Atrocities in the Congo Free State (English Wikipedia)

"Monument au roi Léopold II – Arlon" [Monument to King Leopold II – Arlon]. Be=Monumen (in French). 2019. Archived from the original on 4 August 2020. Retrieved 7 June 2020.

berghahnbooks.com

Siefkes 2022, pp. 80–85. Siefkes, Christian (2022). Edible People: The Historical Consumption of Slaves and Foreigners and the Cannibalistic Trade in Human Flesh. New York: Berghahn Books. ISBN 978-1-80073-613-9. Archived from the original on 12 July 2023.

books.google.com

Sabben-Clare, E. E.; Bradley, David J.; Kirkwood, Kenneth (1980). Health in Tropical Africa During the Colonial Period. Clarendon Press. p. 210. ISBN 978-0-19-858165-9.
Gibbs 1991, p. 51. Gibbs, David N. (1991). The Political Economy of Third World Intervention: Mines, Money, and U.S. Policy in the Congo Crisis. American Politics and Political Economy. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0226290713. Archived from the original on 16 January 2023.
Gibbs 1991, p. 46. Gibbs, David N. (1991). The Political Economy of Third World Intervention: Mines, Money, and U.S. Policy in the Congo Crisis. American Politics and Political Economy. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0226290713. Archived from the original on 16 January 2023.
Provost & Akhavan 2010, p. 33. Provost, René; Akhavan, Payam, eds. (2010). Confronting Genocide. Springer Science & Business Media. ISBN 978-9048198405.
Gibbs 1991, p. 52. Gibbs, David N. (1991). The Political Economy of Third World Intervention: Mines, Money, and U.S. Policy in the Congo Crisis. American Politics and Political Economy. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0226290713. Archived from the original on 16 January 2023.
Stapleton 2017, p. 87. Stapleton, Timothy J. (2017). A History of Genocide in Africa. Praeger (ABC-CLIO). ISBN 978-1440830525.
Stapleton 2017, p. 88. Stapleton, Timothy J. (2017). A History of Genocide in Africa. Praeger (ABC-CLIO). ISBN 978-1440830525.
Simon 2007, p. 76. Simon, Thomas W. (2007). The Laws of Genocide: Prescriptions for a Just World. PSI Reports. Praeger. ISBN 978-0275979454.
Stapleton 2017, pp. 88–89. Stapleton, Timothy J. (2017). A History of Genocide in Africa. Praeger (ABC-CLIO). ISBN 978-1440830525.
Ewans 2017, Introduction. Ewans, Martin (2017). European Atrocity, African Catastrophe: Leopold II, the Congo Free State and its Aftermath. Routledge. ISBN 978-1317849070.

brusselstimes.com

"'Assassin': another Leopold II statue vandalised". The Brussels Times. 10 June 2020. Archived from the original on 11 June 2020. Retrieved 10 June 2020.

cnn.com

Picheta, Rob (1 July 2020). "Belgium's King sends 'regrets' to Congo for Leopold II atrocities—but doesn't apologize". CNN. Archived from the original on 30 June 2020. Retrieved 1 July 2020.

congo2005.be

"Brochure" (PDF). www.congo2005.be. pp. 8–9. Archived from the original (PDF) on 31 August 2017.

demorgen.be

Struys, Burno (6 June 2020). "Dit zijn de organisatoren van de Belgische Black Lives Matter-betogingen" [These are the organizers of the Belgian Black Lives Matter demonstrations]. De Morgen (in Dutch). Archived from the original on 20 June 2020. Retrieved 7 June 2020.

doi.org

Harms, Robert (1983). "The World Abir Made: The Maringa-Lopori Basin, 1885–1903". African Economic History. 12 (12): 122–139. doi:10.2307/3601320. JSTOR 3601320.
Thompson, T. Jack (October 2002). "Light on the Dark Continent: The Photography of Alice Seely Harris and the Congo Atrocities of the Early Twentieth Century". International Bulletin of Missionary Research. 26 (4): 146–9. doi:10.1177/239693930202600401. S2CID 146866987. Archived from the original on 21 July 2021. Retrieved 21 July 2021.
Schaller 2005, p. 535. Schaller, Dominik (2005). "Raphael Lemkin's view of European colonial rule in Africa: between condemnation and admiration" (PDF). Journal of Genocide Research. 7 (4): 538. doi:10.1080/14623520500349977. ISSN 1469-9494. S2CID 36915506. Archived from the original (PDF) on 12 December 2019. Retrieved 12 December 2019.
Verbeeck 2020, p. 297. Verbeeck, Georgi (2020). "Legacies of an imperial past in a small nation. Patterns of postcolonialism in Belgium". European Politics and Society. 21 (3): 292–306. doi:10.1080/23745118.2019.1645422. ISSN 2374-5118. S2CID 201454642.
Sanderson, Jean-Paul (2020). "Du reflux à la croissance démographique : comment la démographie congolaise a-t-elle été influencée par la colonisation ?". In Goddeeris, Idesbald; Lauro, Amandine; Vanthemsche, Guy (eds.). Le Congo colonial: Une histoire en questions (in French). Renaissance du Livre. p. 124. doi:10.14375/NP.9782369439875. ISBN 9782507057886.
Roes, A. (2010). "Towards a History of Mass Violence in the Etat Indépendant du Congo, 1885–1908" (PDF). South African Historical Journal. 62 (4): 12. doi:10.1080/02582473.2010.519937. S2CID 144843155. Archived (PDF) from the original on 31 October 2020. Retrieved 14 December 2019.
Anstey 1971, p. 70. Anstey, Roger (1971). "The Congo Rubber Atrocities – A Case Study". African Historical Studies. 4 (1): 59–76. doi:10.2307/216268. JSTOR 216268.
Weisbord 2003. Weisbord, Robert (2003). "Response to 'The King, the Cardinal and the Pope: Leopold II's genocide in the Congo and the Vatican'". Journal of Genocide Research. 5 (1): 35–45. doi:10.1080/14623520305651. S2CID 73371517.
Goddeeris 2015, p. 437. Goddeeris, Idesbald (2015). "Postcolonial Belgium: The Memory of the Congo". International Journal of Postcolonial Studies. 17 (3): 434–51. doi:10.1080/1369801X.2014.998253. S2CID 163672254.

hln.be

"Al meer dan 16.000 handtekeningen voor petitie om standbeelden Leopold II uit Brussel weg te nemen, Tommelein wil beeld in Oostende niet verwijderen" [More than 16,000 signatures for petition to remove statues of Leopold II from Brussels, Tommelein does not want to remove statue in Ostend]. Het Laatste Nieuws (in Dutch). 3 June 2020. Archived from the original on 8 July 2020. Retrieved 7 June 2020.
"Het Debat. Moeten standbeelden van Leopold II en andere bedenkelijke historische figuren verdwijnen uit het straatbeeld?" [The debate. Should statues of Leopold II and other questionable historical figures disappear from the streets?]. Het Laatste Nieuws (in Dutch). 6 June 2020. Archived from the original on 19 June 2020. Retrieved 7 June 2020.

independent.co.uk

Gerdziunas, Benas (17 October 2017). "Belgium's genocidal colonial legacy haunts the country's future". The Independent. Archived from the original on 15 June 2020. Retrieved 10 July 2019.

inogs.com

Schaller 2005, p. 535. Schaller, Dominik (2005). "Raphael Lemkin's view of European colonial rule in Africa: between condemnation and admiration" (PDF). Journal of Genocide Research. 7 (4): 538. doi:10.1080/14623520500349977. ISSN 1469-9494. S2CID 36915506. Archived from the original (PDF) on 12 December 2019. Retrieved 12 December 2019.

journalbelgianhistory.be

Vangroenweghe 2006, pp. 323–326. Vangroenweghe, Daniël [in Dutch] (2006). "The 'Leopold II' concession system exported to French Congo with as example the Mpoko Company" (PDF). Revue belge d'Histoire contemporaine-Belgisch Tijdschrift voor Nieuwste Geschiedenis. 36 (3–4): 323–372. Archived (PDF) from the original on 11 October 2016. Retrieved 20 August 2016.

jstor.org

Harms, Robert (1983). "The World Abir Made: The Maringa-Lopori Basin, 1885–1903". African Economic History. 12 (12): 122–139. doi:10.2307/3601320. JSTOR 3601320.
Anstey 1971, p. 70. Anstey, Roger (1971). "The Congo Rubber Atrocities – A Case Study". African Historical Studies. 4 (1): 59–76. doi:10.2307/216268. JSTOR 216268.

lesoir.be

Bodeux, Jean-Luc (18 June 2020). "Arlon: pétition et contre-pétition autour de Léopold II" [Arlon: petition and counter-petition around Leopold II]. Le Soir (in French). Archived from the original on 22 November 2021. Retrieved 19 June 2020.

nanopdf.com

Readers guide for King Leopold's Ghost published by Houghton, accessible via: https://nanopdf.com/download/readers-guide-for-king-leopolds-ghost-published-by-houghton_pdf Archived 29 June 2022 at the Wayback Machine

newstatesman.com

Keating, Dave (9 June 2020). "How Belgium is being forced to confront the bloody legacy of King Leopold II". New Statesman. Archived from the original on 11 June 2020. Retrieved 16 June 2020.

npr.org

Schultz, Teri (5 June 2020). "Belgians Target Some Royal Monuments In Black Lives Matter Protest". NPR. Archived from the original on 1 July 2020. Retrieved 7 June 2020.

nybooks.com

Hochschild 2005. Hochschild, Adam (6 October 2005). "In the Heart of Darkness". New York Review of Books. 52 (15). Archived from the original on 14 November 2015. Retrieved 20 August 2016.
Vellut 2006. Vellut, Jean-Luc (12 January 2006). "Response to 'In the Heart of Darkness'". New York Review of Books. 53 (1).

nytimes.com

Maclean, Ruth; Peltier, Elian (8 June 2022). "Belgian King Returns Mask to Congo in Landmark Visit". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Archived from the original on 16 January 2023. Retrieved 23 April 2023.

panos.co.uk

library.panos.co.uk

"Photo ASL00018DRC". Panos Pictures. Retrieved 7 April 2025.

parliament.uk

Early day motion 2251. "Early day motion 2251". Houses of Parliament. Archived from the original on 24 August 2018. Retrieved 29 December 2015.

rtbf.be

"Pourquoi les opposants à Léopold II continuent-ils à vandaliser les statues de l'ancien Roi?" [Why do opponents of Leopold II continue to vandalize statues of the former King?]. RTBF (in French). 6 June 2020. Archived from the original on 19 June 2020. Retrieved 19 June 2020.

semanticscholar.org

api.semanticscholar.org

Thompson, T. Jack (October 2002). "Light on the Dark Continent: The Photography of Alice Seely Harris and the Congo Atrocities of the Early Twentieth Century". International Bulletin of Missionary Research. 26 (4): 146–9. doi:10.1177/239693930202600401. S2CID 146866987. Archived from the original on 21 July 2021. Retrieved 21 July 2021.
Schaller 2005, p. 535. Schaller, Dominik (2005). "Raphael Lemkin's view of European colonial rule in Africa: between condemnation and admiration" (PDF). Journal of Genocide Research. 7 (4): 538. doi:10.1080/14623520500349977. ISSN 1469-9494. S2CID 36915506. Archived from the original (PDF) on 12 December 2019. Retrieved 12 December 2019.
Verbeeck 2020, p. 297. Verbeeck, Georgi (2020). "Legacies of an imperial past in a small nation. Patterns of postcolonialism in Belgium". European Politics and Society. 21 (3): 292–306. doi:10.1080/23745118.2019.1645422. ISSN 2374-5118. S2CID 201454642.
Roes, A. (2010). "Towards a History of Mass Violence in the Etat Indépendant du Congo, 1885–1908" (PDF). South African Historical Journal. 62 (4): 12. doi:10.1080/02582473.2010.519937. S2CID 144843155. Archived (PDF) from the original on 31 October 2020. Retrieved 14 December 2019.
Weisbord 2003. Weisbord, Robert (2003). "Response to 'The King, the Cardinal and the Pope: Leopold II's genocide in the Congo and the Vatican'". Journal of Genocide Research. 5 (1): 35–45. doi:10.1080/14623520305651. S2CID 73371517.
Goddeeris 2015, p. 437. Goddeeris, Idesbald (2015). "Postcolonial Belgium: The Memory of the Congo". International Journal of Postcolonial Studies. 17 (3): 434–51. doi:10.1080/1369801X.2014.998253. S2CID 163672254.

thefreelibrary.com

Thompson, T. Jack (October 2002). "Light on the Dark Continent: The Photography of Alice Seely Harris and the Congo Atrocities of the Early Twentieth Century". International Bulletin of Missionary Research. 26 (4): 146–9. doi:10.1177/239693930202600401. S2CID 146866987. Archived from the original on 21 July 2021. Retrieved 21 July 2021.

theguardian.com

Bates, Stephen (13 May 1999). "The hidden holocaust". The Guardian. Archived from the original on 27 June 2018. Retrieved 10 July 2019.
Olusoga, David; Tailor, Neelam; Costa, Marina; Chulani, Nikhita (19 June 2020). "Is this the end for colonial-era statues?". The Guardian. Retrieved 19 June 2020.

uclouvain.be

dial.uclouvain.be

Sanderson J.P. La demographie du Congo sous la colonisation Belge, UCL 2010. Available from: https://dial.uclouvain.be/pr/boreal/object/boreal:33212 Archived 20 February 2022 at the Wayback Machine

web.archive.org

Vangroenweghe 2006, pp. 323–326. Vangroenweghe, Daniël [in Dutch] (2006). "The 'Leopold II' concession system exported to French Congo with as example the Mpoko Company" (PDF). Revue belge d'Histoire contemporaine-Belgisch Tijdschrift voor Nieuwste Geschiedenis. 36 (3–4): 323–372. Archived (PDF) from the original on 11 October 2016. Retrieved 20 August 2016.
Gibbs 1991, p. 51. Gibbs, David N. (1991). The Political Economy of Third World Intervention: Mines, Money, and U.S. Policy in the Congo Crisis. American Politics and Political Economy. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0226290713. Archived from the original on 16 January 2023.
Bates, Stephen (13 May 1999). "The hidden holocaust". The Guardian. Archived from the original on 27 June 2018. Retrieved 10 July 2019.
Thompson, T. Jack (October 2002). "Light on the Dark Continent: The Photography of Alice Seely Harris and the Congo Atrocities of the Early Twentieth Century". International Bulletin of Missionary Research. 26 (4): 146–9. doi:10.1177/239693930202600401. S2CID 146866987. Archived from the original on 21 July 2021. Retrieved 21 July 2021.
Siefkes 2022, pp. 80–85. Siefkes, Christian (2022). Edible People: The Historical Consumption of Slaves and Foreigners and the Cannibalistic Trade in Human Flesh. New York: Berghahn Books. ISBN 978-1-80073-613-9. Archived from the original on 12 July 2023.
Gibbs 1991, p. 46. Gibbs, David N. (1991). The Political Economy of Third World Intervention: Mines, Money, and U.S. Policy in the Congo Crisis. American Politics and Political Economy. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0226290713. Archived from the original on 16 January 2023.
Schaller 2005, p. 535. Schaller, Dominik (2005). "Raphael Lemkin's view of European colonial rule in Africa: between condemnation and admiration" (PDF). Journal of Genocide Research. 7 (4): 538. doi:10.1080/14623520500349977. ISSN 1469-9494. S2CID 36915506. Archived from the original (PDF) on 12 December 2019. Retrieved 12 December 2019.
Sanderson J.P. La demographie du Congo sous la colonisation Belge, UCL 2010. Available from: https://dial.uclouvain.be/pr/boreal/object/boreal:33212 Archived 20 February 2022 at the Wayback Machine
"Brochure" (PDF). www.congo2005.be. pp. 8–9. Archived from the original (PDF) on 31 August 2017.
Readers guide for King Leopold's Ghost published by Houghton, accessible via: https://nanopdf.com/download/readers-guide-for-king-leopolds-ghost-published-by-houghton_pdf Archived 29 June 2022 at the Wayback Machine
Roes, A. (2010). "Towards a History of Mass Violence in the Etat Indépendant du Congo, 1885–1908" (PDF). South African Historical Journal. 62 (4): 12. doi:10.1080/02582473.2010.519937. S2CID 144843155. Archived (PDF) from the original on 31 October 2020. Retrieved 14 December 2019.
Gibbs 1991, p. 52. Gibbs, David N. (1991). The Political Economy of Third World Intervention: Mines, Money, and U.S. Policy in the Congo Crisis. American Politics and Political Economy. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0226290713. Archived from the original on 16 January 2023.
Gerdziunas, Benas (17 October 2017). "Belgium's genocidal colonial legacy haunts the country's future". The Independent. Archived from the original on 15 June 2020. Retrieved 10 July 2019.
Maclean, Ruth; Peltier, Elian (8 June 2022). "Belgian King Returns Mask to Congo in Landmark Visit". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Archived from the original on 16 January 2023. Retrieved 23 April 2023.
Hochschild 2005. Hochschild, Adam (6 October 2005). "In the Heart of Darkness". New York Review of Books. 52 (15). Archived from the original on 14 November 2015. Retrieved 20 August 2016.
World Without Genocide 2012. "Democratic Republic of the Congo". World Without Genocide. 2012. Archived from the original on 15 July 2015. Retrieved 29 July 2015.
"Monument au roi Léopold II – Arlon" [Monument to King Leopold II – Arlon]. Be=Monumen (in French). 2019. Archived from the original on 4 August 2020. Retrieved 7 June 2020.
Keating, Dave (9 June 2020). "How Belgium is being forced to confront the bloody legacy of King Leopold II". New Statesman. Archived from the original on 11 June 2020. Retrieved 16 June 2020.
Early day motion 2251. "Early day motion 2251". Houses of Parliament. Archived from the original on 24 August 2018. Retrieved 29 December 2015.
"DR Congo's Leopold statue removed". BBC News. 4 February 2005. Archived from the original on 9 July 2023. Retrieved 1 July 2023.
"'Assassin': another Leopold II statue vandalised". The Brussels Times. 10 June 2020. Archived from the original on 11 June 2020. Retrieved 10 June 2020.
Schultz, Teri (5 June 2020). "Belgians Target Some Royal Monuments In Black Lives Matter Protest". NPR. Archived from the original on 1 July 2020. Retrieved 7 June 2020.
"Al meer dan 16.000 handtekeningen voor petitie om standbeelden Leopold II uit Brussel weg te nemen, Tommelein wil beeld in Oostende niet verwijderen" [More than 16,000 signatures for petition to remove statues of Leopold II from Brussels, Tommelein does not want to remove statue in Ostend]. Het Laatste Nieuws (in Dutch). 3 June 2020. Archived from the original on 8 July 2020. Retrieved 7 June 2020.
"Het Debat. Moeten standbeelden van Leopold II en andere bedenkelijke historische figuren verdwijnen uit het straatbeeld?" [The debate. Should statues of Leopold II and other questionable historical figures disappear from the streets?]. Het Laatste Nieuws (in Dutch). 6 June 2020. Archived from the original on 19 June 2020. Retrieved 7 June 2020.
Struys, Burno (6 June 2020). "Dit zijn de organisatoren van de Belgische Black Lives Matter-betogingen" [These are the organizers of the Belgian Black Lives Matter demonstrations]. De Morgen (in Dutch). Archived from the original on 20 June 2020. Retrieved 7 June 2020.
"Pourquoi les opposants à Léopold II continuent-ils à vandaliser les statues de l'ancien Roi?" [Why do opponents of Leopold II continue to vandalize statues of the former King?]. RTBF (in French). 6 June 2020. Archived from the original on 19 June 2020. Retrieved 19 June 2020.
Bodeux, Jean-Luc (18 June 2020). "Arlon: pétition et contre-pétition autour de Léopold II" [Arlon: petition and counter-petition around Leopold II]. Le Soir (in French). Archived from the original on 22 November 2021. Retrieved 19 June 2020.
Picheta, Rob (1 July 2020). "Belgium's King sends 'regrets' to Congo for Leopold II atrocities—but doesn't apologize". CNN. Archived from the original on 30 June 2020. Retrieved 1 July 2020.

whiterose.ac.uk

eprints.whiterose.ac.uk

Roes, A. (2010). "Towards a History of Mass Violence in the Etat Indépendant du Congo, 1885–1908" (PDF). South African Historical Journal. 62 (4): 12. doi:10.1080/02582473.2010.519937. S2CID 144843155. Archived (PDF) from the original on 31 October 2020. Retrieved 14 December 2019.

wikipedia.org

nl.wikipedia.org

Vangroenweghe 2006, pp. 323–326. Vangroenweghe, Daniël [in Dutch] (2006). "The 'Leopold II' concession system exported to French Congo with as example the Mpoko Company" (PDF). Revue belge d'Histoire contemporaine-Belgisch Tijdschrift voor Nieuwste Geschiedenis. 36 (3–4): 323–372. Archived (PDF) from the original on 11 October 2016. Retrieved 20 August 2016.
Vangroenweghe, Daniël [in Dutch] (2020) [1985]. Rood Rubber [Red Rubber] (in Dutch). De Geus. p. 70.

worldcat.org

search.worldcat.org

Slade 1962, p. 171. Slade, Ruth M. (1962). King Leopold's Congo: Aspects of the Development of Race Relations in the Congo Independent State. Institute of Race Relations. Oxford: Oxford University Press. OCLC 655811695.
Slade 1962, p. 172. Slade, Ruth M. (1962). King Leopold's Congo: Aspects of the Development of Race Relations in the Congo Independent State. Institute of Race Relations. Oxford: Oxford University Press. OCLC 655811695.
Slade 1962, p. 173. Slade, Ruth M. (1962). King Leopold's Congo: Aspects of the Development of Race Relations in the Congo Independent State. Institute of Race Relations. Oxford: Oxford University Press. OCLC 655811695.
Slade 1962, p. 178. Slade, Ruth M. (1962). King Leopold's Congo: Aspects of the Development of Race Relations in the Congo Independent State. Institute of Race Relations. Oxford: Oxford University Press. OCLC 655811695.
Slade 1962, p. 177. Slade, Ruth M. (1962). King Leopold's Congo: Aspects of the Development of Race Relations in the Congo Independent State. Institute of Race Relations. Oxford: Oxford University Press. OCLC 655811695.
Slade 1962, p. 181. Slade, Ruth M. (1962). King Leopold's Congo: Aspects of the Development of Race Relations in the Congo Independent State. Institute of Race Relations. Oxford: Oxford University Press. OCLC 655811695.
Slade 1962, p. 115. Slade, Ruth M. (1962). King Leopold's Congo: Aspects of the Development of Race Relations in the Congo Independent State. Institute of Race Relations. Oxford: Oxford University Press. OCLC 655811695.
Schaller 2005, p. 535. Schaller, Dominik (2005). "Raphael Lemkin's view of European colonial rule in Africa: between condemnation and admiration" (PDF). Journal of Genocide Research. 7 (4): 538. doi:10.1080/14623520500349977. ISSN 1469-9494. S2CID 36915506. Archived from the original (PDF) on 12 December 2019. Retrieved 12 December 2019.
Verbeeck 2020, p. 297. Verbeeck, Georgi (2020). "Legacies of an imperial past in a small nation. Patterns of postcolonialism in Belgium". European Politics and Society. 21 (3): 292–306. doi:10.1080/23745118.2019.1645422. ISSN 2374-5118. S2CID 201454642.
Slade 1962, p. 179. Slade, Ruth M. (1962). King Leopold's Congo: Aspects of the Development of Race Relations in the Congo Independent State. Institute of Race Relations. Oxford: Oxford University Press. OCLC 655811695.
Slade 1962, pp. 178–179. Slade, Ruth M. (1962). King Leopold's Congo: Aspects of the Development of Race Relations in the Congo Independent State. Institute of Race Relations. Oxford: Oxford University Press. OCLC 655811695.
Slade 1962, p. 180. Slade, Ruth M. (1962). King Leopold's Congo: Aspects of the Development of Race Relations in the Congo Independent State. Institute of Race Relations. Oxford: Oxford University Press. OCLC 655811695.
Maclean, Ruth; Peltier, Elian (8 June 2022). "Belgian King Returns Mask to Congo in Landmark Visit". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Archived from the original on 16 January 2023. Retrieved 23 April 2023.

worldwithoutgenocide.org

World Without Genocide 2012. "Democratic Republic of the Congo". World Without Genocide. 2012. Archived from the original on 15 July 2015. Retrieved 29 July 2015.