711. PMID 23315098. S2CID 11973412. Abdulcadir, Jasmine; Margairaz, Christiane; Boulvain, Michel; Irion, Olivier (6 January 2011). "Care of women with female genital mutilation/cutting". Swiss Medical Weekly. 140: w13137. doi:10.4414/smw.2011.13137. ISSN 1424-3997. PMID 21213149.
Reisel & Creighton 2015, 50. Reisel, Dan; Creighton, Sarah M. (January 2015). "Long term health consequences of Female Genital Mutilation (FGM)". Maturitas. 80 (1): 48–51. doi:10.1016/j.maturitas.2014.10.009. ISSN 1873-4111. PMID 25466303. S2CID 40413987.
Kelly & Hillard 2005, 491–492. Kelly, Elizabeth; Hillard, Paula J. Adams (October 2005). "Female genital mutilation". Current Opinion in Obstetrics and Gynecology. 17 (5): 490–494. doi:10.1097/01.gco.0000183528.18728.57. ISSN 1040-872X. PMID 16141763. S2CID 7706452.
Dave, Sethi & Morrone 2011. Dave, Amish J.; Sethi, Aisha; Morrone, Aldo (January 2011). "Female genital mutilation: what every American dermatologist needs to know". Dermatologic Clinics. 29 (1): 103–109. doi:10.1016/j.det.2010.09.002. ISSN 1558-0520. PMID 21095534.
Banks et al. 2006. Banks, Emily; Meirik, Olav; Farley, Tim; Akande, Oluwole; Bathija, Heli; Ali, Mohamed; WHO study group on female genital mutilation and obstetric outcome (3 June 2006). "Female genital mutilation and obstetric outcome: WHO collaborative prospective study in six African countries". Lancet. 367 (9525): 1835–1841. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(06)68805-3. ISSN 1474-547X. PMID 16753486. S2CID 1077505.
Berg & Denison 2013; Reisel & Creighton 2015, 51; Sibiani & Rouzi 2008 Berg, Rigmor C.; Denison, Eva (October 2013). "A tradition in transition: factors perpetuating and hindering the continuance of female genital mutilation/cutting (FGM/C) summarized in a systematic review". Health Care for Women International. 34 (10): 837–859. doi:10.1080/07399332.2012.721417. ISSN 1096-4665. PMC 3783896. PMID 23489149. Reisel, Dan; Creighton, Sarah M. (January 2015). "Long term health consequences of Female Genital Mutilation (FGM)". Maturitas. 80 (1): 48–51. doi:10.1016/j.maturitas.2014.10.009. ISSN 1873-4111. PMID 25466303. S2CID 40413987. Sibiani, Sharifa A.; Rouzi, Abdulrahim A. (September 2008). "Sexual function in women with female genital mutilation". Fertility and Sterility. 93 (3): 722–724. doi:10.1016/j.fertnstert.2008.10.035. ISSN 1556-5653. PMID 19028385. Archived from the original on 28 August 2021. Retrieved 28 October 2014.
Yoder, Wang & Johansen 2013, 193. Yoder, P. Stanley; Wang, Shanxiao; Johansen, Elise (June 2013). "Estimates of female genital mutilation/cutting in 27 African countries and Yemen". Studies in Family Planning. 44 (2): 189–204. doi:10.1111/j.1728-4465.2013.00352.x. ISSN 0039-3665. PMID 23720002.
Yoder, Wang & Johansen 2013. Yoder, P. Stanley; Wang, Shanxiao; Johansen, Elise (June 2013). "Estimates of female genital mutilation/cutting in 27 African countries and Yemen". Studies in Family Planning. 44 (2): 189–204. doi:10.1111/j.1728-4465.2013.00352.x. ISSN 0039-3665. PMID 23720002.
UNICEF 2013, 47, table 5.2; Yoder, Wang & Johansen 2013, 189. Yoder, P. Stanley; Wang, Shanxiao; Johansen, Elise (June 2013). "Estimates of female genital mutilation/cutting in 27 African countries and Yemen". Studies in Family Planning. 44 (2): 189–204. doi:10.1111/j.1728-4465.2013.00352.x. ISSN 0039-3665. PMID 23720002.
Rasheed, Abd-Ellah & Yousef 2011. Rasheed, Salah M.; Abd-Ellah, Ahmed H.; Yousef, Fouad M. (July 2011). "Female genital mutilation in Upper Egypt in the new millennium". International Journal of Gynaecology and Obstetrics. 114 (1): 47–50. doi:10.1016/j.ijgo.2011.02.003. ISSN 1879-3479. PMID 21513937. S2CID 28600501.
Okeke, Anyaehie & Ezenyeaku 2012, 70–73. Okeke, T. C.; Anyaehie, Usb; Ezenyeaku, C. C. K. (January 2012). "An overview of female genital mutilation in Nigeria". Annals of Medical and Health Sciences Research. 2 (1): 70–73. doi:10.4103/2141-9248.96942. ISSN 2141-9248. PMC 3507121. PMID 23209995.
Milaat, Waleed Abdullah; Ibrahim, Nahla Khamis; Albar, Hussain Mohammed (1 March 2018). "Reproductive health profile and circumcision of females in the Hali semi-urban region, Saudi Arabia: A community-based cross-sectional survey". Annals of Saudi Medicine. 38 (2): 81–89. doi:10.5144/0256-4947.2018.81. ISSN 0256-4947. PMC 6074365. PMID 29620540.
Rouzi, Abdulrahim A; Berg, Rigmor C; Alamoudi, Rana; Alzaban, Faten; Sehlo, Mohammad (1 June 2019). "Survey on female genital mutilation/cutting in Jeddah, Saudi Arabia". BMJ Open. 9 (5): e024684. doi:10.1136/bmjopen-2018-024684. ISSN 2044-6055. PMC 6549616. PMID 31154295.
UNICEF 2013, 25, 100; Yoder, Wang & Johansen 2013, 196. Yoder, P. Stanley; Wang, Shanxiao; Johansen, Elise (June 2013). "Estimates of female genital mutilation/cutting in 27 African countries and Yemen". Studies in Family Planning. 44 (2): 189–204. doi:10.1111/j.1728-4465.2013.00352.x. ISSN 0039-3665. PMID 23720002.
Yoder, Wang & Johansen 2013, 194; UNICEF 2013, 25. Yoder, P. Stanley; Wang, Shanxiao; Johansen, Elise (June 2013). "Estimates of female genital mutilation/cutting in 27 African countries and Yemen". Studies in Family Planning. 44 (2): 189–204. doi:10.1111/j.1728-4465.2013.00352.x. ISSN 0039-3665. PMID 23720002.
Kandala et al. 2018; Ratcliffe, Rebecca (7 November 2018). "FGM rates in east Africa drop from 71% to 8% in 20 years, study shows". The Guardian. Archived from the original on 15 August 2020. Retrieved 7 November 2018. Kandala, Ngianga-Bakwin; Ezejimofor, Martinsixtus C.; Uthman, Olalekan A.; Komba, Paul (2018). "Secular trends in the prevalence of female genital mutilation/cutting among girls: a systematic analysis". BMJ Global Health. 3 (5): e000549. doi:10.1136/bmjgh-2017-000549. PMC 6231106. PMID 30483404.
UNICEF 2013 Archived 5 April 2015 at the Wayback Machine. For eight percent in Iraq, 27, box 4.4, group 5; for the regions in Iraq, 31, map 4.6). Also see Yasin et al. 2013. Yasin, Berivan A.; Al-Tawil, Namir G.; Shabila, Nazar P.; Al-Hadithi, Tariq S. (8 September 2013). "Female genital mutilation among Iraqi Kurdish women: A cross-sectional study from Erbil city". BMC Public Health. 13: 809. doi:10.1186/1471-2458-13-809. ISSN 1471-2458. PMC 3844478. PMID 24010850.
Yoder, Wang & Johansen 2013, 196, 198. Yoder, P. Stanley; Wang, Shanxiao; Johansen, Elise (June 2013). "Estimates of female genital mutilation/cutting in 27 African countries and Yemen". Studies in Family Planning. 44 (2): 189–204. doi:10.1111/j.1728-4465.2013.00352.x. ISSN 0039-3665. PMID 23720002.
Chad: UNICEF 2013, 35–36; Nigeria: Okeke, Anyaehie & Ezenyeaku 2012, 70–73. FGM is practised in Nigeria by the Yoruba, Hausa, Ibo, Ijaw, and Kanuri people. Okeke, T. C.; Anyaehie, Usb; Ezenyeaku, C. C. K. (January 2012). "An overview of female genital mutilation in Nigeria". Annals of Medical and Health Sciences Research. 2 (1): 70–73. doi:10.4103/2141-9248.96942. ISSN 2141-9248. PMC 3507121. PMID 23209995.
Gruenbaum 2005, 435–436. Gruenbaum, Ellen (September–October 2005). "Socio-Cultural Dynamics of Female Genital Cutting: Research Findings, Gaps, and Directions". Culture, Health & Sexuality. 7 (5): 429–441. doi:10.1080/13691050500262953. JSTOR 4005473. PMID 16864214. S2CID 4999356.
Gruenbaum 2005, 437; Gruenbaum 2001, 140. Gruenbaum, Ellen (September–October 2005). "Socio-Cultural Dynamics of Female Genital Cutting: Research Findings, Gaps, and Directions". Culture, Health & Sexuality. 7 (5): 429–441. doi:10.1080/13691050500262953. JSTOR 4005473. PMID 16864214. S2CID 4999356. Gruenbaum, Ellen (2001). The Female Circumcision Controversy: An Anthropological Perspective. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press.
Gruenbaum 2005, 437. Gruenbaum, Ellen (September–October 2005). "Socio-Cultural Dynamics of Female Genital Cutting: Research Findings, Gaps, and Directions". Culture, Health & Sexuality. 7 (5): 429–441. doi:10.1080/13691050500262953. JSTOR 4005473. PMID 16864214. S2CID 4999356.
El Dareer 1983, 140. El Dareer, A. (June 1983). "Attitudes of Sudanese people to the practice of female circumcision". International Journal of Epidemiology. 12 (2): 138–144. doi:10.1093/ije/12.2.138. ISSN 0300-5771. PMID 6874206.
Gruenbaum 2005, 432–433. Gruenbaum, Ellen (September–October 2005). "Socio-Cultural Dynamics of Female Genital Cutting: Research Findings, Gaps, and Directions". Culture, Health & Sexuality. 7 (5): 429–441. doi:10.1080/13691050500262953. JSTOR 4005473. PMID 16864214. S2CID 4999356.
Mackie 2003, 147–148. Mackie, Gerry (June 2003). "Female Genital Cutting: A Harmless Practice?" (PDF). Medical Anthropology Quarterly. 17 (2): 135–158. doi:10.1525/maq.2003.17.2.135. JSTOR 3655332. PMID 12846114. Archived (PDF) from the original on 8 August 2017. Retrieved 8 January 2016.
Knight 2001, 330. Knight, Mary (June 2001). "Curing cut or ritual mutilation? Some remarks on the practice of female and male circumcision in Graeco-Roman Egypt". Isis. 92 (2): 317–338. doi:10.1086/385184. ISSN 0021-1753. JSTOR 3080631. PMID 11590895. S2CID 38351439.
Knight 2001, 329–330; Kenyon 1893. Knight, Mary (June 2001). "Curing cut or ritual mutilation? Some remarks on the practice of female and male circumcision in Graeco-Roman Egypt". Isis. 92 (2): 317–338. doi:10.1086/385184. ISSN 0021-1753. JSTOR 3080631. PMID 11590895. S2CID 38351439. Kenyon, F. G. (1893). Greek Papyri in the British Museum. London: British Museum. ISBN 978-0-7141-0486-7.
Knight 2001, 331. Knight, Mary (June 2001). "Curing cut or ritual mutilation? Some remarks on the practice of female and male circumcision in Graeco-Roman Egypt". Isis. 92 (2): 317–338. doi:10.1086/385184. ISSN 0021-1753. JSTOR 3080631. PMID 11590895. S2CID 38351439.
Strabo, Geographica, c. 25 BCE, cited in Knight 2001, 318 Knight, Mary (June 2001). "Curing cut or ritual mutilation? Some remarks on the practice of female and male circumcision in Graeco-Roman Egypt". Isis. 92 (2): 317–338. doi:10.1086/385184. ISSN 0021-1753. JSTOR 3080631. PMID 11590895. S2CID 38351439.
Knight 2001, 326. Knight, Mary (June 2001). "Curing cut or ritual mutilation? Some remarks on the practice of female and male circumcision in Graeco-Roman Egypt". Isis. 92 (2): 317–338. doi:10.1086/385184. ISSN 0021-1753. JSTOR 3080631. PMID 11590895. S2CID 38351439.
Knight 2001, 333. Knight, Mary (June 2001). "Curing cut or ritual mutilation? Some remarks on the practice of female and male circumcision in Graeco-Roman Egypt". Isis. 92 (2): 317–338. doi:10.1086/385184. ISSN 0021-1753. JSTOR 3080631. PMID 11590895. S2CID 38351439.
Knight 2001, 336. Knight, Mary (June 2001). "Curing cut or ritual mutilation? Some remarks on the practice of female and male circumcision in Graeco-Roman Egypt". Isis. 92 (2): 317–338. doi:10.1086/385184. ISSN 0021-1753. JSTOR 3080631. PMID 11590895. S2CID 38351439.
Knight 2001, 327–328. Knight, Mary (June 2001). "Curing cut or ritual mutilation? Some remarks on the practice of female and male circumcision in Graeco-Roman Egypt". Isis. 92 (2): 317–338. doi:10.1086/385184. ISSN 0021-1753. JSTOR 3080631. PMID 11590895. S2CID 38351439.
Knight 2001, 328. Knight, Mary (June 2001). "Curing cut or ritual mutilation? Some remarks on the practice of female and male circumcision in Graeco-Roman Egypt". Isis. 92 (2): 317–338. doi:10.1086/385184. ISSN 0021-1753. JSTOR 3080631. PMID 11590895. S2CID 38351439.
Rodriguez 2008. Rodriguez, Sarah (July 2008). "Rethinking the history of female circumcision and clitoridectomy: American medicine and female sexuality in the late nineteenth century". Journal of the History of Medicine and Allied Sciences. 63 (3): 323–347. doi:10.1093/jhmas/jrm044. ISSN 1468-4373. PMID 18065832. S2CID 9234753.
Elchalal et al. 1997; Shorter 2008, 82. Elchalal, Uriel; Ben-Ami, B.; Gillis, R.; Brzezinski, A. (October 1997). "Ritualistic female genital mutilation: current status and future outlook". Obstetrical & Gynecological Survey. 52 (10): 643–651. doi:10.1097/00006254-199710000-00022. ISSN 0029-7828. PMID 9326757. Shorter, Edward (2008). From Paralysis to Fatigue: A History of Psychosomatic Illness in the Modern Era. New York: Simon and Schuster.
Elchalal et al. 1997. Elchalal, Uriel; Ben-Ami, B.; Gillis, R.; Brzezinski, A. (October 1997). "Ritualistic female genital mutilation: current status and future outlook". Obstetrical & Gynecological Survey. 52 (10): 643–651. doi:10.1097/00006254-199710000-00022. ISSN 0029-7828. PMID 9326757.
Sheehan 1981, 14; Black 1997, 405. Sheehan, E. (August 1981). "Victorian clitoridectomy: Isaac Baker Brown and his harmless operative procedure". Medical Anthropology Newsletter. 12 (4): 9–15. doi:10.1525/maq.1981.12.4.02a00120. ISSN 0543-2499. JSTOR 647794. PMID 12263443. Black, John (July 1997). "Female genital mutilation: a contemporary issue, and a Victorian obsession". Journal of the Royal Society of Medicine. 90 (7): 402–405. doi:10.1177/014107689709000712. ISSN 0141-0768. PMC 1296388. PMID 9290425.
Cutner 1985, cited in Nour 2008. Also see Barker-Benfield 1999, 113. Cutner, Lawrence P. (July 1985). "Female genital mutilation". Obstetrical & Gynecological Survey. 40 (7): 437–443. doi:10.1097/00006254-198507000-00004. ISSN 0029-7828. PMID 4022475. S2CID 22472191. Nour, Nawal M. (2008). "Female Genital Cutting: A Persisting Practice". Reviews in Obstetrics and Gynecology. 1 (3): 135–139. PMC 2582648. PMID 19015765. Barker-Benfield, G. J. (1999). The Horrors of the Half-Known Life: Male Attitudes Toward Women and Sexuality in Nineteenth-Century America. New York: Routledge.
Thomas 2000, 129–131 (131 for the girls as "central actors"); also in Thomas 1996 and Thomas 2003, 89–91. Thomas, Lynn M. (2000). "Ngaitana (I will circumcise myself)': Lessons from Colonial Campaigns to Ban Excision in Meru, Kenya". In Shell-Duncan, Bettina; Hernlund, Ylva (eds.). Female "Circumcision" in Africa: Culture Controversy and Change. Boulder: Lynne Rienner Publishers. Thomas, Lynn M. (November 1996). "'Ngaitana (I will circumcise myself)': The Gender and Generational Politics of the 1956 Ban on Clitoridectomy in Meru, Kenya". Gender and History. 8 (3): 338–363. doi:10.1111/j.1468-0424.1996.tb00062.x. PMID 12322506. Thomas, Lynn (2003). Politics of the Womb: Women, Reproduction, and the State in Kenya. Berkeley: University of California Press.
Elduma 2018. Elduma, Adel Hussein (15 February 2018). "Female Genital Mutilation in Sudan". Open Access Macedonian Journal of Medical Sciences. 6 (2): 430–434. doi:10.3889/oamjms.2018.099 (inactive 1 November 2024). PMC 5839462. PMID 29531618.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of November 2024 (link)
Mackie 2003, 139. Mackie, Gerry (June 2003). "Female Genital Cutting: A Harmless Practice?" (PDF). Medical Anthropology Quarterly. 17 (2): 135–158. doi:10.1525/maq.2003.17.2.135. JSTOR 3655332. PMID 12846114. Archived (PDF) from the original on 8 August 2017. Retrieved 8 January 2016.
Jones et al. 1997, 372. Jones, Wanda K.; Smith, J.; Kieke, B.; Wilcox, L. (September 1997). "Female genital mutilation/Female circumcision. Who is at risk in the U.S.?". Public Health Reports. 112 (5): 368–377. ISSN 0033-3549. PMC 1381943. PMID 9323387.
"Female Genital Mutilation". Pediatrics. 102 (1): 153–156. 1 July 1998. doi:10.1542/peds.102.1.153. PMID 9651425. Archived from the original on 18 February 2013. Retrieved 22 October 2016.
Withdrawn policy: American Academy of Pediatrics Board of Directors (1 May 2010). "Ritual Genital Cutting of Female Minors". Pediatrics. 125 (5): 1088–1093. doi:10.1542/peds.2010-0187. PMID 20421257. Archived from the original on 20 October 2014. Retrieved 27 October 2014.

Pam Belluck, "Group Backs Ritual 'Nick' as Female Circumcision Option" Archived 18 January 2018 at the Wayback Machine, The New York Times, 6 May 2010.
Yoder, Wang & Johansen 2013, 195. Yoder, P. Stanley; Wang, Shanxiao; Johansen, Elise (June 2013). "Estimates of female genital mutilation/cutting in 27 African countries and Yemen". Studies in Family Planning. 44 (2): 189–204. doi:10.1111/j.1728-4465.2013.00352.x. ISSN 0039-3665. PMID 23720002.
Gallard 1995, 1592. Gallard, Colette (17 June 1995). "Female genital mutilation in France". BMJ (Clinical Research Ed.). 310 (6994): 1592–1593. doi:10.1136/bmj.310.6994.1592. ISSN 0959-8138. PMC 2549952. PMID 7787655.
Alison Macfarlane and Efua Dorkenoo, "Female Genital Mutilation in England and Wales" Archived 15 August 2015 at the Wayback Machine, City University of London and Equality Now, 21 July 2014, 3.
"Country Report: United Kingdom" Archived 19 March 2017 at the Wayback Machine, Study to map the current situation and trends of FGM: Country reports, European Institute for Gender Equality, Luxembourg: Publications Office of the European Union, 2013, 487–532.

For an early article on FGM in the UK, see Black & Debelle 1995
Black, J. A.; Debelle, G. D. (17 June 1995). "Female genital mutilation in Britain". BMJ. 310 (6994): 1590–1592. doi:10.1136/bmj.310.6994.1590. ISSN 0959-8138. PMC 2549951. PMID 7787654.
Johnsdotter & Essén 2010, 32; Berer 2007, 1335. Johnsdotter, Sara; Essén, Birgitta (May 2010). "Genitals and ethnicity: the politics of genital modifications" (PDF). Reproductive Health Matters. 18 (35): 29–37. doi:10.1016/S0968-8080(10)35495-4. ISSN 1460-9576. PMID 20541081. S2CID 2261601. Archived from the original (PDF) on 21 September 2013. Berer, Marge (30 June 2007). "Cosmetic genitoplasty: It's female genital mutilation and should be prosecuted". BMJ. 334 (7608): 1335.2–1335. doi:10.1136/bmj.39252.646042.3A. ISSN 1756-1833. PMC 1906631. PMID 17599983.
Conroy 2006. Conroy, Ronán M (15 July 2006). "Female genital mutilation: whose problem, whose solution?". BMJ. 333 (7559): 106–107. doi:10.1136/bmj.333.7559.106. ISSN 0959-8138. PMC 1502236. PMID 16840444.
Johnsdotter & Essén 2010, 33; Essén & Johnsdotter 2004, 32. Johnsdotter, Sara; Essén, Birgitta (May 2010). "Genitals and ethnicity: the politics of genital modifications" (PDF). Reproductive Health Matters. 18 (35): 29–37. doi:10.1016/S0968-8080(10)35495-4. ISSN 1460-9576. PMID 20541081. S2CID 2261601. Archived from the original (PDF) on 21 September 2013. Essén, Birgitta; Johnsdotter, Sara (July 2004). "Female genital mutilation in the West: traditional circumcision versus genital cosmetic surgery" (PDF). Acta Obstetricia et Gynecologica Scandinavica. 83 (7): 611–613. doi:10.1111/j.0001-6349.2004.00590.x. ISSN 0001-6349. PMID 15225183. S2CID 44583626. Archived from the original (PDF) on 14 April 2013.

ncbi.nlm.nih.gov

UN 2010; Askew et al. 2016. Askew, Ian; Chaiban, Ted; Kalasa, Benoit; Sen, Purna (1 September 2016). "A repeat call for complete abandonment of FGM". Journal of Medical Ethics. 42 (9): 619–620. doi:10.1136/medethics-2016-103553. ISSN 0306-6800. PMC 5013096. PMID 27059789.
Elmusharaf, Elhadi & Almroth 2006. Elmusharaf, Susan; Elhadi, Nagla; Almroth, Lars (15 July 2006). "Reliability of self reported form of female genital mutilation and WHO classification: cross sectional study". BMJ (Clinical Research Ed.). 333 (7559): 124. doi:10.1136/bmj.38873.649074.55. ISSN 1756-1833. PMC 1502195. PMID 16803943.
WHO 2016, Box 1.1 "Types of FGM" Archived 8 September 2017 at the Wayback Machine.
Berg et al. 2014. Berg, Rigmor C.; Underland, Vigdis; Odgaard-Jensen, Jan; Fretheim, Atle; Vist, Gunn E. (21 November 2014). "Effects of female genital cutting on physical health outcomes: a systematic review and meta-analysis". BMJ Open. 4 (11): e006316. doi:10.1136/bmjopen-2014-006316. ISSN 2044-6055. PMC 4244458. PMID 25416059.
Berg & Underland 2014, 2. Berg, Rigmor C.; Underland, Vigdis (27 March 2014). Immediate health consequences of female genital mutilation/cutting (FGM/C) (PDF). Oslo: Norwegian Knowledge Centre for the Health Services (Kunnskapssenteret). pp. 837–859. ISBN 978-82-8121-856-7. ISSN 1890-1298. PMID 29320014. Archived (PDF) from the original on 28 August 2021. Retrieved 11 April 2018.
Berg & Denison 2013; Reisel & Creighton 2015, 51; Sibiani & Rouzi 2008 Berg, Rigmor C.; Denison, Eva (October 2013). "A tradition in transition: factors perpetuating and hindering the continuance of female genital mutilation/cutting (FGM/C) summarized in a systematic review". Health Care for Women International. 34 (10): 837–859. doi:10.1080/07399332.2012.721417. ISSN 1096-4665. PMC 3783896. PMID 23489149. Reisel, Dan; Creighton, Sarah M. (January 2015). "Long term health consequences of Female Genital Mutilation (FGM)". Maturitas. 80 (1): 48–51. doi:10.1016/j.maturitas.2014.10.009. ISSN 1873-4111. PMID 25466303. S2CID 40413987. Sibiani, Sharifa A.; Rouzi, Abdulrahim A. (September 2008). "Sexual function in women with female genital mutilation". Fertility and Sterility. 93 (3): 722–724. doi:10.1016/j.fertnstert.2008.10.035. ISSN 1556-5653. PMID 19028385. Archived from the original on 28 August 2021. Retrieved 28 October 2014.
Okeke, Anyaehie & Ezenyeaku 2012, 70–73. Okeke, T. C.; Anyaehie, Usb; Ezenyeaku, C. C. K. (January 2012). "An overview of female genital mutilation in Nigeria". Annals of Medical and Health Sciences Research. 2 (1): 70–73. doi:10.4103/2141-9248.96942. ISSN 2141-9248. PMC 3507121. PMID 23209995.
Milaat, Waleed Abdullah; Ibrahim, Nahla Khamis; Albar, Hussain Mohammed (1 March 2018). "Reproductive health profile and circumcision of females in the Hali semi-urban region, Saudi Arabia: A community-based cross-sectional survey". Annals of Saudi Medicine. 38 (2): 81–89. doi:10.5144/0256-4947.2018.81. ISSN 0256-4947. PMC 6074365. PMID 29620540.
Rouzi, Abdulrahim A; Berg, Rigmor C; Alamoudi, Rana; Alzaban, Faten; Sehlo, Mohammad (1 June 2019). "Survey on female genital mutilation/cutting in Jeddah, Saudi Arabia". BMJ Open. 9 (5): e024684. doi:10.1136/bmjopen-2018-024684. ISSN 2044-6055. PMC 6549616. PMID 31154295.
Kandala et al. 2018; Ratcliffe, Rebecca (7 November 2018). "FGM rates in east Africa drop from 71% to 8% in 20 years, study shows". The Guardian. Archived from the original on 15 August 2020. Retrieved 7 November 2018. Kandala, Ngianga-Bakwin; Ezejimofor, Martinsixtus C.; Uthman, Olalekan A.; Komba, Paul (2018). "Secular trends in the prevalence of female genital mutilation/cutting among girls: a systematic analysis". BMJ Global Health. 3 (5): e000549. doi:10.1136/bmjgh-2017-000549. PMC 6231106. PMID 30483404.
UNICEF 2013 Archived 5 April 2015 at the Wayback Machine. For eight percent in Iraq, 27, box 4.4, group 5; for the regions in Iraq, 31, map 4.6). Also see Yasin et al. 2013. Yasin, Berivan A.; Al-Tawil, Namir G.; Shabila, Nazar P.; Al-Hadithi, Tariq S. (8 September 2013). "Female genital mutilation among Iraqi Kurdish women: A cross-sectional study from Erbil city". BMC Public Health. 13: 809. doi:10.1186/1471-2458-13-809. ISSN 1471-2458. PMC 3844478. PMID 24010850.
Chad: UNICEF 2013, 35–36; Nigeria: Okeke, Anyaehie & Ezenyeaku 2012, 70–73. FGM is practised in Nigeria by the Yoruba, Hausa, Ibo, Ijaw, and Kanuri people. Okeke, T. C.; Anyaehie, Usb; Ezenyeaku, C. C. K. (January 2012). "An overview of female genital mutilation in Nigeria". Annals of Medical and Health Sciences Research. 2 (1): 70–73. doi:10.4103/2141-9248.96942. ISSN 2141-9248. PMC 3507121. PMID 23209995.
Sheehan 1981, 14; Black 1997, 405. Sheehan, E. (August 1981). "Victorian clitoridectomy: Isaac Baker Brown and his harmless operative procedure". Medical Anthropology Newsletter. 12 (4): 9–15. doi:10.1525/maq.1981.12.4.02a00120. ISSN 0543-2499. JSTOR 647794. PMID 12263443. Black, John (July 1997). "Female genital mutilation: a contemporary issue, and a Victorian obsession". Journal of the Royal Society of Medicine. 90 (7): 402–405. doi:10.1177/014107689709000712. ISSN 0141-0768. PMC 1296388. PMID 9290425.
Cutner 1985, cited in Nour 2008. Also see Barker-Benfield 1999, 113. Cutner, Lawrence P. (July 1985). "Female genital mutilation". Obstetrical & Gynecological Survey. 40 (7): 437–443. doi:10.1097/00006254-198507000-00004. ISSN 0029-7828. PMID 4022475. S2CID 22472191. Nour, Nawal M. (2008). "Female Genital Cutting: A Persisting Practice". Reviews in Obstetrics and Gynecology. 1 (3): 135–139. PMC 2582648. PMID 19015765. Barker-Benfield, G. J. (1999). The Horrors of the Half-Known Life: Male Attitudes Toward Women and Sexuality in Nineteenth-Century America. New York: Routledge.
Elduma 2018. Elduma, Adel Hussein (15 February 2018). "Female Genital Mutilation in Sudan". Open Access Macedonian Journal of Medical Sciences. 6 (2): 430–434. doi:10.3889/oamjms.2018.099 (inactive 1 November 2024). PMC 5839462. PMID 29531618.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of November 2024 (link)
Jones et al. 1997, 372. Jones, Wanda K.; Smith, J.; Kieke, B.; Wilcox, L. (September 1997). "Female genital mutilation/Female circumcision. Who is at risk in the U.S.?". Public Health Reports. 112 (5): 368–377. ISSN 0033-3549. PMC 1381943. PMID 9323387.
Gallard 1995, 1592. Gallard, Colette (17 June 1995). "Female genital mutilation in France". BMJ (Clinical Research Ed.). 310 (6994): 1592–1593. doi:10.1136/bmj.310.6994.1592. ISSN 0959-8138. PMC 2549952. PMID 7787655.
Alison Macfarlane and Efua Dorkenoo, "Female Genital Mutilation in England and Wales" Archived 15 August 2015 at the Wayback Machine, City University of London and Equality Now, 21 July 2014, 3.
"Country Report: United Kingdom" Archived 19 March 2017 at the Wayback Machine, Study to map the current situation and trends of FGM: Country reports, European Institute for Gender Equality, Luxembourg: Publications Office of the European Union, 2013, 487–532.

For an early article on FGM in the UK, see Black & Debelle 1995
Black, J. A.; Debelle, G. D. (17 June 1995). "Female genital mutilation in Britain". BMJ. 310 (6994): 1590–1592. doi:10.1136/bmj.310.6994.1590. ISSN 0959-8138. PMC 2549951. PMID 7787654.
Johnsdotter & Essén 2010, 32; Berer 2007, 1335. Johnsdotter, Sara; Essén, Birgitta (May 2010). "Genitals and ethnicity: the politics of genital modifications" (PDF). Reproductive Health Matters. 18 (35): 29–37. doi:10.1016/S0968-8080(10)35495-4. ISSN 1460-9576. PMID 20541081. S2CID 2261601. Archived from the original (PDF) on 21 September 2013. Berer, Marge (30 June 2007). "Cosmetic genitoplasty: It's female genital mutilation and should be prosecuted". BMJ. 334 (7608): 1335.2–1335. doi:10.1136/bmj.39252.646042.3A. ISSN 1756-1833. PMC 1906631. PMID 17599983.
Conroy 2006. Conroy, Ronán M (15 July 2006). "Female genital mutilation: whose problem, whose solution?". BMJ. 333 (7559): 106–107. doi:10.1136/bmj.333.7559.106. ISSN 0959-8138. PMC 1502236. PMID 16840444.

nytimes.com

Wilkerson, Isabel (11 December 1988). "Charges Against Doctor Bring Ire and Questions". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 16 August 2009. Retrieved 10 February 2018.

Donaldson James, Susan (13 December 2012). "Ohio Woman Still Scarred By 'Love' Doctor's Sex Surgery". ABC News. Archived from the original on 6 August 2020. Retrieved 6 February 2018.
"Doctor Loses Practice Over Genital Surgery". The New York Times. Associated Press. 26 January 1989. Archived from the original on 31 August 2020. Retrieved 10 February 2018.
Emma Bonino, "A brutal custom: Join forces to banish the mutilation of women" Archived 31 May 2015 at the Wayback Machine, The New York Times, 15 September 2004; Maputo Protocol, 7–8.
UN resolution, 20 December 2012; Emma Bonino, "Banning Female Genital Mutilation" Archived 1 January 2017 at the Wayback Machine, The New York Times, 19 December 2012.
Turkewitz, Julie (6 February 2015). "Effects of Ancient Custom Present New Challenge to U.S. Doctors: Genital Cutting Cases Seen More as Immigration Rises" Archived 31 January 2018 at the Wayback Machine. The New York Times.
Rudloff, Patricia Dysart (1995). "In Re: Oluloro: Risk of female genital mutilation as 'extreme hardship' in immigration proceedings". Saint Mary's Law Journal, 877.

Egan, Timothy (4 March 1994). "An Ancient Ritual and a Mother's Asylum Plea". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 3 September 2020. Retrieved 28 November 2019.
"Female Genital Mutilation". Pediatrics. 102 (1): 153–156. 1 July 1998. doi:10.1542/peds.102.1.153. PMID 9651425. Archived from the original on 18 February 2013. Retrieved 22 October 2016.
Withdrawn policy: American Academy of Pediatrics Board of Directors (1 May 2010). "Ritual Genital Cutting of Female Minors". Pediatrics. 125 (5): 1088–1093. doi:10.1542/peds.2010-0187. PMID 20421257. Archived from the original on 20 October 2014. Retrieved 27 October 2014.

Pam Belluck, "Group Backs Ritual 'Nick' as Female Circumcision Option" Archived 18 January 2018 at the Wayback Machine, The New York Times, 6 May 2010.
Farnsworth, Clyde H. (21 July 1994). "Canada Gives Somali Mother Refugee Status" Archived 13 August 2017 at the Wayback Machine. The New York Times.

query.nytimes.com

Dugger, Celia W. (16 June 1996). "June 9–15; Asylum From Mutilation" Archived 21 June 2020 at the Wayback Machine. The New York Times.

"In re Fauziya KASINGA, file A73 476 695" Archived 4 March 2017 at the Wayback Machine. U.S. Department of Justice. Executive Office for Immigration Review, decided 13 June 1996.

opendemocracy.net

Cariboni, Diana; Bauer, Sydney (22 December 2022). "US bill equates trans healthcare with 'genital mutilation'". openDemocracy. Retrieved 14 October 2023.

prb.org

Charlotte Feldman-Jacobs, "Commemorating International Day of Zero Tolerance to Female Genital Mutilation" Archived 13 February 2010 at the Wayback Machine, Population Reference Bureau, February 2009.

psu.edu

citeseerx.ist.psu.edu

Jackson et al. 2003. Jackson, Elizabeth F.; Akweongo, Patricia; Sakeah, Evelyn; Hodgson, Abraham; Asuru, Rofina; Phillips, James F. (September 2003). "Inconsistent reporting of female genital cutting status in northern Ghana: explanatory factors and analytical consequences". Studies in Family Planning. 34 (3): 200–210. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.233.6248. doi:10.1111/j.1728-4465.2003.00200.x. ISSN 0039-3665. PMID 14558322.

publichealthreports.org

"Female Genital Mutilation/Cutting in the United States: Updated Estimates of Women and Girls at Risk, 2012" Archived 21 December 2017 at the Wayback Machine. Public Health Reports. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. March–April 2016, 131.

pulitzer.org

"Stephanie Welsh. The 1996 Pulitzer Prize Winners: Feature Photography". The Pulitzer Prizes. 1996. Archived from the original on 7 October 2015.
Korieh 2005, 121–122; for the photographs, see "Stephanie Welsh. The 1996 Pulitzer Prize Winners: Feature Photography". The Pulitzer Prizes. 1996. Archived from the original on 7 October 2015. Korieh, Chima (2005). "'Other' Bodies: Western Feminism, Race and Representation in Female Circumcision Discourse". In Nnaemeka, Obioma (ed.). Female Circumcision and the Politics of Knowledge: African Women in Imperialist Discourses. Westport, Conn and London: Praeger. ISBN 978-0-89789-864-5. Archived from the original on 23 December 2016. Retrieved 27 August 2017.

refworld.org

"Canada: Immigration and Refugee Board of Canada, Sierra Leone: The practice of female genital mutilation (FGM); the government's position with respect to the practice; consequences of refusing to become an FGM practitioner in Bondo Society, specifically, if a daughter of a practitioner refuses to succeed her mother, 27 March 2009, SLE103015.E". Immigration and Refugee Board of Canada.

reuters.com

Batha, Emma (7 January 2021). "U.S. toughens ban on 'abhorrent' female genital mutilation" Archived 8 January 2021 at the Wayback Machine. Reuters.

rhizome.org

conifer.rhizome.org

Nnaemeka 2005, 34. Nnaemeka, Obioma (2005). "African Women, Colonial Discourses, and Imperialist Interventions: Female Circumcision as Impetus". In Nnaemeka, Obioma (ed.). Female Circumcision and the Politics of Knowledge: African Women in Imperialist Discourses. Westport, Conn and London: Praeger. pp. 27–46. ISBN 978-0-89789-864-5. Archived from the original on 23 December 2016. Retrieved 27 August 2017.

semanticscholar.org

api.semanticscholar.org

A diagram in WHO 2016, copied from Abdulcadir et al. 2016, refers to Type 1a as circumcision.^[39] Abdulcadir, Jasmine; Catania, Lucrezia; Hindin, Michelle Jane; Say, Lale; Petignat, Patrick; Abdulcadir, Omar (November 2016). "Female Genital Mutilation: A Visual Reference and Learning Tool for Health Care Professionals". Obstetrics & Gynecology. 128 (5): 958–963. doi:10.1097/AOG.0000000000001686. ISSN 1873-233X. PMID 27741194. S2CID 46830711.
UNICEF 2013, 15; Toubia & Sharief 2003. Toubia, Nadia F.; Sharief, E. H. (September 2003). "Female genital mutilation: have we made progress?". International Journal of Gynaecology and Obstetrics. 82 (3): 251–261. doi:10.1016/S0020-7292(03)00229-7. ISSN 0020-7292. PMID 14499972. S2CID 39607405.
Kouba & Muasher 1985, 96–97. Kouba, Leonard J.; Muasher, Judith (March 1985). "Female Circumcision in Africa: An Overview". African Studies Review. 28 (1): 95–1100. doi:10.2307/524569. JSTOR 524569. S2CID 144705914.
Kelly & Hillard 2005, 491. Kelly, Elizabeth; Hillard, Paula J. Adams (October 2005). "Female genital mutilation". Current Opinion in Obstetrics and Gynecology. 17 (5): 490–494. doi:10.1097/01.gco.0000183528.18728.57. ISSN 1040-872X. PMID 16141763. S2CID 7706452.
Wakabi 2007. Wakabi, Wairagala (31 March 2007). "Africa battles to make female genital mutilation history". Lancet. 369 (9567): 1069–1070. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(07)60508-X. PMID 17405200. S2CID 29006442. Archived from the original on 14 May 2013. Retrieved 24 April 2013.
Klouman, Manongi & Klepp 2005. Klouman, Elise; Manongi, Rachel; Klepp, Knut-Inge (January 2005). "Self-reported and observed female genital cutting in rural Tanzania: associated demographic factors, HIV and sexually transmitted infections". Tropical Medicine & International Health. 10 (1): 105–115. doi:10.1111/j.1365-3156.2004.01350.x. ISSN 1360-2276. PMID 15655020. S2CID 12050442.
WHO 2008, 4, 23–28; Abdulcadir et al. 2016. Abdulcadir, Jasmine; Catania, Lucrezia; Hindin, Michelle Jane; Say, Lale; Petignat, Patrick; Abdulcadir, Omar (November 2016). "Female Genital Mutilation: A Visual Reference and Learning Tool for Health Care Professionals". Obstetrics & Gynecology. 128 (5): 958–963. doi:10.1097/AOG.0000000000001686. ISSN 1873-233X. PMID 27741194. S2CID 46830711.
Mandara 2000, 98, 100; for fistulae, 102; also see Mandara 2004 Mandara, Mairo Usman (2000). "Female genital cutting in Nigeria: View of Nigerian Doctors on the Medicalization Debate". In Shell-Duncan, Bettina; Hernlund, Ylva (eds.). Female "Circumcision" in Africa: Culture Controversy and Change. Boulder: Lynne Rienner Publishers. Mandara, Mairo Usman (March 2004). "Female genital mutilation in Nigeria". International Journal of Gynaecology and Obstetrics. 84 (3): 291–298. doi:10.1016/j.ijgo.2003.06.001. PMID 15001386. S2CID 20969247.
Reisel & Creighton 2015, 49. Reisel, Dan; Creighton, Sarah M. (January 2015). "Long term health consequences of Female Genital Mutilation (FGM)". Maturitas. 80 (1): 48–51. doi:10.1016/j.maturitas.2014.10.009. ISSN 1873-4111. PMID 25466303. S2CID 40413987.
Reisel & Creighton 2015, 49; Iavazzo, Sardi & Gkegkes 2013; Abdulcadir et al. 2011. Reisel, Dan; Creighton, Sarah M. (January 2015). "Long term health consequences of Female Genital Mutilation (FGM)". Maturitas. 80 (1): 48–51. doi:10.1016/j.maturitas.2014.10.009. ISSN 1873-4111. PMID 25466303. S2CID 40413987. Iavazzo, Christos; Sardi, Thalia A.; Gkegkes, Ioannis D. (June 2013). "Female genital mutilation and infections: a systematic review of the clinical evidence". Archives of Gynecology and Obstetrics. 287 (6): 1137–1149. doi:10.1007/s00404-012-2708-5. ISSN 1432-0711. PMID 23315098. S2CID 11973412. Abdulcadir, Jasmine; Margairaz, Christiane; Boulvain, Michel; Irion, Olivier (6 January 2011). "Care of women with female genital mutilation/cutting". Swiss Medical Weekly. 140: w13137. doi:10.4414/smw.2011.13137. ISSN 1424-3997. PMID 21213149.
Reisel & Creighton 2015, 50. Reisel, Dan; Creighton, Sarah M. (January 2015). "Long term health consequences of Female Genital Mutilation (FGM)". Maturitas. 80 (1): 48–51. doi:10.1016/j.maturitas.2014.10.009. ISSN 1873-4111. PMID 25466303. S2CID 40413987.
Kelly & Hillard 2005, 491–492. Kelly, Elizabeth; Hillard, Paula J. Adams (October 2005). "Female genital mutilation". Current Opinion in Obstetrics and Gynecology. 17 (5): 490–494. doi:10.1097/01.gco.0000183528.18728.57. ISSN 1040-872X. PMID 16141763. S2CID 7706452.
Rashid & Rashid 2007, 97. Rashid, Mumtaz; Rashid, Mohammed H (April 2007). "Obstetric management of women with female genital mutilation". The Obstetrician & Gynaecologist. 9 (2): 95–101. doi:10.1576/toag.9.2.095.27310. S2CID 58404665.
Banks et al. 2006. Banks, Emily; Meirik, Olav; Farley, Tim; Akande, Oluwole; Bathija, Heli; Ali, Mohamed; WHO study group on female genital mutilation and obstetric outcome (3 June 2006). "Female genital mutilation and obstetric outcome: WHO collaborative prospective study in six African countries". Lancet. 367 (9525): 1835–1841. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(06)68805-3. ISSN 1474-547X. PMID 16753486. S2CID 1077505.
Berg & Denison 2013; Reisel & Creighton 2015, 51; Sibiani & Rouzi 2008 Berg, Rigmor C.; Denison, Eva (October 2013). "A tradition in transition: factors perpetuating and hindering the continuance of female genital mutilation/cutting (FGM/C) summarized in a systematic review". Health Care for Women International. 34 (10): 837–859. doi:10.1080/07399332.2012.721417. ISSN 1096-4665. PMC 3783896. PMID 23489149. Reisel, Dan; Creighton, Sarah M. (January 2015). "Long term health consequences of Female Genital Mutilation (FGM)". Maturitas. 80 (1): 48–51. doi:10.1016/j.maturitas.2014.10.009. ISSN 1873-4111. PMID 25466303. S2CID 40413987. Sibiani, Sharifa A.; Rouzi, Abdulrahim A. (September 2008). "Sexual function in women with female genital mutilation". Fertility and Sterility. 93 (3): 722–724. doi:10.1016/j.fertnstert.2008.10.035. ISSN 1556-5653. PMID 19028385. Archived from the original on 28 August 2021. Retrieved 28 October 2014.
Rasheed, Abd-Ellah & Yousef 2011. Rasheed, Salah M.; Abd-Ellah, Ahmed H.; Yousef, Fouad M. (July 2011). "Female genital mutilation in Upper Egypt in the new millennium". International Journal of Gynaecology and Obstetrics. 114 (1): 47–50. doi:10.1016/j.ijgo.2011.02.003. ISSN 1879-3479. PMID 21513937. S2CID 28600501.
Gruenbaum 2005, 435–436. Gruenbaum, Ellen (September–October 2005). "Socio-Cultural Dynamics of Female Genital Cutting: Research Findings, Gaps, and Directions". Culture, Health & Sexuality. 7 (5): 429–441. doi:10.1080/13691050500262953. JSTOR 4005473. PMID 16864214. S2CID 4999356.
Gruenbaum 2005, 437; Gruenbaum 2001, 140. Gruenbaum, Ellen (September–October 2005). "Socio-Cultural Dynamics of Female Genital Cutting: Research Findings, Gaps, and Directions". Culture, Health & Sexuality. 7 (5): 429–441. doi:10.1080/13691050500262953. JSTOR 4005473. PMID 16864214. S2CID 4999356. Gruenbaum, Ellen (2001). The Female Circumcision Controversy: An Anthropological Perspective. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press.
Gruenbaum 2005, 437. Gruenbaum, Ellen (September–October 2005). "Socio-Cultural Dynamics of Female Genital Cutting: Research Findings, Gaps, and Directions". Culture, Health & Sexuality. 7 (5): 429–441. doi:10.1080/13691050500262953. JSTOR 4005473. PMID 16864214. S2CID 4999356.
Gruenbaum 2005, 432–433. Gruenbaum, Ellen (September–October 2005). "Socio-Cultural Dynamics of Female Genital Cutting: Research Findings, Gaps, and Directions". Culture, Health & Sexuality. 7 (5): 429–441. doi:10.1080/13691050500262953. JSTOR 4005473. PMID 16864214. S2CID 4999356.
Knight 2001, 330. Knight, Mary (June 2001). "Curing cut or ritual mutilation? Some remarks on the practice of female and male circumcision in Graeco-Roman Egypt". Isis. 92 (2): 317–338. doi:10.1086/385184. ISSN 0021-1753. JSTOR 3080631. PMID 11590895. S2CID 38351439.
O'Rourke 2007, 166ff (hieroglyphs), 172 (menstruating woman). O'Rourke, Paul F. (1 February 2007). "The 'm't-Woman". Zeitschrift für Ägyptische Sprache und Altertumskunde. 134 (2): 166–172. doi:10.1524/zaes.2007.134.2.166. ISSN 2196-713X. S2CID 141166451. Archived from the original on 2 May 2019. Retrieved 15 October 2017.
Knight 2001, 329–330; Kenyon 1893. Knight, Mary (June 2001). "Curing cut or ritual mutilation? Some remarks on the practice of female and male circumcision in Graeco-Roman Egypt". Isis. 92 (2): 317–338. doi:10.1086/385184. ISSN 0021-1753. JSTOR 3080631. PMID 11590895. S2CID 38351439. Kenyon, F. G. (1893). Greek Papyri in the British Museum. London: British Museum. ISBN 978-0-7141-0486-7.
Knight 2001, 331. Knight, Mary (June 2001). "Curing cut or ritual mutilation? Some remarks on the practice of female and male circumcision in Graeco-Roman Egypt". Isis. 92 (2): 317–338. doi:10.1086/385184. ISSN 0021-1753. JSTOR 3080631. PMID 11590895. S2CID 38351439.
Strabo, Geographica, c. 25 BCE, cited in Knight 2001, 318 Knight, Mary (June 2001). "Curing cut or ritual mutilation? Some remarks on the practice of female and male circumcision in Graeco-Roman Egypt". Isis. 92 (2): 317–338. doi:10.1086/385184. ISSN 0021-1753. JSTOR 3080631. PMID 11590895. S2CID 38351439.
Knight 2001, 326. Knight, Mary (June 2001). "Curing cut or ritual mutilation? Some remarks on the practice of female and male circumcision in Graeco-Roman Egypt". Isis. 92 (2): 317–338. doi:10.1086/385184. ISSN 0021-1753. JSTOR 3080631. PMID 11590895. S2CID 38351439.
Knight 2001, 333. Knight, Mary (June 2001). "Curing cut or ritual mutilation? Some remarks on the practice of female and male circumcision in Graeco-Roman Egypt". Isis. 92 (2): 317–338. doi:10.1086/385184. ISSN 0021-1753. JSTOR 3080631. PMID 11590895. S2CID 38351439.
Knight 2001, 336. Knight, Mary (June 2001). "Curing cut or ritual mutilation? Some remarks on the practice of female and male circumcision in Graeco-Roman Egypt". Isis. 92 (2): 317–338. doi:10.1086/385184. ISSN 0021-1753. JSTOR 3080631. PMID 11590895. S2CID 38351439.
Knight 2001, 327–328. Knight, Mary (June 2001). "Curing cut or ritual mutilation? Some remarks on the practice of female and male circumcision in Graeco-Roman Egypt". Isis. 92 (2): 317–338. doi:10.1086/385184. ISSN 0021-1753. JSTOR 3080631. PMID 11590895. S2CID 38351439.
Knight 2001, 328. Knight, Mary (June 2001). "Curing cut or ritual mutilation? Some remarks on the practice of female and male circumcision in Graeco-Roman Egypt". Isis. 92 (2): 317–338. doi:10.1086/385184. ISSN 0021-1753. JSTOR 3080631. PMID 11590895. S2CID 38351439.
Rodriguez 2008. Rodriguez, Sarah (July 2008). "Rethinking the history of female circumcision and clitoridectomy: American medicine and female sexuality in the late nineteenth century". Journal of the History of Medicine and Allied Sciences. 63 (3): 323–347. doi:10.1093/jhmas/jrm044. ISSN 1468-4373. PMID 18065832. S2CID 9234753.
Cutner 1985, cited in Nour 2008. Also see Barker-Benfield 1999, 113. Cutner, Lawrence P. (July 1985). "Female genital mutilation". Obstetrical & Gynecological Survey. 40 (7): 437–443. doi:10.1097/00006254-198507000-00004. ISSN 0029-7828. PMID 4022475. S2CID 22472191. Nour, Nawal M. (2008). "Female Genital Cutting: A Persisting Practice". Reviews in Obstetrics and Gynecology. 1 (3): 135–139. PMC 2582648. PMID 19015765. Barker-Benfield, G. J. (1999). The Horrors of the Half-Known Life: Male Attitudes Toward Women and Sexuality in Nineteenth-Century America. New York: Routledge.
Johnsdotter & Essén 2010, 32; Berer 2007, 1335. Johnsdotter, Sara; Essén, Birgitta (May 2010). "Genitals and ethnicity: the politics of genital modifications" (PDF). Reproductive Health Matters. 18 (35): 29–37. doi:10.1016/S0968-8080(10)35495-4. ISSN 1460-9576. PMID 20541081. S2CID 2261601. Archived from the original (PDF) on 21 September 2013. Berer, Marge (30 June 2007). "Cosmetic genitoplasty: It's female genital mutilation and should be prosecuted". BMJ. 334 (7608): 1335.2–1335. doi:10.1136/bmj.39252.646042.3A. ISSN 1756-1833. PMC 1906631. PMID 17599983.
Johnsdotter & Essén 2010, 33; Essén & Johnsdotter 2004, 32. Johnsdotter, Sara; Essén, Birgitta (May 2010). "Genitals and ethnicity: the politics of genital modifications" (PDF). Reproductive Health Matters. 18 (35): 29–37. doi:10.1016/S0968-8080(10)35495-4. ISSN 1460-9576. PMID 20541081. S2CID 2261601. Archived from the original (PDF) on 21 September 2013. Essén, Birgitta; Johnsdotter, Sara (July 2004). "Female genital mutilation in the West: traditional circumcision versus genital cosmetic surgery" (PDF). Acta Obstetricia et Gynecologica Scandinavica. 83 (7): 611–613. doi:10.1111/j.0001-6349.2004.00590.x. ISSN 0001-6349. PMID 15225183. S2CID 44583626. Archived from the original (PDF) on 14 April 2013.

ssrn.com

Corno, Lucia and La Ferrara, Eliana and Voena, Alessandra, Female Genital Cutting and the Slave Trade (December 2020). CEPR Discussion Paper No. DP15577, Available at SSRN: https://ssrn.com/abstract=3753982

telegraph.co.uk

Barber, Harriet (11 September 2023). "Female genital mutilation linked to Red Sea slave trade route". The Telegraph.

theatlantic.com

Khazan 2015. Khazan, Olga (8 April 2015). "Why Some Women Choose to Get Circumcised". The Atlantic. Archived from the original on 28 August 2017. Retrieved 27 August 2017.

theglobeandmail.com

Portenier, Giselle (6 February 2019). "When will Canada take action for girls who endure FGM?" Archived 2 December 2020 at the Wayback Machine. The Globe and Mail.

theguardian.com

Alexandra Topping, "Somaliland's leading lady for women's rights: 'It is time for men to step up'", The Guardian, 23 June 2014.
Kimeu, Caroline (8 March 2024). "Dramatic rise in women and girls being cut, new FGM data reveals". The Guardian. ISSN 0261-3077. Retrieved 12 March 2024. Many African countries have experienced a steady decline in the practice over the past few decades, but overall progress has stalled or been reversed.
Cantera, Angel L Martínez (6 March 2018). "'I was crying with unbearable pain': study reveals extent of FGM in India". The Guardian. Retrieved 9 November 2018.
Kandala et al. 2018; Ratcliffe, Rebecca (7 November 2018). "FGM rates in east Africa drop from 71% to 8% in 20 years, study shows". The Guardian. Archived from the original on 15 August 2020. Retrieved 7 November 2018. Kandala, Ngianga-Bakwin; Ezejimofor, Martinsixtus C.; Uthman, Olalekan A.; Komba, Paul (2018). "Secular trends in the prevalence of female genital mutilation/cutting among girls: a systematic analysis". BMJ Global Health. 3 (5): e000549. doi:10.1136/bmjgh-2017-000549. PMC 6231106. PMID 30483404.
Cantera, Angel L. Martínez (6 March 2018). "'I was crying with unbearable pain': study reveals extent of FGM in India". The Guardian. ISSN 0261-3077. Archived from the original on 8 December 2023. Retrieved 1 December 2023.
Topping, Alexandra (24 July 2014). "Kenyan girls taken to remote regions to undergo FGM in secret". The Guardian. Archived from the original on 31 July 2020. Retrieved 17 January 2019.
Gruenbaum 2001, 22; Khaleeli, Homa (15 April 2010). "Nawal El Saadawi: Egypt's radical feminist" Archived 26 September 2015 at the Wayback Machine, The Guardian. Gruenbaum, Ellen (2001). The Female Circumcision Controversy: An Anthropological Perspective. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press.
Topping, Alexandra (23 June 2014). "Somaliland's leading lady for women's rights: 'It is time for men to step up'" Archived 1 January 2017 at the Wayback Machine, The Guardian.
Sandra Laville, "Doctor found not guilty of FGM on patient at London hospital" Archived 6 February 2018 at the Wayback Machine, The Guardian, 4 February 2015.

thelancet.com

Wakabi 2007. Wakabi, Wairagala (31 March 2007). "Africa battles to make female genital mutilation history". Lancet. 369 (9567): 1069–1070. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(07)60508-X. PMID 17405200. S2CID 29006442. Archived from the original on 14 May 2013. Retrieved 24 April 2013.

timep.org

Sara Abdel Rahim, "From Midwives to Doctors: Searching for 'Safer' Circumcisions in Egypt?" Archived 30 July 2017 at the Wayback Machine, The Tahrir Institute for Middle East Policy, 25 September 2014.

tostan.org

Gueye, Malick (4 February 2014). "Social Norm Change Theorists meet again in Keur Simbara, Senegal" Archived 11 March 2017 at the Wayback Machine, Tostan.
"Female Genital Cutting". Tostan. February 2017. Archived from the original on 26 August 2019.

trust.org

news.trust.org

Megan Rowling "France reduces genital cutting with prevention, prosecutions – lawyer" Archived 1 January 2017 at the Wayback Machine, Thomson Reuters Foundation, 27 September 2012.

uchicago.edu

penelope.uchicago.edu

Strabo, Geographica, c. 25 BCE: "One of the customs most zealously observed among the Aegyptians is this, that they rear every child that is born, and circumcise [περιτέμνειν, peritemnein] the males, and excise [ektemnein] the females, as is also customary among the Jews, who are also Aegyptians in origin, as I have already stated in my account of them."^[163]

Book XVI, chapter 4, 16.4.9: "And then to the Harbour of Antiphilus, and, above this, to the Creophagi [meat-eaters], of whom the males have their sexual glands mutilated [kolobos] and the women are excised [ektemnein] in the Jewish fashion."
Strabo, Geographica, Book VII, chapter 2, 17.2.5. Cohen 2005, 59–61 argues that Strabo conflated the Jews with the Egyptians. Cohen, Shaye J. D. (2005). Why Aren't Jewish Women Circumcised? Gender and Covenant In Judaism. Berkeley: University of California Press.

ucsd.edu

pages.ucsd.edu

Mackie 1996, 1003. Mackie, Gerry (December 1996). "Ending Footbinding and Infibulation: A Convention Account" (PDF). American Sociological Review. 61 (6): 999–1017. doi:10.2307/2096305. JSTOR 2096305. Archived (PDF) from the original on 20 July 2019. Retrieved 6 September 2014.
Mackie 1996, 999–1000. Mackie, Gerry (December 1996). "Ending Footbinding and Infibulation: A Convention Account" (PDF). American Sociological Review. 61 (6): 999–1017. doi:10.2307/2096305. JSTOR 2096305. Archived (PDF) from the original on 20 July 2019. Retrieved 6 September 2014.
Mackie 2003, 147–148. Mackie, Gerry (June 2003). "Female Genital Cutting: A Harmless Practice?" (PDF). Medical Anthropology Quarterly. 17 (2): 135–158. doi:10.1525/maq.2003.17.2.135. JSTOR 3655332. PMID 12846114. Archived (PDF) from the original on 8 August 2017. Retrieved 8 January 2016.
Mackie 1996, 1008. Mackie, Gerry (December 1996). "Ending Footbinding and Infibulation: A Convention Account" (PDF). American Sociological Review. 61 (6): 999–1017. doi:10.2307/2096305. JSTOR 2096305. Archived (PDF) from the original on 20 July 2019. Retrieved 6 September 2014.
Mackie 1996, 1004–1005. Mackie, Gerry (December 1996). "Ending Footbinding and Infibulation: A Convention Account" (PDF). American Sociological Review. 61 (6): 999–1017. doi:10.2307/2096305. JSTOR 2096305. Archived (PDF) from the original on 20 July 2019. Retrieved 6 September 2014.
Mackie 1996, 1003, 1009. Mackie, Gerry (December 1996). "Ending Footbinding and Infibulation: A Convention Account" (PDF). American Sociological Review. 61 (6): 999–1017. doi:10.2307/2096305. JSTOR 2096305. Archived (PDF) from the original on 20 July 2019. Retrieved 6 September 2014.
Mackie 2003, 139. Mackie, Gerry (June 2003). "Female Genital Cutting: A Harmless Practice?" (PDF). Medical Anthropology Quarterly. 17 (2): 135–158. doi:10.1525/maq.2003.17.2.135. JSTOR 3655332. PMID 12846114. Archived (PDF) from the original on 8 August 2017. Retrieved 8 January 2016.

polisci.ucsd.edu

Mackie 2000, 275. Mackie, Gerry (2000). "Female Genital Cutting: The Beginning of the End" (PDF). In Shell-Duncan, Bettina; Hernlund, Ylva (eds.). Female "Circumcision" in Africa: Culture Controversy and Change. Boulder: Lynne Rienner Publishers. Archived from the original (PDF) on 29 October 2013.
Mackie 2000, 256ff. Mackie, Gerry (2000). "Female Genital Cutting: The Beginning of the End" (PDF). In Shell-Duncan, Bettina; Hernlund, Ylva (eds.). Female "Circumcision" in Africa: Culture Controversy and Change. Boulder: Lynne Rienner Publishers. Archived from the original (PDF) on 29 October 2013.
Mackie 2000, 264, 267. Mackie, Gerry (2000). "Female Genital Cutting: The Beginning of the End" (PDF). In Shell-Duncan, Bettina; Hernlund, Ylva (eds.). Female "Circumcision" in Africa: Culture Controversy and Change. Boulder: Lynne Rienner Publishers. Archived from the original (PDF) on 29 October 2013.

un.org

"48/104. Declaration on the Elimination of Violence against Women" Archived 2 February 2006 at the Wayback Machine, United Nations General Assembly, 20 December 1993.

unfpa.org

Asmani & Abdi 2008, 3–5. Asmani, Ibrahim Lethome; Abdi, Maryam Sheikh (2008). De-linking Female Genital Mutilation/Cutting from Islam (PDF). Washington: Frontiers in Reproductive Health, USAID. Archived (PDF) from the original on 21 February 2017. Retrieved 26 July 2015.
"Frequently Asked Questions on Female Genital Mutilation/Cutting" Archived 4 January 2015 at the Wayback Machine, United Nations Population Fund, April 2010.
Roald 2003, 224; Asmani & Abdi 2008, 6–13. Roald, Ann-Sofie (2003). Women in Islam: The Western Experience. London: Routledge. Asmani, Ibrahim Lethome; Abdi, Maryam Sheikh (2008). De-linking Female Genital Mutilation/Cutting from Islam (PDF). Washington: Frontiers in Reproductive Health, USAID. Archived (PDF) from the original on 21 February 2017. Retrieved 26 July 2015.

unicef-irc.org

UNICEF 2005 Archived 28 September 2018 at the Wayback Machine, 6.

unicef.org

UNICEF 2013, p. 10.
UNICEF 2013, p. 3.
UNICEF 2013 Archived 5 April 2015 at the Wayback Machine. For eight percent in Iraq, 27, box 4.4, group 5; for the regions in Iraq, 31, map 4.6). Also see Yasin et al. 2013. Yasin, Berivan A.; Al-Tawil, Namir G.; Shabila, Nazar P.; Al-Hadithi, Tariq S. (8 September 2013). "Female genital mutilation among Iraqi Kurdish women: A cross-sectional study from Erbil city". BMC Public Health. 13: 809. doi:10.1186/1471-2458-13-809. ISSN 1471-2458. PMC 3844478. PMID 24010850.

data.unicef.org

"Female genital mutilation (FGM)". UNICEF. Retrieved 5 July 2023.

usatoday.com

usatoday30.usatoday.com

"Man gets 10-year sentence for circumcision of 2-year-old daughter" Archived 2 September 2017 at the Wayback Machine. Associated Press, 1 November 2006.

utoronto.ca

hmb.utoronto.ca

Johnsdotter & Essén 2010, 33; Essén & Johnsdotter 2004, 32. Johnsdotter, Sara; Essén, Birgitta (May 2010). "Genitals and ethnicity: the politics of genital modifications" (PDF). Reproductive Health Matters. 18 (35): 29–37. doi:10.1016/S0968-8080(10)35495-4. ISSN 1460-9576. PMID 20541081. S2CID 2261601. Archived from the original (PDF) on 21 September 2013. Essén, Birgitta; Johnsdotter, Sara (July 2004). "Female genital mutilation in the West: traditional circumcision versus genital cosmetic surgery" (PDF). Acta Obstetricia et Gynecologica Scandinavica. 83 (7): 611–613. doi:10.1111/j.0001-6349.2004.00590.x. ISSN 0001-6349. PMID 15225183. S2CID 44583626. Archived from the original (PDF) on 14 April 2013.

washingtonpost.com

Michael, Maggie (29 June 2007). "Egypt Officials Ban Female Circumcision" Archived 20 September 2017 at the Wayback Machine, Associated Press, 2.
Schmidt, Samantha (21 November 2018). "Judge rules that federal law banning female genital mutilation is unconstitutional" Archived 20 August 2020 at the Wayback Machine. The Washington Post.

web.archive.org

Nussbaum 1999, 119. Nussbaum, Martha (1999). Sex and Social Justice. New York and Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-535501-7. Archived from the original on 25 July 2020. Retrieved 27 August 2017.
El Guindi 2007, 30. El Guindi, Fadwa (2007). "Had This Been Your Face, Would You Leave It as Is?". In Abusharaf, Rogaia Mustafa (ed.). Female Circumcision: Multicultural Perspectives. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press. ISBN 978-0-8122-0102-4. Archived from the original on 10 March 2021. Retrieved 16 January 2019.
Asmani & Abdi 2008, 3–5. Asmani, Ibrahim Lethome; Abdi, Maryam Sheikh (2008). De-linking Female Genital Mutilation/Cutting from Islam (PDF). Washington: Frontiers in Reproductive Health, USAID. Archived (PDF) from the original on 21 February 2017. Retrieved 26 July 2015.
Wakabi 2007. Wakabi, Wairagala (31 March 2007). "Africa battles to make female genital mutilation history". Lancet. 369 (9567): 1069–1070. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(07)60508-X. PMID 17405200. S2CID 29006442. Archived from the original on 14 May 2013. Retrieved 24 April 2013.
"Female genital mutilation". www.who.int. Archived from the original on 29 January 2021. Retrieved 29 April 2021.
WHO 2016, Box 1.1 "Types of FGM" Archived 8 September 2017 at the Wayback Machine.
Yoder & Khan 2008, 13–14. Yoder, P. Stanley; Khan, Shane (March 2008). "Numbers of women circumcised in Africa: The Production of a Total" (PDF). DHS Working Papers (39). USAID. Archived (PDF) from the original on 22 November 2017. Retrieved 29 July 2014.
"Frequently Asked Questions on Female Genital Mutilation/Cutting" Archived 4 January 2015 at the Wayback Machine, United Nations Population Fund, April 2010.
Ismail 2016, 12. Ismail, Edna Adan (2016). "Female genital mutilation survey in Somaliland" (PDF). Edna Adan University Hospital. Archived (PDF) from the original on 11 September 2017. Retrieved 10 September 2017.
El Guindi 2007, 43. El Guindi, Fadwa (2007). "Had This Been Your Face, Would You Leave It as Is?". In Abusharaf, Rogaia Mustafa (ed.). Female Circumcision: Multicultural Perspectives. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press. ISBN 978-0-8122-0102-4. Archived from the original on 10 March 2021. Retrieved 16 January 2019.
Ismail 2016, 14. Ismail, Edna Adan (2016). "Female genital mutilation survey in Somaliland" (PDF). Edna Adan University Hospital. Archived (PDF) from the original on 11 September 2017. Retrieved 10 September 2017.
For the countries in which labia stretching is found (Botswana, Lesotho, Malawi, Mozambique, Namibia, South Africa, Tanzania, Uganda and Zimbabwe), see Nzegwu 2011, 262; for the rest, Bagnol & Mariano 2011, 272–276 (272 for Uganda). Nzegwu, Nkiru (2011). "'Osunality' (or African eroticism)". African Sexualities: A Reader. Cape Town: Fahamu/Pambazuka. ISBN 978-0-85749-016-2. Archived from the original on 1 August 2020. Retrieved 27 August 2017. Bagnol, Brigitte; Mariano, Esmeralda (2011). "Politics of Naming Sexual Practices". African Sexualities: A Reader. Cape Town: Fahamu/Pambazuka. ISBN 978-0-85749-016-2. Archived from the original on 1 August 2020. Retrieved 27 August 2017.
Berg & Underland 2014, 2. Berg, Rigmor C.; Underland, Vigdis (27 March 2014). Immediate health consequences of female genital mutilation/cutting (FGM/C) (PDF). Oslo: Norwegian Knowledge Centre for the Health Services (Kunnskapssenteret). pp. 837–859. ISBN 978-82-8121-856-7. ISSN 1890-1298. PMID 29320014. Archived (PDF) from the original on 28 August 2021. Retrieved 11 April 2018.
"New study shows female genital mutilation exposes women and babies to significant risk at childbirth" Archived 2 May 2019 at the Wayback Machine, World Health Organization, 2 June 2006.
Berg & Denison 2013; Reisel & Creighton 2015, 51; Sibiani & Rouzi 2008 Berg, Rigmor C.; Denison, Eva (October 2013). "A tradition in transition: factors perpetuating and hindering the continuance of female genital mutilation/cutting (FGM/C) summarized in a systematic review". Health Care for Women International. 34 (10): 837–859. doi:10.1080/07399332.2012.721417. ISSN 1096-4665. PMC 3783896. PMID 23489149. Reisel, Dan; Creighton, Sarah M. (January 2015). "Long term health consequences of Female Genital Mutilation (FGM)". Maturitas. 80 (1): 48–51. doi:10.1016/j.maturitas.2014.10.009. ISSN 1873-4111. PMID 25466303. S2CID 40413987. Sibiani, Sharifa A.; Rouzi, Abdulrahim A. (September 2008). "Sexual function in women with female genital mutilation". Fertility and Sterility. 93 (3): 722–724. doi:10.1016/j.fertnstert.2008.10.035. ISSN 1556-5653. PMID 19028385. Archived from the original on 28 August 2021. Retrieved 28 October 2014.
"DHS overview" Archived 16 October 2014 at the Wayback Machine, Demographic and Health Surveys; "Questionnaires and Indicator List", Multiple Indicator Cluster Surveys, UNICEF.
Kandala et al. 2018; Ratcliffe, Rebecca (7 November 2018). "FGM rates in east Africa drop from 71% to 8% in 20 years, study shows". The Guardian. Archived from the original on 15 August 2020. Retrieved 7 November 2018. Kandala, Ngianga-Bakwin; Ezejimofor, Martinsixtus C.; Uthman, Olalekan A.; Komba, Paul (2018). "Secular trends in the prevalence of female genital mutilation/cutting among girls: a systematic analysis". BMJ Global Health. 3 (5): e000549. doi:10.1136/bmjgh-2017-000549. PMC 6231106. PMID 30483404.
Mackie 2000, 275. Mackie, Gerry (2000). "Female Genital Cutting: The Beginning of the End" (PDF). In Shell-Duncan, Bettina; Hernlund, Ylva (eds.). Female "Circumcision" in Africa: Culture Controversy and Change. Boulder: Lynne Rienner Publishers. Archived from the original (PDF) on 29 October 2013.
UNICEF 2005 Archived 28 September 2018 at the Wayback Machine, 6.
UNICEF 2013 Archived 5 April 2015 at the Wayback Machine. For eight percent in Iraq, 27, box 4.4, group 5; for the regions in Iraq, 31, map 4.6). Also see Yasin et al. 2013. Yasin, Berivan A.; Al-Tawil, Namir G.; Shabila, Nazar P.; Al-Hadithi, Tariq S. (8 September 2013). "Female genital mutilation among Iraqi Kurdish women: A cross-sectional study from Erbil city". BMC Public Health. 13: 809. doi:10.1186/1471-2458-13-809. ISSN 1471-2458. PMC 3844478. PMID 24010850.
"Guinea" (2012), UNICEF statistical profile, July 2014, 2/4.
"FMG in Sierra Leone" (PDF). 28TooMany, Registered Charity: No. 1150379. Archived from the original (PDF) on 22 December 2021. Retrieved 22 December 2021.
"Stephanie Welsh. The 1996 Pulitzer Prize Winners: Feature Photography". The Pulitzer Prizes. 1996. Archived from the original on 7 October 2015.
El Guindi 2007, 35, 42, 46. El Guindi, Fadwa (2007). "Had This Been Your Face, Would You Leave It as Is?". In Abusharaf, Rogaia Mustafa (ed.). Female Circumcision: Multicultural Perspectives. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press. ISBN 978-0-8122-0102-4. Archived from the original on 10 March 2021. Retrieved 16 January 2019.
Mackie 1996, 1003. Mackie, Gerry (December 1996). "Ending Footbinding and Infibulation: A Convention Account" (PDF). American Sociological Review. 61 (6): 999–1017. doi:10.2307/2096305. JSTOR 2096305. Archived (PDF) from the original on 20 July 2019. Retrieved 6 September 2014.
El Guindi 2007, 35. El Guindi, Fadwa (2007). "Had This Been Your Face, Would You Leave It as Is?". In Abusharaf, Rogaia Mustafa (ed.). Female Circumcision: Multicultural Perspectives. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press. ISBN 978-0-8122-0102-4. Archived from the original on 10 March 2021. Retrieved 16 January 2019.
Khazan 2015. Khazan, Olga (8 April 2015). "Why Some Women Choose to Get Circumcised". The Atlantic. Archived from the original on 28 August 2017. Retrieved 27 August 2017.
Mackie 1996, 999–1000. Mackie, Gerry (December 1996). "Ending Footbinding and Infibulation: A Convention Account" (PDF). American Sociological Review. 61 (6): 999–1017. doi:10.2307/2096305. JSTOR 2096305. Archived (PDF) from the original on 20 July 2019. Retrieved 6 September 2014.
Abusharaf 2007, 8; El Guindi 2007, 36–37. Abusharaf, Rogaia Mustafa (2007). "Introduction: The Custom in Question". In Abusharaf, Rogaia Mustafa (ed.). Female Circumcision: Multicultural Perspectives. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press. ISBN 978-0-8122-0102-4. Archived from the original on 10 March 2021. Retrieved 16 January 2019. El Guindi, Fadwa (2007). "Had This Been Your Face, Would You Leave It as Is?". In Abusharaf, Rogaia Mustafa (ed.). Female Circumcision: Multicultural Perspectives. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press. ISBN 978-0-8122-0102-4. Archived from the original on 10 March 2021. Retrieved 16 January 2019.
Bagnol & Mariano 2011, 277–281. Bagnol, Brigitte; Mariano, Esmeralda (2011). "Politics of Naming Sexual Practices". African Sexualities: A Reader. Cape Town: Fahamu/Pambazuka. ISBN 978-0-85749-016-2. Archived from the original on 1 August 2020. Retrieved 27 August 2017.
Gueye, Malick (4 February 2014). "Social Norm Change Theorists meet again in Keur Simbara, Senegal" Archived 11 March 2017 at the Wayback Machine, Tostan.
Mackie 2003, 147–148. Mackie, Gerry (June 2003). "Female Genital Cutting: A Harmless Practice?" (PDF). Medical Anthropology Quarterly. 17 (2): 135–158. doi:10.1525/maq.2003.17.2.135. JSTOR 3655332. PMID 12846114. Archived (PDF) from the original on 8 August 2017. Retrieved 8 January 2016.
Mackie 2000, 256ff. Mackie, Gerry (2000). "Female Genital Cutting: The Beginning of the End" (PDF). In Shell-Duncan, Bettina; Hernlund, Ylva (eds.). Female "Circumcision" in Africa: Culture Controversy and Change. Boulder: Lynne Rienner Publishers. Archived from the original (PDF) on 29 October 2013.
"Female Genital Cutting". Tostan. February 2017. Archived from the original on 26 August 2019.
Mackie 1996, 1008. Mackie, Gerry (December 1996). "Ending Footbinding and Infibulation: A Convention Account" (PDF). American Sociological Review. 61 (6): 999–1017. doi:10.2307/2096305. JSTOR 2096305. Archived (PDF) from the original on 20 July 2019. Retrieved 6 September 2014.
Michael, Maggie (29 June 2007). "Egypt Officials Ban Female Circumcision" Archived 20 September 2017 at the Wayback Machine, Associated Press, 2.
Mackie 1996, 1004–1005. Mackie, Gerry (December 1996). "Ending Footbinding and Infibulation: A Convention Account" (PDF). American Sociological Review. 61 (6): 999–1017. doi:10.2307/2096305. JSTOR 2096305. Archived (PDF) from the original on 20 July 2019. Retrieved 6 September 2014.
Roald 2003, 224; Asmani & Abdi 2008, 6–13. Roald, Ann-Sofie (2003). Women in Islam: The Western Experience. London: Routledge. Asmani, Ibrahim Lethome; Abdi, Maryam Sheikh (2008). De-linking Female Genital Mutilation/Cutting from Islam (PDF). Washington: Frontiers in Reproductive Health, USAID. Archived (PDF) from the original on 21 February 2017. Retrieved 26 July 2015.
Wensinck 2012. Wensinck, A. J. (2012) [1986]. "K̲h̲itān". In Bosworth, C. E.; van Donzel, E. J.; Lewis, B.; Heinrichs, W. P.; Pellat, Ch. (eds.). Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition. Vol. 5. Leiden and Boston: Brill Publishers. pp. 20–22. doi:10.1163/1573-3912_islam_SIM_4296. ISBN 978-90-04-07819-2. Archived from the original on 30 September 2021. Retrieved 7 February 2020.
Cantera, Angel L. Martínez (6 March 2018). "'I was crying with unbearable pain': study reveals extent of FGM in India". The Guardian. ISSN 0261-3077. Archived from the original on 8 December 2023. Retrieved 1 December 2023.
Mackie 2000, 264, 267. Mackie, Gerry (2000). "Female Genital Cutting: The Beginning of the End" (PDF). In Shell-Duncan, Bettina; Hernlund, Ylva (eds.). Female "Circumcision" in Africa: Culture Controversy and Change. Boulder: Lynne Rienner Publishers. Archived from the original (PDF) on 29 October 2013.
O'Rourke 2007, 166ff (hieroglyphs), 172 (menstruating woman). O'Rourke, Paul F. (1 February 2007). "The 'm't-Woman". Zeitschrift für Ägyptische Sprache und Altertumskunde. 134 (2): 166–172. doi:10.1524/zaes.2007.134.2.166. ISSN 2196-713X. S2CID 141166451. Archived from the original on 2 May 2019. Retrieved 15 October 2017.
Mackie 1996, 1003, 1009. Mackie, Gerry (December 1996). "Ending Footbinding and Infibulation: A Convention Account" (PDF). American Sociological Review. 61 (6): 999–1017. doi:10.2307/2096305. JSTOR 2096305. Archived (PDF) from the original on 20 July 2019. Retrieved 6 September 2014.
J. F. C. 1873, 155, cited in Allen 2000, 106. J. F. C. (8 February 1873). "Isaac Baker Brown, F.R.C.S." Medical Times and Gazette. 1 (1180). Archived from the original on 1 August 2020. Retrieved 27 August 2017. Allen, Peter Lewis (2000). The Wages of Sin: Sex and Disease, Past and Present. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0-226-01460-9.
Wilkerson, Isabel (11 December 1988). "Charges Against Doctor Bring Ire and Questions". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 16 August 2009. Retrieved 10 February 2018.

Donaldson James, Susan (13 December 2012). "Ohio Woman Still Scarred By 'Love' Doctor's Sex Surgery". ABC News. Archived from the original on 6 August 2020. Retrieved 6 February 2018.
"Doctor Loses Practice Over Genital Surgery". The New York Times. Associated Press. 26 January 1989. Archived from the original on 31 August 2020. Retrieved 10 February 2018.
Kenneth Mufuka, "Scottish Missionaries and the Circumcision Controversy in Kenya, 1900–1960", International Review of Scottish Studies, 28, 2003, 55.
Topping, Alexandra (24 July 2014). "Kenyan girls taken to remote regions to undergo FGM in secret". The Guardian. Archived from the original on 31 July 2020. Retrieved 17 January 2019.
Bagnol & Mariano 2011, 281. Bagnol, Brigitte; Mariano, Esmeralda (2011). "Politics of Naming Sexual Practices". African Sexualities: A Reader. Cape Town: Fahamu/Pambazuka. ISBN 978-0-85749-016-2. Archived from the original on 1 August 2020. Retrieved 27 August 2017.
Gruenbaum 2001, 22; Khaleeli, Homa (15 April 2010). "Nawal El Saadawi: Egypt's radical feminist" Archived 26 September 2015 at the Wayback Machine, The Guardian. Gruenbaum, Ellen (2001). The Female Circumcision Controversy: An Anthropological Perspective. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press.
Topping, Alexandra (23 June 2014). "Somaliland's leading lady for women's rights: 'It is time for men to step up'" Archived 1 January 2017 at the Wayback Machine, The Guardian.
Yoder & Khan 2008, 2. Yoder, P. Stanley; Khan, Shane (March 2008). "Numbers of women circumcised in Africa: The Production of a Total" (PDF). DHS Working Papers (39). USAID. Archived (PDF) from the original on 22 November 2017. Retrieved 29 July 2014.
Mackie 2003, 139. Mackie, Gerry (June 2003). "Female Genital Cutting: A Harmless Practice?" (PDF). Medical Anthropology Quarterly. 17 (2): 135–158. doi:10.1525/maq.2003.17.2.135. JSTOR 3655332. PMID 12846114. Archived (PDF) from the original on 8 August 2017. Retrieved 8 January 2016.
Boyle 2002, 47; Bagnol & Mariano 2011, 281. Boyle, Elizabeth Heger (2002). Female Genital Cutting: Cultural Conflict in the Global Community. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. Bagnol, Brigitte; Mariano, Esmeralda (2011). "Politics of Naming Sexual Practices". African Sexualities: A Reader. Cape Town: Fahamu/Pambazuka. ISBN 978-0-85749-016-2. Archived from the original on 1 August 2020. Retrieved 27 August 2017.
Anika Rahman and Nahid Toubia, Female Genital Mutilation: A Guide to Laws and Policies Worldwide, New York: Zed Books, 2000, 10–11 Archived 1 August 2020 at the Wayback Machine; for Vienna, UNICEF 2013, 8.
Emma Bonino, "A brutal custom: Join forces to banish the mutilation of women" Archived 31 May 2015 at the Wayback Machine, The New York Times, 15 September 2004; Maputo Protocol, 7–8.
"48/104. Declaration on the Elimination of Violence against Women" Archived 2 February 2006 at the Wayback Machine, United Nations General Assembly, 20 December 1993.
Charlotte Feldman-Jacobs, "Commemorating International Day of Zero Tolerance to Female Genital Mutilation" Archived 13 February 2010 at the Wayback Machine, Population Reference Bureau, February 2009.
UN resolution, 20 December 2012; Emma Bonino, "Banning Female Genital Mutilation" Archived 1 January 2017 at the Wayback Machine, The New York Times, 19 December 2012.
Australia: "Review of Australia's Female Genital Mutilation Legal Framework" Archived 5 March 2016 at the Wayback Machine, Attorney General's Department, Government of Australia.
New Zealand: "Section 204A – Female genital mutilation – Crimes Act 1961" Archived 23 November 2011 at the Wayback Machine, New Zealand Parliamentary Counsel Office.
Europe: "Eliminating female genital mutilation" Archived 8 August 2014 at the Wayback Machine, European Commission.
United States: "18 U.S. Code § 116 – Female genital mutilation" Archived 3 August 2014 at the Wayback Machine, Legal Information Institute, Cornell University Law School.

Canada: Section 268, Criminal Code, Justice Laws website, Government of Canada.
"Current situation of female genital mutilation in Sweden" Archived 19 March 2017 at the Wayback Machine, European Institute for Gender Equality, European Union.
"Female Genital Mutilation/Cutting in the United States: Updated Estimates of Women and Girls at Risk, 2012" Archived 21 December 2017 at the Wayback Machine. Public Health Reports. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. March–April 2016, 131.
Turkewitz, Julie (6 February 2015). "Effects of Ancient Custom Present New Challenge to U.S. Doctors: Genital Cutting Cases Seen More as Immigration Rises" Archived 31 January 2018 at the Wayback Machine. The New York Times.
Rudloff, Patricia Dysart (1995). "In Re: Oluloro: Risk of female genital mutilation as 'extreme hardship' in immigration proceedings". Saint Mary's Law Journal, 877.

Egan, Timothy (4 March 1994). "An Ancient Ritual and a Mother's Asylum Plea". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 3 September 2020. Retrieved 28 November 2019.
Dugger, Celia W. (16 June 1996). "June 9–15; Asylum From Mutilation" Archived 21 June 2020 at the Wayback Machine. The New York Times.

"In re Fauziya KASINGA, file A73 476 695" Archived 4 March 2017 at the Wayback Machine. U.S. Department of Justice. Executive Office for Immigration Review, decided 13 June 1996.
"Man gets 10-year sentence for circumcision of 2-year-old daughter" Archived 2 September 2017 at the Wayback Machine. Associated Press, 1 November 2006.
Schmidt, Samantha (21 November 2018). "Judge rules that federal law banning female genital mutilation is unconstitutional" Archived 20 August 2020 at the Wayback Machine. The Washington Post.
Batha, Emma (7 January 2021). "U.S. toughens ban on 'abhorrent' female genital mutilation" Archived 8 January 2021 at the Wayback Machine. Reuters.
"Female Genital Mutilation". Pediatrics. 102 (1): 153–156. 1 July 1998. doi:10.1542/peds.102.1.153. PMID 9651425. Archived from the original on 18 February 2013. Retrieved 22 October 2016.
Withdrawn policy: American Academy of Pediatrics Board of Directors (1 May 2010). "Ritual Genital Cutting of Female Minors". Pediatrics. 125 (5): 1088–1093. doi:10.1542/peds.2010-0187. PMID 20421257. Archived from the original on 20 October 2014. Retrieved 27 October 2014.

Pam Belluck, "Group Backs Ritual 'Nick' as Female Circumcision Option" Archived 18 January 2018 at the Wayback Machine, The New York Times, 6 May 2010.
Farnsworth, Clyde H. (21 July 1994). "Canada Gives Somali Mother Refugee Status" Archived 13 August 2017 at the Wayback Machine. The New York Times.
Section 268 Archived 2 May 2019 at the Wayback Machine. Criminal Code of Canada.
Portenier, Giselle (6 February 2019). "When will Canada take action for girls who endure FGM?" Archived 2 December 2020 at the Wayback Machine. The Globe and Mail.
Megan Rowling "France reduces genital cutting with prevention, prosecutions – lawyer" Archived 1 January 2017 at the Wayback Machine, Thomson Reuters Foundation, 27 September 2012.
"Current situation of female genital mutilation in France" Archived 7 February 2016 at the Wayback Machine, European Institute for Gender Equality, European Union.
Alison Macfarlane and Efua Dorkenoo, "Female Genital Mutilation in England and Wales" Archived 15 August 2015 at the Wayback Machine, City University of London and Equality Now, 21 July 2014, 3.
"Country Report: United Kingdom" Archived 19 March 2017 at the Wayback Machine, Study to map the current situation and trends of FGM: Country reports, European Institute for Gender Equality, Luxembourg: Publications Office of the European Union, 2013, 487–532.

For an early article on FGM in the UK, see Black & Debelle 1995
Black, J. A.; Debelle, G. D. (17 June 1995). "Female genital mutilation in Britain". BMJ. 310 (6994): 1590–1592. doi:10.1136/bmj.310.6994.1590. ISSN 0959-8138. PMC 2549951. PMID 7787654.
Prohibition of Female Circumcision Act 1985 Archived 1 January 2017 at the Wayback Machine, legislation.gov.uk, The National Archives.
Female Genital Mutilation Act 2003 Archived 14 July 2017 at the Wayback Machine and "Prohibition of Female Genital Mutilation (Scotland) Act 2005", legislation.gov.uk.
"Female Genital Mutilation Act 2003" Archived 14 July 2017 at the Wayback Machine, legislation.gov.uk, and "Female Genital Mutilation Act 2003" Archived 8 September 2013 at the Wayback Machine (legal guidance), Crown Prosecution Service: "The Act refers to 'girls', though it also applies to women."
Sandra Laville, "Doctor found not guilty of FGM on patient at London hospital" Archived 6 February 2018 at the Wayback Machine, The Guardian, 4 February 2015.
Nnaemeka 2005, 34. Nnaemeka, Obioma (2005). "African Women, Colonial Discourses, and Imperialist Interventions: Female Circumcision as Impetus". In Nnaemeka, Obioma (ed.). Female Circumcision and the Politics of Knowledge: African Women in Imperialist Discourses. Westport, Conn and London: Praeger. pp. 27–46. ISBN 978-0-89789-864-5. Archived from the original on 23 December 2016. Retrieved 27 August 2017.
Kirby 2005, 83. Kirby, Vicky (2005). "Out of Africa: 'Our Bodies Ourselves?'". In Nnaemeka, Obioma (ed.). Female Circumcision and the Politics of Knowledge: African Women in Imperialist Discourses. Westport, Conn and London: Praeger. ISBN 978-0-89789-864-5. Archived from the original on 23 December 2016. Retrieved 27 August 2017.
Nnaemeka 2005, 33. Nnaemeka, Obioma (2005). "African Women, Colonial Discourses, and Imperialist Interventions: Female Circumcision as Impetus". In Nnaemeka, Obioma (ed.). Female Circumcision and the Politics of Knowledge: African Women in Imperialist Discourses. Westport, Conn and London: Praeger. pp. 27–46. ISBN 978-0-89789-864-5. Archived from the original on 23 December 2016. Retrieved 27 August 2017.
Nnaemeka 2005, 30–33. Nnaemeka, Obioma (2005). "African Women, Colonial Discourses, and Imperialist Interventions: Female Circumcision as Impetus". In Nnaemeka, Obioma (ed.). Female Circumcision and the Politics of Knowledge: African Women in Imperialist Discourses. Westport, Conn and London: Praeger. pp. 27–46. ISBN 978-0-89789-864-5. Archived from the original on 23 December 2016. Retrieved 27 August 2017.
Korieh 2005, 121–122; for the photographs, see "Stephanie Welsh. The 1996 Pulitzer Prize Winners: Feature Photography". The Pulitzer Prizes. 1996. Archived from the original on 7 October 2015. Korieh, Chima (2005). "'Other' Bodies: Western Feminism, Race and Representation in Female Circumcision Discourse". In Nnaemeka, Obioma (ed.). Female Circumcision and the Politics of Knowledge: African Women in Imperialist Discourses. Westport, Conn and London: Praeger. ISBN 978-0-89789-864-5. Archived from the original on 23 December 2016. Retrieved 27 August 2017.
Nnaemeka 2005, 38–39. Nnaemeka, Obioma (2005). "African Women, Colonial Discourses, and Imperialist Interventions: Female Circumcision as Impetus". In Nnaemeka, Obioma (ed.). Female Circumcision and the Politics of Knowledge: African Women in Imperialist Discourses. Westport, Conn and London: Praeger. pp. 27–46. ISBN 978-0-89789-864-5. Archived from the original on 23 December 2016. Retrieved 27 August 2017.
Johnsdotter & Essén 2010, 32; Berer 2007, 1335. Johnsdotter, Sara; Essén, Birgitta (May 2010). "Genitals and ethnicity: the politics of genital modifications" (PDF). Reproductive Health Matters. 18 (35): 29–37. doi:10.1016/S0968-8080(10)35495-4. ISSN 1460-9576. PMID 20541081. S2CID 2261601. Archived from the original (PDF) on 21 September 2013. Berer, Marge (30 June 2007). "Cosmetic genitoplasty: It's female genital mutilation and should be prosecuted". BMJ. 334 (7608): 1335.2–1335. doi:10.1136/bmj.39252.646042.3A. ISSN 1756-1833. PMC 1906631. PMID 17599983.
El Guindi 2007, 33. El Guindi, Fadwa (2007). "Had This Been Your Face, Would You Leave It as Is?". In Abusharaf, Rogaia Mustafa (ed.). Female Circumcision: Multicultural Perspectives. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press. ISBN 978-0-8122-0102-4. Archived from the original on 10 March 2021. Retrieved 16 January 2019.
Obermeyer, Carla. "Female Genital Surgeries: The Known, the Unknown and the Unknowable" Archived 9 August 2020 at the Wayback Machine, Medical Anthropology Quarterly, 31(1), 1999, pp. 79–106 (hereafter Obermeyer 1999), 94.
Sara Abdel Rahim, "From Midwives to Doctors: Searching for 'Safer' Circumcisions in Egypt?" Archived 30 July 2017 at the Wayback Machine, The Tahrir Institute for Middle East Policy, 25 September 2014.
Johnsdotter & Essén 2010, 33; Essén & Johnsdotter 2004, 32. Johnsdotter, Sara; Essén, Birgitta (May 2010). "Genitals and ethnicity: the politics of genital modifications" (PDF). Reproductive Health Matters. 18 (35): 29–37. doi:10.1016/S0968-8080(10)35495-4. ISSN 1460-9576. PMID 20541081. S2CID 2261601. Archived from the original (PDF) on 21 September 2013. Essén, Birgitta; Johnsdotter, Sara (July 2004). "Female genital mutilation in the West: traditional circumcision versus genital cosmetic surgery" (PDF). Acta Obstetricia et Gynecologica Scandinavica. 83 (7): 611–613. doi:10.1111/j.0001-6349.2004.00590.x. ISSN 0001-6349. PMID 15225183. S2CID 44583626. Archived from the original (PDF) on 14 April 2013.
Nussbaum 1999, 123–124. Nussbaum, Martha (1999). Sex and Social Justice. New York and Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-535501-7. Archived from the original on 25 July 2020. Retrieved 27 August 2017.
Also see Yael Tamir, "Hands Off Clitoridectomy" Archived 8 August 2014 at the Wayback Machine, Boston Review, Summer 1996; Martha Nussbaum, "Double Moral Standards?" Archived 8 August 2014 at the Wayback Machine, Boston Review, October/November 1996.
Nancy Ehrenreich, Mark Barr, [1]Archived 17 May 2017 at the Wayback Machine "Intersex Surgery, Female Genital Cutting, and the Selective Condemnation of 'Cultural Practices'", Harvard Civil Rights-Civil Liberties Law Review, 40(1), 2005 (71–140), 74–75.

Gregorio, I. W. (26 April 2017). "Should Surgeons Perform Irreversible Genital Surgery on Children?". Newsweek. Archived from the original on 6 August 2020. Retrieved 9 April 2018.

who.int

"Female genital mutilation". www.who.int. Archived from the original on 29 January 2021. Retrieved 29 April 2021.
"New study shows female genital mutilation exposes women and babies to significant risk at childbirth" Archived 2 May 2019 at the Wayback Machine, World Health Organization, 2 June 2006.

wikipedia.org

en.wikipedia.org

Some states in Sudan banned FGM in 2008–2009, but as of 2013^[update], there was no national legislation.^[196] The prevalence of FGM among women aged 14–49 was 89 percent in 2014.^[197]

worldcat.org

search.worldcat.org

A diagram in WHO 2016, copied from Abdulcadir et al. 2016, refers to Type 1a as circumcision.^[39] Abdulcadir, Jasmine; Catania, Lucrezia; Hindin, Michelle Jane; Say, Lale; Petignat, Patrick; Abdulcadir, Omar (November 2016). "Female Genital Mutilation: A Visual Reference and Learning Tool for Health Care Professionals". Obstetrics & Gynecology. 128 (5): 958–963. doi:10.1097/AOG.0000000000001686. ISSN 1873-233X. PMID 27741194. S2CID 46830711.
Abdulcadir et al. 2011. Abdulcadir, Jasmine; Margairaz, Christiane; Boulvain, Michel; Irion, Olivier (6 January 2011). "Care of women with female genital mutilation/cutting". Swiss Medical Weekly. 140: w13137. doi:10.4414/smw.2011.13137. ISSN 1424-3997. PMID 21213149.
UNICEF 2013, 15; Toubia & Sharief 2003. Toubia, Nadia F.; Sharief, E. H. (September 2003). "Female genital mutilation: have we made progress?". International Journal of Gynaecology and Obstetrics. 82 (3): 251–261. doi:10.1016/S0020-7292(03)00229-7. ISSN 0020-7292. PMID 14499972. S2CID 39607405.
UN 2010; Askew et al. 2016. Askew, Ian; Chaiban, Ted; Kalasa, Benoit; Sen, Purna (1 September 2016). "A repeat call for complete abandonment of FGM". Journal of Medical Ethics. 42 (9): 619–620. doi:10.1136/medethics-2016-103553. ISSN 0306-6800. PMC 5013096. PMID 27059789.
Kimeu, Caroline (8 March 2024). "Dramatic rise in women and girls being cut, new FGM data reveals". The Guardian. ISSN 0261-3077. Retrieved 12 March 2024. Many African countries have experienced a steady decline in the practice over the past few decades, but overall progress has stalled or been reversed.
Kelly & Hillard 2005, 491. Kelly, Elizabeth; Hillard, Paula J. Adams (October 2005). "Female genital mutilation". Current Opinion in Obstetrics and Gynecology. 17 (5): 490–494. doi:10.1097/01.gco.0000183528.18728.57. ISSN 1040-872X. PMID 16141763. S2CID 7706452.
Yoder, Wang & Johansen 2013, 190. Yoder, P. Stanley; Wang, Shanxiao; Johansen, Elise (June 2013). "Estimates of female genital mutilation/cutting in 27 African countries and Yemen". Studies in Family Planning. 44 (2): 189–204. doi:10.1111/j.1728-4465.2013.00352.x. ISSN 0039-3665. PMID 23720002.
Jackson et al. 2003. Jackson, Elizabeth F.; Akweongo, Patricia; Sakeah, Evelyn; Hodgson, Abraham; Asuru, Rofina; Phillips, James F. (September 2003). "Inconsistent reporting of female genital cutting status in northern Ghana: explanatory factors and analytical consequences". Studies in Family Planning. 34 (3): 200–210. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.233.6248. doi:10.1111/j.1728-4465.2003.00200.x. ISSN 0039-3665. PMID 14558322.
Klouman, Manongi & Klepp 2005. Klouman, Elise; Manongi, Rachel; Klepp, Knut-Inge (January 2005). "Self-reported and observed female genital cutting in rural Tanzania: associated demographic factors, HIV and sexually transmitted infections". Tropical Medicine & International Health. 10 (1): 105–115. doi:10.1111/j.1365-3156.2004.01350.x. ISSN 1360-2276. PMID 15655020. S2CID 12050442.
Elmusharaf, Elhadi & Almroth 2006. Elmusharaf, Susan; Elhadi, Nagla; Almroth, Lars (15 July 2006). "Reliability of self reported form of female genital mutilation and WHO classification: cross sectional study". BMJ (Clinical Research Ed.). 333 (7559): 124. doi:10.1136/bmj.38873.649074.55. ISSN 1756-1833. PMC 1502195. PMID 16803943.
Yoder, Wang & Johansen 2013, 189; UNICEF 2013, 47. Yoder, P. Stanley; Wang, Shanxiao; Johansen, Elise (June 2013). "Estimates of female genital mutilation/cutting in 27 African countries and Yemen". Studies in Family Planning. 44 (2): 189–204. doi:10.1111/j.1728-4465.2013.00352.x. ISSN 0039-3665. PMID 23720002.
WHO 2008, 4, 23–28; Abdulcadir et al. 2016. Abdulcadir, Jasmine; Catania, Lucrezia; Hindin, Michelle Jane; Say, Lale; Petignat, Patrick; Abdulcadir, Omar (November 2016). "Female Genital Mutilation: A Visual Reference and Learning Tool for Health Care Professionals". Obstetrics & Gynecology. 128 (5): 958–963. doi:10.1097/AOG.0000000000001686. ISSN 1873-233X. PMID 27741194. S2CID 46830711.
WHO 2008, 25. Also see Toubia 1994 and Horowitz, Jackson & Teklemariam 1995. Toubia, Nadia (15 September 1994). "Female Circumcision as a Public Health Issue". The New England Journal of Medicine. 331 (11): 712–716. doi:10.1056/NEJM199409153311106. ISSN 0028-4793. PMID 8058079. Horowitz, Carol R.; Jackson, J. Carey; Teklemariam, Mamae (19 January 1995). "Female Circumcision". New England Journal of Medicine. 332 (3): 188–190. doi:10.1056/nejm199501193320313. ISSN 0028-4793. PMID 7695718.
Berg et al. 2014. Berg, Rigmor C.; Underland, Vigdis; Odgaard-Jensen, Jan; Fretheim, Atle; Vist, Gunn E. (21 November 2014). "Effects of female genital cutting on physical health outcomes: a systematic review and meta-analysis". BMJ Open. 4 (11): e006316. doi:10.1136/bmjopen-2014-006316. ISSN 2044-6055. PMC 4244458. PMID 25416059.
Reisel & Creighton 2015, 49. Reisel, Dan; Creighton, Sarah M. (January 2015). "Long term health consequences of Female Genital Mutilation (FGM)". Maturitas. 80 (1): 48–51. doi:10.1016/j.maturitas.2014.10.009. ISSN 1873-4111. PMID 25466303. S2CID 40413987.
Berg & Underland 2014, 2. Berg, Rigmor C.; Underland, Vigdis (27 March 2014). Immediate health consequences of female genital mutilation/cutting (FGM/C) (PDF). Oslo: Norwegian Knowledge Centre for the Health Services (Kunnskapssenteret). pp. 837–859. ISBN 978-82-8121-856-7. ISSN 1890-1298. PMID 29320014. Archived (PDF) from the original on 28 August 2021. Retrieved 11 April 2018.
Reisel & Creighton 2015, 49; Iavazzo, Sardi & Gkegkes 2013; Abdulcadir et al. 2011. Reisel, Dan; Creighton, Sarah M. (January 2015). "Long term health consequences of Female Genital Mutilation (FGM)". Maturitas. 80 (1): 48–51. doi:10.1016/j.maturitas.2014.10.009. ISSN 1873-4111. PMID 25466303. S2CID 40413987. Iavazzo, Christos; Sardi, Thalia A.; Gkegkes, Ioannis D. (June 2013). "Female genital mutilation and infections: a systematic review of the clinical evidence". Archives of Gynecology and Obstetrics. 287 (6): 1137–1149. doi:10.1007/s00404-012-2708-5. ISSN 1432-0711. PMID 23315098. S2CID 11973412. Abdulcadir, Jasmine; Margairaz, Christiane; Boulvain, Michel; Irion, Olivier (6 January 2011). "Care of women with female genital mutilation/cutting". Swiss Medical Weekly. 140: w13137. doi:10.4414/smw.2011.13137. ISSN 1424-3997. PMID 21213149.
Reisel & Creighton 2015, 50. Reisel, Dan; Creighton, Sarah M. (January 2015). "Long term health consequences of Female Genital Mutilation (FGM)". Maturitas. 80 (1): 48–51. doi:10.1016/j.maturitas.2014.10.009. ISSN 1873-4111. PMID 25466303. S2CID 40413987.
Kelly & Hillard 2005, 491–492. Kelly, Elizabeth; Hillard, Paula J. Adams (October 2005). "Female genital mutilation". Current Opinion in Obstetrics and Gynecology. 17 (5): 490–494. doi:10.1097/01.gco.0000183528.18728.57. ISSN 1040-872X. PMID 16141763. S2CID 7706452.
Dave, Sethi & Morrone 2011. Dave, Amish J.; Sethi, Aisha; Morrone, Aldo (January 2011). "Female genital mutilation: what every American dermatologist needs to know". Dermatologic Clinics. 29 (1): 103–109. doi:10.1016/j.det.2010.09.002. ISSN 1558-0520. PMID 21095534.
Banks et al. 2006. Banks, Emily; Meirik, Olav; Farley, Tim; Akande, Oluwole; Bathija, Heli; Ali, Mohamed; WHO study group on female genital mutilation and obstetric outcome (3 June 2006). "Female genital mutilation and obstetric outcome: WHO collaborative prospective study in six African countries". Lancet. 367 (9525): 1835–1841. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(06)68805-3. ISSN 1474-547X. PMID 16753486. S2CID 1077505.
Berg & Denison 2013; Reisel & Creighton 2015, 51; Sibiani & Rouzi 2008 Berg, Rigmor C.; Denison, Eva (October 2013). "A tradition in transition: factors perpetuating and hindering the continuance of female genital mutilation/cutting (FGM/C) summarized in a systematic review". Health Care for Women International. 34 (10): 837–859. doi:10.1080/07399332.2012.721417. ISSN 1096-4665. PMC 3783896. PMID 23489149. Reisel, Dan; Creighton, Sarah M. (January 2015). "Long term health consequences of Female Genital Mutilation (FGM)". Maturitas. 80 (1): 48–51. doi:10.1016/j.maturitas.2014.10.009. ISSN 1873-4111. PMID 25466303. S2CID 40413987. Sibiani, Sharifa A.; Rouzi, Abdulrahim A. (September 2008). "Sexual function in women with female genital mutilation". Fertility and Sterility. 93 (3): 722–724. doi:10.1016/j.fertnstert.2008.10.035. ISSN 1556-5653. PMID 19028385. Archived from the original on 28 August 2021. Retrieved 28 October 2014.
Yoder, Wang & Johansen 2013, 193. Yoder, P. Stanley; Wang, Shanxiao; Johansen, Elise (June 2013). "Estimates of female genital mutilation/cutting in 27 African countries and Yemen". Studies in Family Planning. 44 (2): 189–204. doi:10.1111/j.1728-4465.2013.00352.x. ISSN 0039-3665. PMID 23720002.
Yoder, Wang & Johansen 2013. Yoder, P. Stanley; Wang, Shanxiao; Johansen, Elise (June 2013). "Estimates of female genital mutilation/cutting in 27 African countries and Yemen". Studies in Family Planning. 44 (2): 189–204. doi:10.1111/j.1728-4465.2013.00352.x. ISSN 0039-3665. PMID 23720002.
UNICEF 2013, 47, table 5.2; Yoder, Wang & Johansen 2013, 189. Yoder, P. Stanley; Wang, Shanxiao; Johansen, Elise (June 2013). "Estimates of female genital mutilation/cutting in 27 African countries and Yemen". Studies in Family Planning. 44 (2): 189–204. doi:10.1111/j.1728-4465.2013.00352.x. ISSN 0039-3665. PMID 23720002.
Rasheed, Abd-Ellah & Yousef 2011. Rasheed, Salah M.; Abd-Ellah, Ahmed H.; Yousef, Fouad M. (July 2011). "Female genital mutilation in Upper Egypt in the new millennium". International Journal of Gynaecology and Obstetrics. 114 (1): 47–50. doi:10.1016/j.ijgo.2011.02.003. ISSN 1879-3479. PMID 21513937. S2CID 28600501.
Okeke, Anyaehie & Ezenyeaku 2012, 70–73. Okeke, T. C.; Anyaehie, Usb; Ezenyeaku, C. C. K. (January 2012). "An overview of female genital mutilation in Nigeria". Annals of Medical and Health Sciences Research. 2 (1): 70–73. doi:10.4103/2141-9248.96942. ISSN 2141-9248. PMC 3507121. PMID 23209995.
Milaat, Waleed Abdullah; Ibrahim, Nahla Khamis; Albar, Hussain Mohammed (1 March 2018). "Reproductive health profile and circumcision of females in the Hali semi-urban region, Saudi Arabia: A community-based cross-sectional survey". Annals of Saudi Medicine. 38 (2): 81–89. doi:10.5144/0256-4947.2018.81. ISSN 0256-4947. PMC 6074365. PMID 29620540.
Rouzi, Abdulrahim A; Berg, Rigmor C; Alamoudi, Rana; Alzaban, Faten; Sehlo, Mohammad (1 June 2019). "Survey on female genital mutilation/cutting in Jeddah, Saudi Arabia". BMJ Open. 9 (5): e024684. doi:10.1136/bmjopen-2018-024684. ISSN 2044-6055. PMC 6549616. PMID 31154295.
UNICEF 2013, 25, 100; Yoder, Wang & Johansen 2013, 196. Yoder, P. Stanley; Wang, Shanxiao; Johansen, Elise (June 2013). "Estimates of female genital mutilation/cutting in 27 African countries and Yemen". Studies in Family Planning. 44 (2): 189–204. doi:10.1111/j.1728-4465.2013.00352.x. ISSN 0039-3665. PMID 23720002.
Yoder, Wang & Johansen 2013, 194; UNICEF 2013, 25. Yoder, P. Stanley; Wang, Shanxiao; Johansen, Elise (June 2013). "Estimates of female genital mutilation/cutting in 27 African countries and Yemen". Studies in Family Planning. 44 (2): 189–204. doi:10.1111/j.1728-4465.2013.00352.x. ISSN 0039-3665. PMID 23720002.
UNICEF 2013 Archived 5 April 2015 at the Wayback Machine. For eight percent in Iraq, 27, box 4.4, group 5; for the regions in Iraq, 31, map 4.6). Also see Yasin et al. 2013. Yasin, Berivan A.; Al-Tawil, Namir G.; Shabila, Nazar P.; Al-Hadithi, Tariq S. (8 September 2013). "Female genital mutilation among Iraqi Kurdish women: A cross-sectional study from Erbil city". BMC Public Health. 13: 809. doi:10.1186/1471-2458-13-809. ISSN 1471-2458. PMC 3844478. PMID 24010850.
Yoder, Wang & Johansen 2013, 196, 198. Yoder, P. Stanley; Wang, Shanxiao; Johansen, Elise (June 2013). "Estimates of female genital mutilation/cutting in 27 African countries and Yemen". Studies in Family Planning. 44 (2): 189–204. doi:10.1111/j.1728-4465.2013.00352.x. ISSN 0039-3665. PMID 23720002.
Chad: UNICEF 2013, 35–36; Nigeria: Okeke, Anyaehie & Ezenyeaku 2012, 70–73. FGM is practised in Nigeria by the Yoruba, Hausa, Ibo, Ijaw, and Kanuri people. Okeke, T. C.; Anyaehie, Usb; Ezenyeaku, C. C. K. (January 2012). "An overview of female genital mutilation in Nigeria". Annals of Medical and Health Sciences Research. 2 (1): 70–73. doi:10.4103/2141-9248.96942. ISSN 2141-9248. PMC 3507121. PMID 23209995.
El Dareer 1983, 140. El Dareer, A. (June 1983). "Attitudes of Sudanese people to the practice of female circumcision". International Journal of Epidemiology. 12 (2): 138–144. doi:10.1093/ije/12.2.138. ISSN 0300-5771. PMID 6874206.
Nanda, Anjani; Ramani, Vandanee (31 May 2022). "The Prevalence of Female Genital Mutilation in India". Journal of Student Research. 11 (2). doi:10.47611/jsrhs.v11i2.3285. ISSN 2167-1907.
Cantera, Angel L. Martínez (6 March 2018). "'I was crying with unbearable pain': study reveals extent of FGM in India". The Guardian. ISSN 0261-3077. Archived from the original on 8 December 2023. Retrieved 1 December 2023.
Knight 2001, 330. Knight, Mary (June 2001). "Curing cut or ritual mutilation? Some remarks on the practice of female and male circumcision in Graeco-Roman Egypt". Isis. 92 (2): 317–338. doi:10.1086/385184. ISSN 0021-1753. JSTOR 3080631. PMID 11590895. S2CID 38351439.
O'Rourke 2007, 166ff (hieroglyphs), 172 (menstruating woman). O'Rourke, Paul F. (1 February 2007). "The 'm't-Woman". Zeitschrift für Ägyptische Sprache und Altertumskunde. 134 (2): 166–172. doi:10.1524/zaes.2007.134.2.166. ISSN 2196-713X. S2CID 141166451. Archived from the original on 2 May 2019. Retrieved 15 October 2017.
Knight 2001, 329–330; Kenyon 1893. Knight, Mary (June 2001). "Curing cut or ritual mutilation? Some remarks on the practice of female and male circumcision in Graeco-Roman Egypt". Isis. 92 (2): 317–338. doi:10.1086/385184. ISSN 0021-1753. JSTOR 3080631. PMID 11590895. S2CID 38351439. Kenyon, F. G. (1893). Greek Papyri in the British Museum. London: British Museum. ISBN 978-0-7141-0486-7.
Knight 2001, 331. Knight, Mary (June 2001). "Curing cut or ritual mutilation? Some remarks on the practice of female and male circumcision in Graeco-Roman Egypt". Isis. 92 (2): 317–338. doi:10.1086/385184. ISSN 0021-1753. JSTOR 3080631. PMID 11590895. S2CID 38351439.
Strabo, Geographica, c. 25 BCE, cited in Knight 2001, 318 Knight, Mary (June 2001). "Curing cut or ritual mutilation? Some remarks on the practice of female and male circumcision in Graeco-Roman Egypt". Isis. 92 (2): 317–338. doi:10.1086/385184. ISSN 0021-1753. JSTOR 3080631. PMID 11590895. S2CID 38351439.
Knight 2001, 326. Knight, Mary (June 2001). "Curing cut or ritual mutilation? Some remarks on the practice of female and male circumcision in Graeco-Roman Egypt". Isis. 92 (2): 317–338. doi:10.1086/385184. ISSN 0021-1753. JSTOR 3080631. PMID 11590895. S2CID 38351439.
Knight 2001, 333. Knight, Mary (June 2001). "Curing cut or ritual mutilation? Some remarks on the practice of female and male circumcision in Graeco-Roman Egypt". Isis. 92 (2): 317–338. doi:10.1086/385184. ISSN 0021-1753. JSTOR 3080631. PMID 11590895. S2CID 38351439.
Knight 2001, 336. Knight, Mary (June 2001). "Curing cut or ritual mutilation? Some remarks on the practice of female and male circumcision in Graeco-Roman Egypt". Isis. 92 (2): 317–338. doi:10.1086/385184. ISSN 0021-1753. JSTOR 3080631. PMID 11590895. S2CID 38351439.
Knight 2001, 327–328. Knight, Mary (June 2001). "Curing cut or ritual mutilation? Some remarks on the practice of female and male circumcision in Graeco-Roman Egypt". Isis. 92 (2): 317–338. doi:10.1086/385184. ISSN 0021-1753. JSTOR 3080631. PMID 11590895. S2CID 38351439.
Knight 2001, 328. Knight, Mary (June 2001). "Curing cut or ritual mutilation? Some remarks on the practice of female and male circumcision in Graeco-Roman Egypt". Isis. 92 (2): 317–338. doi:10.1086/385184. ISSN 0021-1753. JSTOR 3080631. PMID 11590895. S2CID 38351439.
Rodriguez 2008. Rodriguez, Sarah (July 2008). "Rethinking the history of female circumcision and clitoridectomy: American medicine and female sexuality in the late nineteenth century". Journal of the History of Medicine and Allied Sciences. 63 (3): 323–347. doi:10.1093/jhmas/jrm044. ISSN 1468-4373. PMID 18065832. S2CID 9234753.
Elchalal et al. 1997; Shorter 2008, 82. Elchalal, Uriel; Ben-Ami, B.; Gillis, R.; Brzezinski, A. (October 1997). "Ritualistic female genital mutilation: current status and future outlook". Obstetrical & Gynecological Survey. 52 (10): 643–651. doi:10.1097/00006254-199710000-00022. ISSN 0029-7828. PMID 9326757. Shorter, Edward (2008). From Paralysis to Fatigue: A History of Psychosomatic Illness in the Modern Era. New York: Simon and Schuster.
Elchalal et al. 1997. Elchalal, Uriel; Ben-Ami, B.; Gillis, R.; Brzezinski, A. (October 1997). "Ritualistic female genital mutilation: current status and future outlook". Obstetrical & Gynecological Survey. 52 (10): 643–651. doi:10.1097/00006254-199710000-00022. ISSN 0029-7828. PMID 9326757.
Sheehan 1981, 14; Black 1997, 405. Sheehan, E. (August 1981). "Victorian clitoridectomy: Isaac Baker Brown and his harmless operative procedure". Medical Anthropology Newsletter. 12 (4): 9–15. doi:10.1525/maq.1981.12.4.02a00120. ISSN 0543-2499. JSTOR 647794. PMID 12263443. Black, John (July 1997). "Female genital mutilation: a contemporary issue, and a Victorian obsession". Journal of the Royal Society of Medicine. 90 (7): 402–405. doi:10.1177/014107689709000712. ISSN 0141-0768. PMC 1296388. PMID 9290425.
Cutner 1985, cited in Nour 2008. Also see Barker-Benfield 1999, 113. Cutner, Lawrence P. (July 1985). "Female genital mutilation". Obstetrical & Gynecological Survey. 40 (7): 437–443. doi:10.1097/00006254-198507000-00004. ISSN 0029-7828. PMID 4022475. S2CID 22472191. Nour, Nawal M. (2008). "Female Genital Cutting: A Persisting Practice". Reviews in Obstetrics and Gynecology. 1 (3): 135–139. PMC 2582648. PMID 19015765. Barker-Benfield, G. J. (1999). The Horrors of the Half-Known Life: Male Attitudes Toward Women and Sexuality in Nineteenth-Century America. New York: Routledge.
Jones et al. 1997, 372. Jones, Wanda K.; Smith, J.; Kieke, B.; Wilcox, L. (September 1997). "Female genital mutilation/Female circumcision. Who is at risk in the U.S.?". Public Health Reports. 112 (5): 368–377. ISSN 0033-3549. PMC 1381943. PMID 9323387.
Yoder, Wang & Johansen 2013, 195. Yoder, P. Stanley; Wang, Shanxiao; Johansen, Elise (June 2013). "Estimates of female genital mutilation/cutting in 27 African countries and Yemen". Studies in Family Planning. 44 (2): 189–204. doi:10.1111/j.1728-4465.2013.00352.x. ISSN 0039-3665. PMID 23720002.
Gallard 1995, 1592. Gallard, Colette (17 June 1995). "Female genital mutilation in France". BMJ (Clinical Research Ed.). 310 (6994): 1592–1593. doi:10.1136/bmj.310.6994.1592. ISSN 0959-8138. PMC 2549952. PMID 7787655.
Alison Macfarlane and Efua Dorkenoo, "Female Genital Mutilation in England and Wales" Archived 15 August 2015 at the Wayback Machine, City University of London and Equality Now, 21 July 2014, 3.
"Country Report: United Kingdom" Archived 19 March 2017 at the Wayback Machine, Study to map the current situation and trends of FGM: Country reports, European Institute for Gender Equality, Luxembourg: Publications Office of the European Union, 2013, 487–532.

For an early article on FGM in the UK, see Black & Debelle 1995
Black, J. A.; Debelle, G. D. (17 June 1995). "Female genital mutilation in Britain". BMJ. 310 (6994): 1590–1592. doi:10.1136/bmj.310.6994.1590. ISSN 0959-8138. PMC 2549951. PMID 7787654.
Johnsdotter & Essén 2010, 32; Berer 2007, 1335. Johnsdotter, Sara; Essén, Birgitta (May 2010). "Genitals and ethnicity: the politics of genital modifications" (PDF). Reproductive Health Matters. 18 (35): 29–37. doi:10.1016/S0968-8080(10)35495-4. ISSN 1460-9576. PMID 20541081. S2CID 2261601. Archived from the original (PDF) on 21 September 2013. Berer, Marge (30 June 2007). "Cosmetic genitoplasty: It's female genital mutilation and should be prosecuted". BMJ. 334 (7608): 1335.2–1335. doi:10.1136/bmj.39252.646042.3A. ISSN 1756-1833. PMC 1906631. PMID 17599983.
Conroy 2006. Conroy, Ronán M (15 July 2006). "Female genital mutilation: whose problem, whose solution?". BMJ. 333 (7559): 106–107. doi:10.1136/bmj.333.7559.106. ISSN 0959-8138. PMC 1502236. PMID 16840444.
Johnsdotter & Essén 2010, 33; Essén & Johnsdotter 2004, 32. Johnsdotter, Sara; Essén, Birgitta (May 2010). "Genitals and ethnicity: the politics of genital modifications" (PDF). Reproductive Health Matters. 18 (35): 29–37. doi:10.1016/S0968-8080(10)35495-4. ISSN 1460-9576. PMID 20541081. S2CID 2261601. Archived from the original (PDF) on 21 September 2013. Essén, Birgitta; Johnsdotter, Sara (July 2004). "Female genital mutilation in the West: traditional circumcision versus genital cosmetic surgery" (PDF). Acta Obstetricia et Gynecologica Scandinavica. 83 (7): 611–613. doi:10.1111/j.0001-6349.2004.00590.x. ISSN 0001-6349. PMID 15225183. S2CID 44583626. Archived from the original (PDF) on 14 April 2013.