Absolute zero's relationship to zero-point energy While scientists are achieving temperatures ever closer to صفر مطلق, they can not fully achieve a state of zero temperature. However, even if scientists could remove all kinetic thermal energy from matter, ميكانيكا الكمطاقة النقطة-صفر (ZPE) causes particle motion that can never be eliminated. Encyclopædia Britannica Online defines zero-point energy as the "vibrational energy that molecules retain even at the absolute zero of temperature". ZPE is the result of all-pervasive energy fields in the vacuum between the fundamental particles of nature; it is responsible for the تأثير كازيمير and other phenomena. See Zero Point Energy and Zero Point Field. See also Solid Heliumنسخة محفوظة 2008-05-31 في Wayback Machine by the University of Alberta's Department of Physics to learn more about ZPE's effect on تكاثف بوز-أينشتاينs of helium.
Although absolute zero (T=0) is not a state of zero molecular motion, it is the point of zero temperature and, in accordance with the Boltzmann constant, is also the point of zero particle kinetic energy and zero kinetic velocity. To understand how atoms can have zero kinetic velocity and simultaneously be vibrating due to ZPE, consider the following thought experiment: two T=0 helium atoms in zero gravity are carefully positioned and observed to have an average separation of 620 pm between them (a gap of ten atomic diameters). It's an "average" separation because ZPE causes them to jostle about their fixed positions. Then one atom is given a kinetic kick of precisely 83 yoctokelvins (1 yK = 1×10−24 K). This is done in a way that directs this atom's velocity vector at the other atom. With 83 yK of kinetic energy between them, the 620 pm gap through their common مرجح would close at a rate of 719 pm/s and they would collide after 0.862 second. This is the same speed as shown in the Fig. 1animation above. Before being given the kinetic kick, both T=0 atoms had zero kinetic energy and zero kinetic velocity because they could persist indefinitely in that state and relative orientation even though both were being jostled by ZPE. At T=0, no kinetic energy is available for transfer to other systems. The Boltzmann constant and its related formulas describe the realm of particle kinetics and velocity vectors whereas ZPE is an energy field that jostles particles in ways described by the mathematics of quantum mechanics. In atomic and molecular collisions in gases, ZPE introduces a degree of نظرية فوضى الكون, i.e., unpredictability, to rebound kinetics; it is as likely that there will be less ZPE-induced particle motion after a given collision as more. This random nature of ZPE is why it has no net effect upon either the pressure or volume of any bulk quantity (a statistically significant quantity of particles) of T>0 K gases. However, in T=0 فيزياء المواد المكثفة; e.g., solids and liquids, ZPE causes inter-atomic jostling where atoms would otherwise be perfectly stationary. Inasmuch as the real-world effects that ZPE has on substances can vary as one alters a thermodynamic system (for example, due to ZPE, helium won't freeze unless under a pressure of at least 25 bar or 2.5 MPa), ZPE is very much a form of thermal energy and may properly be included when tallying a substance's internal energy.
Note too that absolute zero serves as the baseline atop which ديناميكا حرارية and its معادلات دينامية حرارية are founded because they deal with the exchange of thermal energy between "systems" (a plurality of particles and fields modeled as an average). Accordingly, one may examine ZPE-induced particle motion within a system that is at absolute zero but there can never be a net outflow of thermal energy from such a system. Also, the peak emittance wavelength of black-body radiation shifts to infinity at absolute zero; indeed, a peak no longer exists and black-body photons can no longer escape. Because of ZPE, however, virtual photons are still emitted at T=0. Such photons are called "virtual" because they can't be intercepted and observed. Furthermore, this zero-point radiation has a unique zero-point spectrum. However, even though a T=0 system emits zero-point radiation, no net heat flow Q out of such a system can occur because if the surrounding environment is at a temperature greater than T=0, heat will flow inward, and if the surrounding environment is at T=0, there will be an equal flux of ZP radiation both inward and outward. A similar Q equilibrium exists at T=0 with the ZPE-induced انبعاث تلقائي of photons (which is more properly called a stimulated emission in this context). The graph at upper right illustrates the relationship of absolute zero to zero-point energy. The graph also helps in the understanding of how zero-point energy got its name: it is the vibrational energy matter retains at the zero-kelvin point. Derivation of the classical electromagnetic zero-point radiation spectrum via a classical thermodynamic operation involving van der Waals forces, Daniel C. Cole, Physical Review A, 42 (1990) 1847. نسخة محفوظة 2017-09-16 في Wayback Machine[وصلة مكسورة]
Based on a computer model that predicted a peak internal temperature of 30 MeV (350 GK) during the merger of a binary neutron star system (which produces a gamma–ray burst). The neutron stars in the model were 1.2 and 1.6 solar masses respectively, were roughly 20 km in diameter, and were orbiting around their barycenter (common center of mass) at about 390 Hz during the last several milliseconds before they completely merged. The 350 GK portion was a small volume located at the pair's developing common core and varied from roughly 1 to 7 km across over a time span of around 5 ms. Imagine two city-sized objects of unimaginable density orbiting each other at the same frequency as the G4 musical note (the 28th white key on a piano). It's also noteworthy that at 350 GK, the average neutron has a vibrational speed of 30% the speed of light and a relativistic mass (m) 5% greater than its rest mass (m0). Torus Formation in Neutron Star Mergers and Well-Localized Short Gamma-Ray Bursts, R. Oechslin et al. of Max Planck Institute for Astrophysics., arXiv:astro-ph/0507099 v2, 22 Feb. 2006. An html summary. نسخة محفوظة 2018-01-10 في Wayback Machine
Absolute zero's relationship to zero-point energy While scientists are achieving temperatures ever closer to صفر مطلق, they can not fully achieve a state of zero temperature. However, even if scientists could remove all kinetic thermal energy from matter, ميكانيكا الكمطاقة النقطة-صفر (ZPE) causes particle motion that can never be eliminated. Encyclopædia Britannica Online defines zero-point energy as the "vibrational energy that molecules retain even at the absolute zero of temperature". ZPE is the result of all-pervasive energy fields in the vacuum between the fundamental particles of nature; it is responsible for the تأثير كازيمير and other phenomena. See Zero Point Energy and Zero Point Field. See also Solid Heliumنسخة محفوظة 2008-05-31 في Wayback Machine by the University of Alberta's Department of Physics to learn more about ZPE's effect on تكاثف بوز-أينشتاينs of helium.
Although absolute zero (T=0) is not a state of zero molecular motion, it is the point of zero temperature and, in accordance with the Boltzmann constant, is also the point of zero particle kinetic energy and zero kinetic velocity. To understand how atoms can have zero kinetic velocity and simultaneously be vibrating due to ZPE, consider the following thought experiment: two T=0 helium atoms in zero gravity are carefully positioned and observed to have an average separation of 620 pm between them (a gap of ten atomic diameters). It's an "average" separation because ZPE causes them to jostle about their fixed positions. Then one atom is given a kinetic kick of precisely 83 yoctokelvins (1 yK = 1×10−24 K). This is done in a way that directs this atom's velocity vector at the other atom. With 83 yK of kinetic energy between them, the 620 pm gap through their common مرجح would close at a rate of 719 pm/s and they would collide after 0.862 second. This is the same speed as shown in the Fig. 1animation above. Before being given the kinetic kick, both T=0 atoms had zero kinetic energy and zero kinetic velocity because they could persist indefinitely in that state and relative orientation even though both were being jostled by ZPE. At T=0, no kinetic energy is available for transfer to other systems. The Boltzmann constant and its related formulas describe the realm of particle kinetics and velocity vectors whereas ZPE is an energy field that jostles particles in ways described by the mathematics of quantum mechanics. In atomic and molecular collisions in gases, ZPE introduces a degree of نظرية فوضى الكون, i.e., unpredictability, to rebound kinetics; it is as likely that there will be less ZPE-induced particle motion after a given collision as more. This random nature of ZPE is why it has no net effect upon either the pressure or volume of any bulk quantity (a statistically significant quantity of particles) of T>0 K gases. However, in T=0 فيزياء المواد المكثفة; e.g., solids and liquids, ZPE causes inter-atomic jostling where atoms would otherwise be perfectly stationary. Inasmuch as the real-world effects that ZPE has on substances can vary as one alters a thermodynamic system (for example, due to ZPE, helium won't freeze unless under a pressure of at least 25 bar or 2.5 MPa), ZPE is very much a form of thermal energy and may properly be included when tallying a substance's internal energy.
Note too that absolute zero serves as the baseline atop which ديناميكا حرارية and its معادلات دينامية حرارية are founded because they deal with the exchange of thermal energy between "systems" (a plurality of particles and fields modeled as an average). Accordingly, one may examine ZPE-induced particle motion within a system that is at absolute zero but there can never be a net outflow of thermal energy from such a system. Also, the peak emittance wavelength of black-body radiation shifts to infinity at absolute zero; indeed, a peak no longer exists and black-body photons can no longer escape. Because of ZPE, however, virtual photons are still emitted at T=0. Such photons are called "virtual" because they can't be intercepted and observed. Furthermore, this zero-point radiation has a unique zero-point spectrum. However, even though a T=0 system emits zero-point radiation, no net heat flow Q out of such a system can occur because if the surrounding environment is at a temperature greater than T=0, heat will flow inward, and if the surrounding environment is at T=0, there will be an equal flux of ZP radiation both inward and outward. A similar Q equilibrium exists at T=0 with the ZPE-induced انبعاث تلقائي of photons (which is more properly called a stimulated emission in this context). The graph at upper right illustrates the relationship of absolute zero to zero-point energy. The graph also helps in the understanding of how zero-point energy got its name: it is the vibrational energy matter retains at the zero-kelvin point. Derivation of the classical electromagnetic zero-point radiation spectrum via a classical thermodynamic operation involving van der Waals forces, Daniel C. Cole, Physical Review A, 42 (1990) 1847. نسخة محفوظة 2017-09-16 في Wayback Machine[وصلة مكسورة]
calphysics.org
Absolute zero's relationship to zero-point energy While scientists are achieving temperatures ever closer to صفر مطلق, they can not fully achieve a state of zero temperature. However, even if scientists could remove all kinetic thermal energy from matter, ميكانيكا الكمطاقة النقطة-صفر (ZPE) causes particle motion that can never be eliminated. Encyclopædia Britannica Online defines zero-point energy as the "vibrational energy that molecules retain even at the absolute zero of temperature". ZPE is the result of all-pervasive energy fields in the vacuum between the fundamental particles of nature; it is responsible for the تأثير كازيمير and other phenomena. See Zero Point Energy and Zero Point Field. See also Solid Heliumنسخة محفوظة 2008-05-31 في Wayback Machine by the University of Alberta's Department of Physics to learn more about ZPE's effect on تكاثف بوز-أينشتاينs of helium.
Although absolute zero (T=0) is not a state of zero molecular motion, it is the point of zero temperature and, in accordance with the Boltzmann constant, is also the point of zero particle kinetic energy and zero kinetic velocity. To understand how atoms can have zero kinetic velocity and simultaneously be vibrating due to ZPE, consider the following thought experiment: two T=0 helium atoms in zero gravity are carefully positioned and observed to have an average separation of 620 pm between them (a gap of ten atomic diameters). It's an "average" separation because ZPE causes them to jostle about their fixed positions. Then one atom is given a kinetic kick of precisely 83 yoctokelvins (1 yK = 1×10−24 K). This is done in a way that directs this atom's velocity vector at the other atom. With 83 yK of kinetic energy between them, the 620 pm gap through their common مرجح would close at a rate of 719 pm/s and they would collide after 0.862 second. This is the same speed as shown in the Fig. 1animation above. Before being given the kinetic kick, both T=0 atoms had zero kinetic energy and zero kinetic velocity because they could persist indefinitely in that state and relative orientation even though both were being jostled by ZPE. At T=0, no kinetic energy is available for transfer to other systems. The Boltzmann constant and its related formulas describe the realm of particle kinetics and velocity vectors whereas ZPE is an energy field that jostles particles in ways described by the mathematics of quantum mechanics. In atomic and molecular collisions in gases, ZPE introduces a degree of نظرية فوضى الكون, i.e., unpredictability, to rebound kinetics; it is as likely that there will be less ZPE-induced particle motion after a given collision as more. This random nature of ZPE is why it has no net effect upon either the pressure or volume of any bulk quantity (a statistically significant quantity of particles) of T>0 K gases. However, in T=0 فيزياء المواد المكثفة; e.g., solids and liquids, ZPE causes inter-atomic jostling where atoms would otherwise be perfectly stationary. Inasmuch as the real-world effects that ZPE has on substances can vary as one alters a thermodynamic system (for example, due to ZPE, helium won't freeze unless under a pressure of at least 25 bar or 2.5 MPa), ZPE is very much a form of thermal energy and may properly be included when tallying a substance's internal energy.
Note too that absolute zero serves as the baseline atop which ديناميكا حرارية and its معادلات دينامية حرارية are founded because they deal with the exchange of thermal energy between "systems" (a plurality of particles and fields modeled as an average). Accordingly, one may examine ZPE-induced particle motion within a system that is at absolute zero but there can never be a net outflow of thermal energy from such a system. Also, the peak emittance wavelength of black-body radiation shifts to infinity at absolute zero; indeed, a peak no longer exists and black-body photons can no longer escape. Because of ZPE, however, virtual photons are still emitted at T=0. Such photons are called "virtual" because they can't be intercepted and observed. Furthermore, this zero-point radiation has a unique zero-point spectrum. However, even though a T=0 system emits zero-point radiation, no net heat flow Q out of such a system can occur because if the surrounding environment is at a temperature greater than T=0, heat will flow inward, and if the surrounding environment is at T=0, there will be an equal flux of ZP radiation both inward and outward. A similar Q equilibrium exists at T=0 with the ZPE-induced انبعاث تلقائي of photons (which is more properly called a stimulated emission in this context). The graph at upper right illustrates the relationship of absolute zero to zero-point energy. The graph also helps in the understanding of how zero-point energy got its name: it is the vibrational energy matter retains at the zero-kelvin point. Derivation of the classical electromagnetic zero-point radiation spectrum via a classical thermodynamic operation involving van der Waals forces, Daniel C. Cole, Physical Review A, 42 (1990) 1847. نسخة محفوظة 2017-09-16 في Wayback Machine[وصلة مكسورة]
Core temperature of a high–mass (>8–11 solar masses) star after it leaves the main sequence on the Hertzsprung–Russell diagram and begins the عملية ألفا (which lasts one day) of fusing silicon–28 into heavier elements in the following steps: sulfur–32 → argon–36 → calcium–40 → titanium–44 → chromium–48 → iron–52 → nickel–56. Within minutes of finishing the sequence, the star explodes as a Type II مستعر أعظم. Citation: Stellar Evolution: The Life and Death of Our Luminous Neighbors (by Arthur Holland and Mark Williams of the University of Michigan). Link to Web site. More informative links can be found hereنسخة محفوظة 2013-04-11 في Wayback Machine, and hereنسخة محفوظة 2011-08-14 في Wayback Machine, and a concise treatise on stars by NASA is here. نسخة محفوظة 2017-07-18 في Wayback Machine
helsinki.fi
theory.physics.helsinki.fi
Measurement was made in 2002 and has an uncertainty of ±3 kelvin. A 1989 measurement produced a value of 5,777.0±2.5 K. Citation: Overview of the Sunنسخة محفوظة 2008-03-07 في Wayback Machine (Chapter 1 lecture notes on Solar Physics by Division of Theoretical Physics, Dept. of Physical Sciences, University of Helsinki). "نسخة مؤرشفة". مؤرشف من الأصل في 2016-03-12. اطلع عليه بتاريخ 2018-01-26.{{استشهاد ويب}}: صيانة الاستشهاد: BOT: original URL status unknown (link)
Based on a computer model that predicted a peak internal temperature of 30 MeV (350 GK) during the merger of a binary neutron star system (which produces a gamma–ray burst). The neutron stars in the model were 1.2 and 1.6 solar masses respectively, were roughly 20 km in diameter, and were orbiting around their barycenter (common center of mass) at about 390 Hz during the last several milliseconds before they completely merged. The 350 GK portion was a small volume located at the pair's developing common core and varied from roughly 1 to 7 km across over a time span of around 5 ms. Imagine two city-sized objects of unimaginable density orbiting each other at the same frequency as the G4 musical note (the 28th white key on a piano). It's also noteworthy that at 350 GK, the average neutron has a vibrational speed of 30% the speed of light and a relativistic mass (m) 5% greater than its rest mass (m0). Torus Formation in Neutron Star Mergers and Well-Localized Short Gamma-Ray Bursts, R. Oechslin et al. of Max Planck Institute for Astrophysics., arXiv:astro-ph/0507099 v2, 22 Feb. 2006. An html summary. نسخة محفوظة 2018-01-10 في Wayback Machine
nasa.gov
Core temperature of a high–mass (>8–11 solar masses) star after it leaves the main sequence on the Hertzsprung–Russell diagram and begins the عملية ألفا (which lasts one day) of fusing silicon–28 into heavier elements in the following steps: sulfur–32 → argon–36 → calcium–40 → titanium–44 → chromium–48 → iron–52 → nickel–56. Within minutes of finishing the sequence, the star explodes as a Type II مستعر أعظم. Citation: Stellar Evolution: The Life and Death of Our Luminous Neighbors (by Arthur Holland and Mark Williams of the University of Michigan). Link to Web site. More informative links can be found hereنسخة محفوظة 2013-04-11 في Wayback Machine, and hereنسخة محفوظة 2011-08-14 في Wayback Machine, and a concise treatise on stars by NASA is here. نسخة محفوظة 2017-07-18 في Wayback Machine
nuclearweaponarchive.org
The 350 MK value is the maximum peak fusion fuel temperature in a thermonuclear weapon of the Teller–Ulam configuration (commonly known as a hydrogen bomb). Peak temperatures in Gadget-style fission bomb cores (commonly known as an atomic bomb) are in the range of 50 to 100 MK. Citation: Nuclear Weapons Frequently Asked Questions, 3.2.5 Matter At High Temperatures.Link to relevant Web page. All referenced data was compiled from publicly available sources. نسخة محفوظة 2017-05-21 في Wayback Machine
qps.org
schools.qps.org
Core temperature of a high–mass (>8–11 solar masses) star after it leaves the main sequence on the Hertzsprung–Russell diagram and begins the عملية ألفا (which lasts one day) of fusing silicon–28 into heavier elements in the following steps: sulfur–32 → argon–36 → calcium–40 → titanium–44 → chromium–48 → iron–52 → nickel–56. Within minutes of finishing the sequence, the star explodes as a Type II مستعر أعظم. Citation: Stellar Evolution: The Life and Death of Our Luminous Neighbors (by Arthur Holland and Mark Williams of the University of Michigan). Link to Web site. More informative links can be found hereنسخة محفوظة 2013-04-11 في Wayback Machine, and hereنسخة محفوظة 2011-08-14 في Wayback Machine, and a concise treatise on stars by NASA is here. نسخة محفوظة 2017-07-18 في Wayback Machine
ualberta.ca
phys.ualberta.ca
Absolute zero's relationship to zero-point energy While scientists are achieving temperatures ever closer to صفر مطلق, they can not fully achieve a state of zero temperature. However, even if scientists could remove all kinetic thermal energy from matter, ميكانيكا الكمطاقة النقطة-صفر (ZPE) causes particle motion that can never be eliminated. Encyclopædia Britannica Online defines zero-point energy as the "vibrational energy that molecules retain even at the absolute zero of temperature". ZPE is the result of all-pervasive energy fields in the vacuum between the fundamental particles of nature; it is responsible for the تأثير كازيمير and other phenomena. See Zero Point Energy and Zero Point Field. See also Solid Heliumنسخة محفوظة 2008-05-31 في Wayback Machine by the University of Alberta's Department of Physics to learn more about ZPE's effect on تكاثف بوز-أينشتاينs of helium.
Although absolute zero (T=0) is not a state of zero molecular motion, it is the point of zero temperature and, in accordance with the Boltzmann constant, is also the point of zero particle kinetic energy and zero kinetic velocity. To understand how atoms can have zero kinetic velocity and simultaneously be vibrating due to ZPE, consider the following thought experiment: two T=0 helium atoms in zero gravity are carefully positioned and observed to have an average separation of 620 pm between them (a gap of ten atomic diameters). It's an "average" separation because ZPE causes them to jostle about their fixed positions. Then one atom is given a kinetic kick of precisely 83 yoctokelvins (1 yK = 1×10−24 K). This is done in a way that directs this atom's velocity vector at the other atom. With 83 yK of kinetic energy between them, the 620 pm gap through their common مرجح would close at a rate of 719 pm/s and they would collide after 0.862 second. This is the same speed as shown in the Fig. 1animation above. Before being given the kinetic kick, both T=0 atoms had zero kinetic energy and zero kinetic velocity because they could persist indefinitely in that state and relative orientation even though both were being jostled by ZPE. At T=0, no kinetic energy is available for transfer to other systems. The Boltzmann constant and its related formulas describe the realm of particle kinetics and velocity vectors whereas ZPE is an energy field that jostles particles in ways described by the mathematics of quantum mechanics. In atomic and molecular collisions in gases, ZPE introduces a degree of نظرية فوضى الكون, i.e., unpredictability, to rebound kinetics; it is as likely that there will be less ZPE-induced particle motion after a given collision as more. This random nature of ZPE is why it has no net effect upon either the pressure or volume of any bulk quantity (a statistically significant quantity of particles) of T>0 K gases. However, in T=0 فيزياء المواد المكثفة; e.g., solids and liquids, ZPE causes inter-atomic jostling where atoms would otherwise be perfectly stationary. Inasmuch as the real-world effects that ZPE has on substances can vary as one alters a thermodynamic system (for example, due to ZPE, helium won't freeze unless under a pressure of at least 25 bar or 2.5 MPa), ZPE is very much a form of thermal energy and may properly be included when tallying a substance's internal energy.
Note too that absolute zero serves as the baseline atop which ديناميكا حرارية and its معادلات دينامية حرارية are founded because they deal with the exchange of thermal energy between "systems" (a plurality of particles and fields modeled as an average). Accordingly, one may examine ZPE-induced particle motion within a system that is at absolute zero but there can never be a net outflow of thermal energy from such a system. Also, the peak emittance wavelength of black-body radiation shifts to infinity at absolute zero; indeed, a peak no longer exists and black-body photons can no longer escape. Because of ZPE, however, virtual photons are still emitted at T=0. Such photons are called "virtual" because they can't be intercepted and observed. Furthermore, this zero-point radiation has a unique zero-point spectrum. However, even though a T=0 system emits zero-point radiation, no net heat flow Q out of such a system can occur because if the surrounding environment is at a temperature greater than T=0, heat will flow inward, and if the surrounding environment is at T=0, there will be an equal flux of ZP radiation both inward and outward. A similar Q equilibrium exists at T=0 with the ZPE-induced انبعاث تلقائي of photons (which is more properly called a stimulated emission in this context). The graph at upper right illustrates the relationship of absolute zero to zero-point energy. The graph also helps in the understanding of how zero-point energy got its name: it is the vibrational energy matter retains at the zero-kelvin point. Derivation of the classical electromagnetic zero-point radiation spectrum via a classical thermodynamic operation involving van der Waals forces, Daniel C. Cole, Physical Review A, 42 (1990) 1847. نسخة محفوظة 2017-09-16 في Wayback Machine[وصلة مكسورة]
umich.edu
Core temperature of a high–mass (>8–11 solar masses) star after it leaves the main sequence on the Hertzsprung–Russell diagram and begins the عملية ألفا (which lasts one day) of fusing silicon–28 into heavier elements in the following steps: sulfur–32 → argon–36 → calcium–40 → titanium–44 → chromium–48 → iron–52 → nickel–56. Within minutes of finishing the sequence, the star explodes as a Type II مستعر أعظم. Citation: Stellar Evolution: The Life and Death of Our Luminous Neighbors (by Arthur Holland and Mark Williams of the University of Michigan). Link to Web site. More informative links can be found hereنسخة محفوظة 2013-04-11 في Wayback Machine, and hereنسخة محفوظة 2011-08-14 في Wayback Machine, and a concise treatise on stars by NASA is here. نسخة محفوظة 2017-07-18 في Wayback Machine
uni-freiburg.de
kis.uni-freiburg.de
Measurement was made in 2002 and has an uncertainty of ±3 kelvin. A 1989 measurement produced a value of 5,777.0±2.5 K. Citation: Overview of the Sunنسخة محفوظة 2008-03-07 في Wayback Machine (Chapter 1 lecture notes on Solar Physics by Division of Theoretical Physics, Dept. of Physical Sciences, University of Helsinki). "نسخة مؤرشفة". مؤرشف من الأصل في 2016-03-12. اطلع عليه بتاريخ 2018-01-26.{{استشهاد ويب}}: صيانة الاستشهاد: BOT: original URL status unknown (link)
web.archive.org
Absolute zero's relationship to zero-point energy While scientists are achieving temperatures ever closer to صفر مطلق, they can not fully achieve a state of zero temperature. However, even if scientists could remove all kinetic thermal energy from matter, ميكانيكا الكمطاقة النقطة-صفر (ZPE) causes particle motion that can never be eliminated. Encyclopædia Britannica Online defines zero-point energy as the "vibrational energy that molecules retain even at the absolute zero of temperature". ZPE is the result of all-pervasive energy fields in the vacuum between the fundamental particles of nature; it is responsible for the تأثير كازيمير and other phenomena. See Zero Point Energy and Zero Point Field. See also Solid Heliumنسخة محفوظة 2008-05-31 في Wayback Machine by the University of Alberta's Department of Physics to learn more about ZPE's effect on تكاثف بوز-أينشتاينs of helium.
Although absolute zero (T=0) is not a state of zero molecular motion, it is the point of zero temperature and, in accordance with the Boltzmann constant, is also the point of zero particle kinetic energy and zero kinetic velocity. To understand how atoms can have zero kinetic velocity and simultaneously be vibrating due to ZPE, consider the following thought experiment: two T=0 helium atoms in zero gravity are carefully positioned and observed to have an average separation of 620 pm between them (a gap of ten atomic diameters). It's an "average" separation because ZPE causes them to jostle about their fixed positions. Then one atom is given a kinetic kick of precisely 83 yoctokelvins (1 yK = 1×10−24 K). This is done in a way that directs this atom's velocity vector at the other atom. With 83 yK of kinetic energy between them, the 620 pm gap through their common مرجح would close at a rate of 719 pm/s and they would collide after 0.862 second. This is the same speed as shown in the Fig. 1animation above. Before being given the kinetic kick, both T=0 atoms had zero kinetic energy and zero kinetic velocity because they could persist indefinitely in that state and relative orientation even though both were being jostled by ZPE. At T=0, no kinetic energy is available for transfer to other systems. The Boltzmann constant and its related formulas describe the realm of particle kinetics and velocity vectors whereas ZPE is an energy field that jostles particles in ways described by the mathematics of quantum mechanics. In atomic and molecular collisions in gases, ZPE introduces a degree of نظرية فوضى الكون, i.e., unpredictability, to rebound kinetics; it is as likely that there will be less ZPE-induced particle motion after a given collision as more. This random nature of ZPE is why it has no net effect upon either the pressure or volume of any bulk quantity (a statistically significant quantity of particles) of T>0 K gases. However, in T=0 فيزياء المواد المكثفة; e.g., solids and liquids, ZPE causes inter-atomic jostling where atoms would otherwise be perfectly stationary. Inasmuch as the real-world effects that ZPE has on substances can vary as one alters a thermodynamic system (for example, due to ZPE, helium won't freeze unless under a pressure of at least 25 bar or 2.5 MPa), ZPE is very much a form of thermal energy and may properly be included when tallying a substance's internal energy.
Note too that absolute zero serves as the baseline atop which ديناميكا حرارية and its معادلات دينامية حرارية are founded because they deal with the exchange of thermal energy between "systems" (a plurality of particles and fields modeled as an average). Accordingly, one may examine ZPE-induced particle motion within a system that is at absolute zero but there can never be a net outflow of thermal energy from such a system. Also, the peak emittance wavelength of black-body radiation shifts to infinity at absolute zero; indeed, a peak no longer exists and black-body photons can no longer escape. Because of ZPE, however, virtual photons are still emitted at T=0. Such photons are called "virtual" because they can't be intercepted and observed. Furthermore, this zero-point radiation has a unique zero-point spectrum. However, even though a T=0 system emits zero-point radiation, no net heat flow Q out of such a system can occur because if the surrounding environment is at a temperature greater than T=0, heat will flow inward, and if the surrounding environment is at T=0, there will be an equal flux of ZP radiation both inward and outward. A similar Q equilibrium exists at T=0 with the ZPE-induced انبعاث تلقائي of photons (which is more properly called a stimulated emission in this context). The graph at upper right illustrates the relationship of absolute zero to zero-point energy. The graph also helps in the understanding of how zero-point energy got its name: it is the vibrational energy matter retains at the zero-kelvin point. Derivation of the classical electromagnetic zero-point radiation spectrum via a classical thermodynamic operation involving van der Waals forces, Daniel C. Cole, Physical Review A, 42 (1990) 1847. نسخة محفوظة 2017-09-16 في Wayback Machine[وصلة مكسورة]
Measurement was made in 2002 and has an uncertainty of ±3 kelvin. A 1989 measurement produced a value of 5,777.0±2.5 K. Citation: Overview of the Sunنسخة محفوظة 2008-03-07 في Wayback Machine (Chapter 1 lecture notes on Solar Physics by Division of Theoretical Physics, Dept. of Physical Sciences, University of Helsinki). "نسخة مؤرشفة". مؤرشف من الأصل في 2016-03-12. اطلع عليه بتاريخ 2018-01-26.{{استشهاد ويب}}: صيانة الاستشهاد: BOT: original URL status unknown (link)
The 350 MK value is the maximum peak fusion fuel temperature in a thermonuclear weapon of the Teller–Ulam configuration (commonly known as a hydrogen bomb). Peak temperatures in Gadget-style fission bomb cores (commonly known as an atomic bomb) are in the range of 50 to 100 MK. Citation: Nuclear Weapons Frequently Asked Questions, 3.2.5 Matter At High Temperatures.Link to relevant Web page. All referenced data was compiled from publicly available sources. نسخة محفوظة 2017-05-21 في Wayback Machine
Core temperature of a high–mass (>8–11 solar masses) star after it leaves the main sequence on the Hertzsprung–Russell diagram and begins the عملية ألفا (which lasts one day) of fusing silicon–28 into heavier elements in the following steps: sulfur–32 → argon–36 → calcium–40 → titanium–44 → chromium–48 → iron–52 → nickel–56. Within minutes of finishing the sequence, the star explodes as a Type II مستعر أعظم. Citation: Stellar Evolution: The Life and Death of Our Luminous Neighbors (by Arthur Holland and Mark Williams of the University of Michigan). Link to Web site. More informative links can be found hereنسخة محفوظة 2013-04-11 في Wayback Machine, and hereنسخة محفوظة 2011-08-14 في Wayback Machine, and a concise treatise on stars by NASA is here. نسخة محفوظة 2017-07-18 في Wayback Machine
Based on a computer model that predicted a peak internal temperature of 30 MeV (350 GK) during the merger of a binary neutron star system (which produces a gamma–ray burst). The neutron stars in the model were 1.2 and 1.6 solar masses respectively, were roughly 20 km in diameter, and were orbiting around their barycenter (common center of mass) at about 390 Hz during the last several milliseconds before they completely merged. The 350 GK portion was a small volume located at the pair's developing common core and varied from roughly 1 to 7 km across over a time span of around 5 ms. Imagine two city-sized objects of unimaginable density orbiting each other at the same frequency as the G4 musical note (the 28th white key on a piano). It's also noteworthy that at 350 GK, the average neutron has a vibrational speed of 30% the speed of light and a relativistic mass (m) 5% greater than its rest mass (m0). Torus Formation in Neutron Star Mergers and Well-Localized Short Gamma-Ray Bursts, R. Oechslin et al. of Max Planck Institute for Astrophysics., arXiv:astro-ph/0507099 v2, 22 Feb. 2006. An html summary. نسخة محفوظة 2018-01-10 في Wayback Machine
