Kristofer J. Petersen-Overton, Johannes D. Schmidt, Jacques Hersh: Peace Philosophy in Action. Hrsg.: Carter. Palgrave Macmillan, 2010, ISBN 978-0-230-11299-5, 3. Retooling Peace Philosophy: A Critical Look at Israel’s Separation Strategy, S.49, doi:10.1057/9780230112995 (englisch, academia.edu): "as scores of historical documentation has since revealed, the Yishuv encouraged the flight or directly forced 750,000 Palestinians (more than 80 percent of the population at the time) from their homeland in 1948 and destroyed 531 Palestinian villages"
C. Warf, G. Charles: Clinical Care for Homeless, Runaway and Refugee Youth: Intervention Approaches, Education and Research Directions. Springer International Publishing, 2020, ISBN 978-3-03040675-2 (englisch, google.com): “By 1948, the majority of Palestinians, about 700,000 to 800,000 people from 500 to 600 villages, were displaced. They were either expelled or fled from their homes for fear of being killed, as had actually taken place in a number of villages.”
H. Gerber: Remembering and Imagining Palestine: Identity and Nationalism from the Crusades to the Present. Palgrave Macmillan UK, 2008, ISBN 978-0-230-58391-7 (englisch, google.com): “One of the more important consequences of the 1948 war was the expulsion and/or flight of some 750,000 Palestinians from their homes inside Israel, and the refusal of Israel to allow them to return, despite an express UN decision calling on it to do so. ... About 750,000 of the 900,000 strong Palestinian population were expelled, or fled, all completely terrorized and fearing for their lives”
Jerome Slater: Mythologies Without End: The US, Israel, and the Arab-Israeli Conflict, 1917–2020. Oxford University Press, 2020, ISBN 978-0-19-045908-6 (englisch, google.com): “There is no serious dispute among Israeli, Palestinian, or other historians about the central facts of the Nakba. All of the leading Israeli New Historians—particularly Morris, Shlaim, Pappé, and Flapan—extensively examined the issue and revealed the facts. Other accounts have reached the same conclusions. For example, see Ben-Ami, "A War to Start All Wars"; Rashid Khalidi, "The Palestinians and 1948"; Walid Khalidi, "Why Did the Palestinians Leave, Revisited"; Masalha, Expulsion of the Palestinians; Raz, Bride and the Dowry. Reviewing the evidence marshaled by Morris and others, Tom Segev concluded that "most of the Arabs in the country, approximately 400,000, were chased out and expelled during the first stage of the war. In other words, before the Arab armies invaded the country" (Haaretz, July 18, 2010). Other estimates have varied concerning the number of Palestinians who fled or were expelled before the May 1948 Arab state attack; Morris estimated the number to be 250,000 - 300,000 (The Birth of the Palestinian Refugee Problem Revisited, 262); Tessler puts it at 300,000 (A History of the Israeli-Palestinian Conflict, 279); Pappé’s estimate is 380,000 (The Making of the Arab-Israeli Conflict, 96). In another recent review of the evidence, the Israeli historian Daniel Blatman estimates the number to be about 500,000 (Blatman, "Netanyahu, This Is What Ethnic Cleansing Really Looks Like"). Whatever the exact number, even Israeli "Old Historians" now admit that during the 1948 war, the Israeli armed forces drove out many of the Palestinians, though they emphasized the action as a military "necessity." For example, see Anita Shapira, Israel: A History, 167–68. In July 2019, the Israeli government sought to cover up the extensive documentary evidence in its state archives that revealed detailed evidence about the extent of the Nakba—even the evidence that had already been published by newspapers and Israeli historians. A Haaretz investigation of the attempted cover-up concluded: "Since early last decade, Defense Ministry teams have scoured local archives and removed troves of historic documents to conceal proof of the Nakba, including Israeli eyewitness reports at the time" (Shezaf, "Burying the Nakba: How Israel Systematically Hides Evidence of 1948 Expulsion of Arabs").”
Ami Pedahzur, Arie Perliger: The Consequences of Counterterrorism. Hrsg.: Crenshaw. Russell Sage Foundation, New York 2010, ISBN 978-0-87154-073-7, The Consequences of Counterterrorist Policies in Israel, S.356 (englisch, google.com).
Yoav Gelber: Palestine 1948: War, Escape And The Emergence Of The Palestinian Refugee Problem. Sussex Academic Press, 2006, ISBN 978-1-84519-075-0, S.306 (englisch, google.com): “the method for taking over an Arab village: Surround the village and search it (for weapons). In case of resistance – … expel the population beyond the border… If there is no resistance, a garrison should be stationed in the village. . . appoint local institutions for administering the village internal affairs. The text clarified unequivocally that expulsion concerned only those villages that would fight against the Hagana and resist occupation and not all Arab hamlets.”
Susan Akram: International law and the Israeli–Palestinian conflict. Taylor & Francis, 2011, ISBN 978-0-415-57322-1, S.38, 19 (englisch, google.com): “This was the definition accepted by the drafters of the resolution 194 for the purposes of defining the entire group of Palestinians who were entitled to the protection of the International Community”
United Nations: Yearbook of the United Nations. Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, 1992, ISBN 978-0-7923-1970-2, S.285 (englisch, google.com).
Kristofer J. Petersen-Overton, Johannes D. Schmidt, Jacques Hersh: Peace Philosophy in Action. Hrsg.: Carter. Palgrave Macmillan, 2010, ISBN 978-0-230-11299-5, 3. Retooling Peace Philosophy: A Critical Look at Israel’s Separation Strategy, S.49, doi:10.1057/9780230112995 (englisch, academia.edu): "as scores of historical documentation has since revealed, the Yishuv encouraged the flight or directly forced 750,000 Palestinians (more than 80 percent of the population at the time) from their homeland in 1948 and destroyed 531 Palestinian villages"
Benny Morris, Benjamin Z. Kedar: 'Cast thy bread': Israeli biological warfare during the 1948 War. In: Middle Eastern Studies. 59. Jahrgang, Nr.5, 19. September 2022, S.1–25 [2–3], doi:10.1080/00263206.2022.2122448 (englisch).
Benny Morris, Benjamin Z. Kedar: 'Cast thy bread': Israeli biological warfare during the 1948 War. In: Middle Eastern Studies. 59. Jahrgang, Nr.5. Routledge, 2023, S.752–776, doi:10.1080/00263206.2022.2122448 (englisch): “The SHAI, in its report from the end of June 1948 on the causes of the Arab flight from Palestine, mentioned ‘the typhus epidemic’ as ‘an exacerbating factor in the evacuation’ in certain areas. ‘More than the disease itself, it was the panic induced by the rumours of the spread of the disease in the area that was a factor in the evacuation’, stated the report. In its site-by-site breakdown of the Arab flight, the report mentioned ‘harassment [by the Haganah] and the typhus epidemic’ as the causes of the partial exodus of the population from Acre on 6 May.”
Morris, Benny, Kedar, Benjamin Z.: 'Cast thy bread': Israeli biological warfare during the 1948 War. In: Middle Eastern Studies. 59. Jahrgang, Nr.5, 3. September 2023, ISSN0026-3206, S.752–776, doi:10.1080/00263206.2022.2122448 (englisch): “Taken together, these documents revealed that the Acre and Gaza episodes were merely the tip of the iceberg in a prolonged campaign ... But bulldozing or blowing up houses and wells was deemed insufficient. With its back to the wall, the Hagana upped the ante and unleashed a clandestine campaign of poisoning certain captured village wells with bacteria – in violation of the Geneva Protocol ... The aim of Cast Thy Bread ... like the demolitions, was to hamper an Arab return. Over the weeks, the well-poisoning campaign was expanded to regions beyond the Tel Aviv-Jerusalem road and included Jewish settlements captured or about to be captured by Arab troops, and then to inhabited Arab towns, to facilitate their prospective conquest by the Haganah or to hinder the progress of the invading Arab armies ... The Yishuv’s decision to use the bacteriological weapons was taken at the highest level of the government and military and was, indeed, steered by these officers, with Ben-Gurion’s authorization, through the campaign ... The use of the bacteria was apparently fairly limited in Israel/Palestine during April-December 1948, and apart from Acre, seems to have caused no epidemic and few casualties. At least, that is what emerges from the available documentation.”
W. Seth Carus: A century of biological-weapons programs (1915–2015): reviewing the evidence. In: The Nonproliferation Review. 24. Jahrgang, Nr.1–2, 2017, ISSN1073-6700, S.129–153, doi:10.1080/10736700.2017.1385765 (englisch, tandfonline.com): “Some BW programs relied on extremely crude methods, about as sophisticated as those employed by some terrorist groups or criminals ... The same was true of the reported activities associated with the early Israeli program in 1948.”
John Docker: Instrumentalising the Holocaust: Israel, Settler-Colonialism, Genocide (Creating a Conversation between Raphaël Lemkin and Ilan Pappé). In: Holy Land Studies. 11. Jahrgang, Nr.1, 2012, ISSN1474-9475, S.1–32, doi:10.3366/hls.2012.0027 (englisch, euppublishing.com): “The urbicide of May 1948 directed against the old Crusader city of Acre involved biological warfare, including poisoning of water, Pappé writing that it seems clear from Red Cross reports that the Zionist forces besieging the city injected ‘typhoid germs’ into the water supply, which led to a ‘sudden typhoid epidemic’. There was a similar attempt to ‘poison the water supply in Gaza’ on 27 May 1948 by injecting typhoid and dysentery viruses into wells; this attempt was fortunately foiled.”
Milton Leitenberg: Biological Weapons in the Twentieth Century: A Review and Analysis. In: Critical Reviews in Microbiology. 27. Jahrgang, Nr.4, 2001, ISSN1040-841X, S.267–320, doi:10.1080/20014091096774, PMID 11791799 (englisch): "As early as April 1948, Ben Gurion directed one of his operatives in Europe (Ehud Avriel) to seek out surviving East European Jewish scientists who could “either increase the capacity to kill masses or to cure masses: both things are important.” At that time, that ‘capacity’ meant chemical and biological weapons ... These were ultimate weapons that could be used either for offense or defense (and the context of the immediate military operations, as well as those that had preceded it, would be the critical factors in that categorization)."
Avner Cohen: Israel and chemical/biological weapons: History, deterrence, and arms control. In: The Nonproliferation Review. 8. Jahrgang, Nr.3, 2001, ISSN1073-6700, S.27–53, doi:10.1080/10736700108436862 (englisch, tandfonline.com): “p. 31, It is believed that one of the largest operations in this campaign was in the Arab coastal town of Acre, north of Haifa, shortly before it was conquered by the IDF on May 17,1948. According to Milstein, the typhoid epidemic that spread in Acre in the days before the town fell to the Israeli forces was not the result of wartime chaos but rather a deliberate covert action by the IDF—the contamination of Acre's water supply ... The success of the Acre operation may have persuaded Israeli decisionmakers to continue with these activities. On May 23, 1948, Egyptian soldiers in the Gaza area caught four Israeli soldiers disguised as Arabs near water wells ... It seems that many people knew something about these operations, but both the participants and later historians chose to avoid the issue, which gradually became a national taboo ... Despite the official silence, it appears there is little doubt now about the mission of the failed Gaza operation.”
Benny Morris: The causes and character of the Arab exodus from Palestine: the Israel defence forces intelligence branch analysis of June 1948. In: Middle Eastern Studies. 22. Jahrgang, Nr.1. Routledge, 1986, S.5–19, doi:10.1080/00263208608700647 (englisch, tandfonline.com).
Steven Glazer: The Palestinian Exodus in 1948. In: Journal of Palestine Studies. 9. Jahrgang, Nr.4, 1980, S.96–118, doi:10.2307/2536126, JSTOR:2536126 (englisch).
Nur Masalha: Rosemary M. Esber, Under the Cover of War: The Zionist Expulsion of the Palestinians. In: Holy Land Studies. 8. Jahrgang, Nr.2, 2009, S.245–247, doi:10.3366/E1474947509000614 (englisch).
Sabri Jiryis: Domination by the Law. In: Journal of Palestine Studies. 11. Jahrgang, Nr.1. Routledge, 1981, S.67–92, doi:10.2307/2536047 (englisch, tandfonline.com).
cf. Shabtai Teveth: The Palestine Arab Refugee Problem and Its Origins. In: Middle Eastern Studies. 26. Jahrgang, Nr.2, April 1990, S.214–249, doi:10.1080/00263209008700816, JSTOR:4283366 (englisch).
Nur Masalha: Rosemary M. Esber, Under the Cover of War: The Zionist Expulsion of the Palestinians. In: Holy Land Studies. 8. Jahrgang, Nr.2, 2009, S.245–247, doi:10.3366/E1474947509000614 (englisch).
John Docker: Instrumentalising the Holocaust: Israel, Settler-Colonialism, Genocide (Creating a Conversation between Raphaël Lemkin and Ilan Pappé). In: Holy Land Studies. 11. Jahrgang, Nr.1, 2012, ISSN1474-9475, S.1–32, doi:10.3366/hls.2012.0027 (englisch, euppublishing.com): “The urbicide of May 1948 directed against the old Crusader city of Acre involved biological warfare, including poisoning of water, Pappé writing that it seems clear from Red Cross reports that the Zionist forces besieging the city injected ‘typhoid germs’ into the water supply, which led to a ‘sudden typhoid epidemic’. There was a similar attempt to ‘poison the water supply in Gaza’ on 27 May 1948 by injecting typhoid and dysentery viruses into wells; this attempt was fortunately foiled.”
google.de
books.google.de
Masalha, N.: Expulsion of the Palestinians: The Concept of "transfer" in Zionist Political Thought, 1882-1948. Institute for Palestine Studies, 1992, ISBN 0-88728-235-0, S.175 (google.de).
Gelber, Y.: Palestine, 1948: War, Escape and the Emergence of the Palestinian Refugee Problem. Sussex Academic Press, 2006, ISBN 1-84519-075-0, S.137 (google.de): „Drawn into the war by the collapse of the Palestinians and the ALA, the Arab governments' primary goal was preventing the Palestinians’ total ruin and the flooding of their own countries by more refugees.“
Morris, B.: 1948: A History of the First Arab-Israeli War. Yale University Press, 2008, ISBN 978-0-300-14524-3, S.77 (englisch, google.de).
Yoav Gelber: Palestine, 1948: War, Escape and the Emergence of the Palestinian Refugee Problem. Sussex Academic Press, 2006, ISBN 1-84519-075-0, S.75–76 (englisch, google.de).
Yoav Gelber: Palestine, 1948: War, Escape and the Emergence of the Palestinian Refugee Problem. Sussex Academic Press, 2006, ISBN 1-84519-075-0, S.79 (google.de).
Hania A.M. Nashef: Palestinian Culture and the Nakba: Bearing Witness. Taylor & Francis, 2018, ISBN 978-1-351-38749-1, S.143 n. 4 (google.de [abgerufen am 2. April 2021] zitiert Pappe 2006).
Avnery, U.: Israel Without Zionism: A Plan for Peace in the Middle East. Collier Books, 1971, ISBN 0-02-072050-5, S.224–225 (englisch, google.de): “I believe that during this phase, the eviction of Arab civilians had become an aim of David Ben-Gurion and his government... UN opinion could very well be disregarded. Peace with the Arabs seemed out of the question, considering the extreme nature of the Arab propaganda. In this situation, it was easy for people like Ben-Gurion to believe the capture of uninhabited territory was both necessary for security reasons and desirable for the homogeneity of the new Hebrew state.”
Saleh Abdul Jawad, Walid Mustafa: Palestine: The Collective Destruction of Palestinian Villages and Zionist Colonization, 1882-1982. Jerusalem Center for Development Studies, 1987, LCCN89-130247, S.30 (englisch, google.de).
Don Peretz: Israel and the Palestine Arabs. Middle East Institute, 1958, LCCN58-002533 (englisch, google.de).
Ofer Aderet: ‘Place the material in the wells’: Docs point to Israeli army’s 1948 biological warfare. In: Haaretz. 14. Oktober 2022 (haaretz.com [abgerufen am 16. Mai 2024]): „For decades, rumors and testimonies swirled about Jewish troops sent to poison wells in Arab villages. Now, researchers have located official documentation of the ‘Cast Thy Bread’ operation“
Ofer Aderet: Jewish soldiers and civilians looted Arab neighbors' property en masse in '48. The authorities turned a blind eye. In: Haaretz. 3. Oktober 2020 (haaretz.com [abgerufen am 19. April 2024]).
Ofer Aderet: Jewish soldiers and civilians looted Arab neighbors' property en masse in '48. The authorities turned a blind Eye. In: Haaretz. 3. Oktober 2020 (haaretz.com [abgerufen am 19. April 2024]): „Such pictures were known to us. It was the way things had always been done to us, in the Holocaust, throughout the world war, and all the pogroms. Oy, how well we knew those pictures. And here – here, we were doing these awful things to others. We loaded everything onto the van – with a terrible trembling of the hands. And that wasn't because of the weight. Even now my hands are shaking, just from writing about it.“
Hagar Shezaf: Burying the Nakba: How Israel systematically hides evidence of 1948 expulsion of Arabs. In: Haaretz. 5. Juli 2019 (haaretz.com [abgerufen am 18. April 2024]).
Dina Kraft: Palestinians uncover history of the Nakba, even as Israel cuts them off from their sources. In: Haaretz. 20. April 2018 (haaretz.com [abgerufen am 18. April 2024]).
Steven Glazer: The Palestinian Exodus in 1948. In: Journal of Palestine Studies. 9. Jahrgang, Nr.4. University of California Press, Institute for Palestine Studies, 1980, S.96–118, JSTOR:2536126 (englisch).
Amnon Kapeliouk: New Light on the Israeli-Arab Conflict and the Refugee Problem and Its Origins. In: Journal of Palestine Studies. 16. Jahrgang, Nr.3. University of California Press, Institute for Palestine Studies, 1987, S.16–24, JSTOR:2536786 (englisch, tandfonline.com [abgerufen am 20. April 2024]).
Steven Glazer: The Palestinian Exodus in 1948. In: Journal of Palestine Studies. 9. Jahrgang, Nr.4, 1980, S.96–118, doi:10.2307/2536126, JSTOR:2536126 (englisch).
cf. Shabtai Teveth: The Palestine Arab Refugee Problem and Its Origins. In: Middle Eastern Studies. 26. Jahrgang, Nr.2, April 1990, S.214–249, doi:10.1080/00263209008700816, JSTOR:4283366 (englisch).
kyoto-u.ac.jp
repository.kulib.kyoto-u.ac.jp
Rosemary Sayigh: Hiroshima, al-Nakba: Markers of New Hegemonies. In: Kyoto Bulletin of Islamic Area Studies. 3. Jahrgang, Nr.1, 2009, S.151–169 (englisch, kyoto-u.ac.jp [PDF]): “A unit had been formed to develop biological weapons, and there is evidence that these were used during 1948 to poison the water supplies of Akka and Gaza with typhoid bacteria.”
Saleh Abdul Jawad, Walid Mustafa: Palestine: The Collective Destruction of Palestinian Villages and Zionist Colonization, 1882-1982. Jerusalem Center for Development Studies, 1987, LCCN89-130247, S.30 (englisch, google.de).
Don Peretz: Israel and the Palestine Arabs. Middle East Institute, 1958, LCCN58-002533 (englisch, google.de).
Pittsburgh Press: British Halt Jerusalem Battle. UP, Mai 1948, abgerufen am 17. Dezember 2010 (englisch): „The British spokesman said that all 12 members of the Arab Higher Committee have left Palestine for neighboring Arab states… Walter Eyelan, the Jewish Agency spokesman, said the Arab leaders were victims of a "flight psychosis" which he said was sweeping Arabs throughout Palestine.“
nih.gov
ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
Milton Leitenberg: Biological Weapons in the Twentieth Century: A Review and Analysis. In: Critical Reviews in Microbiology. 27. Jahrgang, Nr.4, 2001, ISSN1040-841X, S.267–320, doi:10.1080/20014091096774, PMID 11791799 (englisch): "As early as April 1948, Ben Gurion directed one of his operatives in Europe (Ehud Avriel) to seek out surviving East European Jewish scientists who could “either increase the capacity to kill masses or to cure masses: both things are important.” At that time, that ‘capacity’ meant chemical and biological weapons ... These were ultimate weapons that could be used either for offense or defense (and the context of the immediate military operations, as well as those that had preceded it, would be the critical factors in that categorization)."
nla.gov.au
Edgar O’Ballance: The Arab-Israeli War, 1948. Faber, London 1956, S.147, 172 (englisch, gov.au).
nli.org.il
Oren Elhanan: בדרך אל העיר : מבצע "דני" יולי 1948. מערכות, Tel Aviv-Yafo (Israel) 1976 (hebräisch, org.il).
Oren Elhanan: בדרך אל העיר : מבצע "דני" יולי 1948. מערכות, Tel Aviv-Yafo (Israel) 1976 (hebräisch, org.il).
United Nations: Progress Report of the United Nations Mediator on Palestine Submitted to the Secretary-General for Transmission to the Members of the United Nations.S. Part 1 Section V para 6., archiviert vom Original am 9. Juni 2012; abgerufen am 16. April 2024 (englisch, Laut Glazer wird diese Bemerkung des Grafen Folke Bernadotte häufig nicht nur als Beispiel für Panikbeschreibungen, sondern auch als Beweis dafür angeführt, dass die Zionisten eine Vertreibungspolitik verfolgten.): „"It is not yet known what the policy of the Provisional government of Israel with regard to the return of Arab refugees will be when the final terms of settlement are reached. It is, however, undeniable that no settlement can be just and complete if recognition is not accorded to the right of the Arab refugee to return to the home from which he has been dislodged by the hazards and strategy of the armed conflict between Arabs and Jews in Palestine. The majority of these refugees have come from territory which, under the Assembly resolution of 29 November, was to be included in the Jewish State. The exodus of Palestinian Arabs resulted from panic created by fighting in their communities, by rumours concerning real or alleged acts of terrorism, or expulsion. It would be an offence against the principles of elemental justice if these innocent victims of the conflict were denied the right to return to their homes while Jewish immigrants flow into Palestine, and, indeed, at least offer the threat of permanent replacement of the Arab refugees who have been rooted in the land for centuries."“
Pappe, Ilan: Calling a Spade a Spade: The 1948 Ethnic Cleansing of Palestine. 2006, archiviert vom Original am 27. Mai 2007; abgerufen am 3. Mai 2007 (englisch): „In a matter of seven months, five hundred and thirty one villages were destroyed and eleven urban neighborhoods emptied [...] The mass expulsion was accompanied by massacres, rape and [the] imprisonment of men [...] in labor camps for periods [of] over a year“
Meron Benvenisti: Sacred Landscape: Buried History of the Holy Land Since 1948. University of California Press, 2000, ISBN 0-520-21154-5, Chapter 5: Uprooted and Planted (englisch, ucpress.edu (Memento des Originals vom 4. September 2006 im Internet Archive)).
Susan B. Martin: The Battlefield Use of Chemical, Biological and Nuclear Weapons from 1945 to 2008: Structural Realist Versus Normative Explanations. In: American Political Science Association 2010 Annual Meeting Paper. 2010, S.7 (englisch, ssrn.com): “Israeli biological warfare activities included Operation Shalach, which was an attempt to contaminate the water supplies of Egyptian Army. Egypt reports capture of four ‘Zionists’ trying to infect wells with dysentery and typhoid. There are also allegations that a typhoid outbreak in Acre in 1948 resulted from a biological attack and that there were attacks in Egypt in 1947 and in Syria in 1948”
stanford.edu
searchworks.stanford.edu
Ackerman Gary, Victor Asal: A Quantitative Overview of Biological Weapons: Identification, Characterization, and Attribution. In: Anne L. Clunan, Peter R. Lavoy, Susan B. Martin (Hrsg.): Terrorism, War or Disease? Unraveling the Use of Biological Weapons. Stanford University Press, Palo Alto, CA, Kap.9, S.186–216, S. 194 (stanford.edu): „Egyptian Ministry of Defense and, later, Israeli historians, contend that Israeli soldiers contaminated Acre’s water supply“
tandfonline.com
W. Seth Carus: A century of biological-weapons programs (1915–2015): reviewing the evidence. In: The Nonproliferation Review. 24. Jahrgang, Nr.1–2, 2017, ISSN1073-6700, S.129–153, doi:10.1080/10736700.2017.1385765 (englisch, tandfonline.com): “Some BW programs relied on extremely crude methods, about as sophisticated as those employed by some terrorist groups or criminals ... The same was true of the reported activities associated with the early Israeli program in 1948.”
Avner Cohen: Israel and chemical/biological weapons: History, deterrence, and arms control. In: The Nonproliferation Review. 8. Jahrgang, Nr.3, 2001, ISSN1073-6700, S.27–53, doi:10.1080/10736700108436862 (englisch, tandfonline.com): “p. 31, It is believed that one of the largest operations in this campaign was in the Arab coastal town of Acre, north of Haifa, shortly before it was conquered by the IDF on May 17,1948. According to Milstein, the typhoid epidemic that spread in Acre in the days before the town fell to the Israeli forces was not the result of wartime chaos but rather a deliberate covert action by the IDF—the contamination of Acre's water supply ... The success of the Acre operation may have persuaded Israeli decisionmakers to continue with these activities. On May 23, 1948, Egyptian soldiers in the Gaza area caught four Israeli soldiers disguised as Arabs near water wells ... It seems that many people knew something about these operations, but both the participants and later historians chose to avoid the issue, which gradually became a national taboo ... Despite the official silence, it appears there is little doubt now about the mission of the failed Gaza operation.”
Benny Morris: The causes and character of the Arab exodus from Palestine: the Israel defence forces intelligence branch analysis of June 1948. In: Middle Eastern Studies. 22. Jahrgang, Nr.1. Routledge, 1986, S.5–19, doi:10.1080/00263208608700647 (englisch, tandfonline.com).
Amnon Kapeliouk: New Light on the Israeli-Arab Conflict and the Refugee Problem and Its Origins. In: Journal of Palestine Studies. 16. Jahrgang, Nr.3. University of California Press, Institute for Palestine Studies, 1987, S.16–24, JSTOR:2536786 (englisch, tandfonline.com [abgerufen am 20. April 2024]).
Sabri Jiryis: Domination by the Law. In: Journal of Palestine Studies. 11. Jahrgang, Nr.1. Routledge, 1981, S.67–92, doi:10.2307/2536047 (englisch, tandfonline.com).
Hussein Ibish: A 'Catastrophe' That Defines Palestinian Identity. In: The Atlantic. 14. Mai 2018; abgerufen im 1. Januar 1 (englisch): „the overwhelming majority of Palestinian Arabs, perhaps 700,000 to 800,000 people, had either fled or been expelled“
Meron Benvenisti, Maxine Kaufman-Lacusta: Sacred Landscape: The Buried History of the Holy Land since 1948. 1. Auflage. University of California Press, 2002, ISBN 0-520-23422-7, S.116 (englisch, ucpress.edu): “Long afterward Menachem Begin boasted that the panic that descended on the Arabs caused them to flee from the cities of Tiberias and Haifa as well. And indeed, the consequences of this barbaric act of ethnic cleansing were far-reaching. The Deir Yasin Massacre, which was reported on over and over again in all the Arab media, inspired tremendous fear, which led many Arabs to abandon their homes as the Jewish forces drew near. There is no doubt that Deir Yasin was a turning point in the annals of the destruction of the Arab landscape.”
Vgl. im englischen Original: “The Arabs did not want to submit to a truce which would have brought shame upon them, as they rather preferred to abandon their homes, their belongings, and everything they possessed in this world, and leave the town. This is in fact what they did.”, United Nations / Nations Unies, 287th meeting/287ème séance (23. April 1948), in: Security Council Official Records / Conseil de Securité Procès-verbaux officiels, Nr. 62, Jg. 3 (1948), S. 14.
Q/A Final Status. UNRWA, abgerufen am 30. Oktober 2011 (englisch): „Q) Is UNRWA involved in the Middle East peace negotiations and in the discussions on a solution to the refugee issue? A) No. UNRWA is a humanitarian agency and its mandate defines its role as one of providing services to the refugees.“
vimeo.com
Arte (Hrsg.): Al-Nakba: The Palestinian Catastrophe 1948. Länge 13:09, [film]. Israel, Deutschland, Niederlande 1998 (englisch, vimeo.com): “Only five days earlier, the entire Arab population of Tiberias, a town by the Sea of Galilee, had panicked and fled, after the defeat of their militia by the Hagana. This was the first instance of a mass Arab evacuation from a town. The Hagana commanders in Haifa were undoubtedly well aware of this precedent as their own battle unfolded.”
E. Toubassi: Al-Nakba: The Palestinian Catastrophe 1948. Länge 23:27, [film]. Hrsg.: Arte. Israel, Deutschland, Niederlande 1998 (englisch, vimeo.com): “On the 25th or 26th of April, the people knew in Jaffa there was no hope. Also, the massacre in Deir Yassin or some other villages made panic among the Arab Palestinians. They started preparing for immigration.”
United Nations: Progress Report of the United Nations Mediator on Palestine Submitted to the Secretary-General for Transmission to the Members of the United Nations.S. Part 1 Section V para 6., archiviert vom Original am 9. Juni 2012; abgerufen am 16. April 2024 (englisch, Laut Glazer wird diese Bemerkung des Grafen Folke Bernadotte häufig nicht nur als Beispiel für Panikbeschreibungen, sondern auch als Beweis dafür angeführt, dass die Zionisten eine Vertreibungspolitik verfolgten.): „"It is not yet known what the policy of the Provisional government of Israel with regard to the return of Arab refugees will be when the final terms of settlement are reached. It is, however, undeniable that no settlement can be just and complete if recognition is not accorded to the right of the Arab refugee to return to the home from which he has been dislodged by the hazards and strategy of the armed conflict between Arabs and Jews in Palestine. The majority of these refugees have come from territory which, under the Assembly resolution of 29 November, was to be included in the Jewish State. The exodus of Palestinian Arabs resulted from panic created by fighting in their communities, by rumours concerning real or alleged acts of terrorism, or expulsion. It would be an offence against the principles of elemental justice if these innocent victims of the conflict were denied the right to return to their homes while Jewish immigrants flow into Palestine, and, indeed, at least offer the threat of permanent replacement of the Arab refugees who have been rooted in the land for centuries."“
Pappe, Ilan: Calling a Spade a Spade: The 1948 Ethnic Cleansing of Palestine. 2006, archiviert vom Original am 27. Mai 2007; abgerufen am 3. Mai 2007 (englisch): „In a matter of seven months, five hundred and thirty one villages were destroyed and eleven urban neighborhoods emptied [...] The mass expulsion was accompanied by massacres, rape and [the] imprisonment of men [...] in labor camps for periods [of] over a year“
Meron Benvenisti: Sacred Landscape: Buried History of the Holy Land Since 1948. University of California Press, 2000, ISBN 0-520-21154-5, Chapter 5: Uprooted and Planted (englisch, ucpress.edu (Memento des Originals vom 4. September 2006 im Internet Archive)).
Morris, Benny, Kedar, Benjamin Z.: 'Cast thy bread': Israeli biological warfare during the 1948 War. In: Middle Eastern Studies. 59. Jahrgang, Nr.5, 3. September 2023, ISSN0026-3206, S.752–776, doi:10.1080/00263206.2022.2122448 (englisch): “Taken together, these documents revealed that the Acre and Gaza episodes were merely the tip of the iceberg in a prolonged campaign ... But bulldozing or blowing up houses and wells was deemed insufficient. With its back to the wall, the Hagana upped the ante and unleashed a clandestine campaign of poisoning certain captured village wells with bacteria – in violation of the Geneva Protocol ... The aim of Cast Thy Bread ... like the demolitions, was to hamper an Arab return. Over the weeks, the well-poisoning campaign was expanded to regions beyond the Tel Aviv-Jerusalem road and included Jewish settlements captured or about to be captured by Arab troops, and then to inhabited Arab towns, to facilitate their prospective conquest by the Haganah or to hinder the progress of the invading Arab armies ... The Yishuv’s decision to use the bacteriological weapons was taken at the highest level of the government and military and was, indeed, steered by these officers, with Ben-Gurion’s authorization, through the campaign ... The use of the bacteria was apparently fairly limited in Israel/Palestine during April-December 1948, and apart from Acre, seems to have caused no epidemic and few casualties. At least, that is what emerges from the available documentation.”
W. Seth Carus: A century of biological-weapons programs (1915–2015): reviewing the evidence. In: The Nonproliferation Review. 24. Jahrgang, Nr.1–2, 2017, ISSN1073-6700, S.129–153, doi:10.1080/10736700.2017.1385765 (englisch, tandfonline.com): “Some BW programs relied on extremely crude methods, about as sophisticated as those employed by some terrorist groups or criminals ... The same was true of the reported activities associated with the early Israeli program in 1948.”
John Docker: Instrumentalising the Holocaust: Israel, Settler-Colonialism, Genocide (Creating a Conversation between Raphaël Lemkin and Ilan Pappé). In: Holy Land Studies. 11. Jahrgang, Nr.1, 2012, ISSN1474-9475, S.1–32, doi:10.3366/hls.2012.0027 (englisch, euppublishing.com): “The urbicide of May 1948 directed against the old Crusader city of Acre involved biological warfare, including poisoning of water, Pappé writing that it seems clear from Red Cross reports that the Zionist forces besieging the city injected ‘typhoid germs’ into the water supply, which led to a ‘sudden typhoid epidemic’. There was a similar attempt to ‘poison the water supply in Gaza’ on 27 May 1948 by injecting typhoid and dysentery viruses into wells; this attempt was fortunately foiled.”
Milton Leitenberg: Biological Weapons in the Twentieth Century: A Review and Analysis. In: Critical Reviews in Microbiology. 27. Jahrgang, Nr.4, 2001, ISSN1040-841X, S.267–320, doi:10.1080/20014091096774, PMID 11791799 (englisch): "As early as April 1948, Ben Gurion directed one of his operatives in Europe (Ehud Avriel) to seek out surviving East European Jewish scientists who could “either increase the capacity to kill masses or to cure masses: both things are important.” At that time, that ‘capacity’ meant chemical and biological weapons ... These were ultimate weapons that could be used either for offense or defense (and the context of the immediate military operations, as well as those that had preceded it, would be the critical factors in that categorization)."
Avner Cohen: Israel and chemical/biological weapons: History, deterrence, and arms control. In: The Nonproliferation Review. 8. Jahrgang, Nr.3, 2001, ISSN1073-6700, S.27–53, doi:10.1080/10736700108436862 (englisch, tandfonline.com): “p. 31, It is believed that one of the largest operations in this campaign was in the Arab coastal town of Acre, north of Haifa, shortly before it was conquered by the IDF on May 17,1948. According to Milstein, the typhoid epidemic that spread in Acre in the days before the town fell to the Israeli forces was not the result of wartime chaos but rather a deliberate covert action by the IDF—the contamination of Acre's water supply ... The success of the Acre operation may have persuaded Israeli decisionmakers to continue with these activities. On May 23, 1948, Egyptian soldiers in the Gaza area caught four Israeli soldiers disguised as Arabs near water wells ... It seems that many people knew something about these operations, but both the participants and later historians chose to avoid the issue, which gradually became a national taboo ... Despite the official silence, it appears there is little doubt now about the mission of the failed Gaza operation.”
