References analysis of the Wikipedia article "Circus Maximus" in the English version

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Bowersock, Glen Warren; Brown, Peter; Grabar, Oleg (1999). Late Antiquity: A Guide to the Postclassical World. Harvard University Press. p. 674. ISBN 978-0-674-51173-6.; citing Procopius, The Gothic Wars, 3. 37. 4. For the last known beast-hunt at the Circus, see Humphrey 1986, p. 131. Humphrey describes the last known Circus event (549) as "games". Humphrey, John H. (1986). Roman Circuses: Arenas for Chariot Racing. University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-04921-5.

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Humphrey 1986, p. 57 Humphrey, John H. (1986). Roman Circuses: Arenas for Chariot Racing. University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-04921-5.

This is a modern recalculation of the seat capacity at the Circus, a substantial downward revision of Pliny the Elder's estimate of 250,000. For discussion, see Humphrey 1986, p. 126 Humphrey, John H. (1986). Roman Circuses: Arenas for Chariot Racing. University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-04921-5.

Humphrey 1986, pp. 66–67 Humphrey, John H. (1986). Roman Circuses: Arenas for Chariot Racing. University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-04921-5.

Humphrey 1986, p. 71, A later iron cage-work barrier is evident at Pompey's venatione of 55 BC. Humphrey, John H. (1986). Roman Circuses: Arenas for Chariot Racing. University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-04921-5.

Humphrey 1986, p. 72, citing T. P. Wiseman, "Looking for Camerius. The Topography of Catullus 55," Papers of the British School at Rome, 1980, pp. 11–13 with footnotes. Humphrey, John H. (1986). Roman Circuses: Arenas for Chariot Racing. University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-04921-5.

Humphrey 1986, p. 72 Humphrey, John H. (1986). Roman Circuses: Arenas for Chariot Racing. University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-04921-5.

Extraordinarily long races of up to 128 miles, if Pliny the Elder is to be believed; see Humphrey 1986, p. 71 Humphrey, John H. (1986). Roman Circuses: Arenas for Chariot Racing. University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-04921-5.

Humphrey 1986, pp. 71–72 Humphrey, John H. (1986). Roman Circuses: Arenas for Chariot Racing. University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-04921-5.

Humphrey 1986, p. 128, citing Historia Augusta, Probus, 19.2–4. Humphrey, John H. (1986). Roman Circuses: Arenas for Chariot Racing. University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-04921-5.

Humphrey 1986, p. 11. Humphrey describes this as "like a Greek hippodrome" Humphrey, John H. (1986). Roman Circuses: Arenas for Chariot Racing. University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-04921-5.

Tarquin might have employed the plebs in constructing a conduit or drain (cloaca) for Murcia's stream, discharging into the Tiber. See Humphrey 1986, p. 67 Humphrey, John H. (1986). Roman Circuses: Arenas for Chariot Racing. University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-04921-5.

Etruscan tomb paintings of chariot races offer a possible seating model for this earliest phase; noble sponsors and other dignitaries sit in elevated stands, complete with awning. Commoners lounge or sit below, at ground level. At the early Circus Maximus, the sloping ground afforded the possibility of turf seating tiers at an early date – as imagined by Ovid in his account of the first Consualia – replaced with wooden seating tiers by later sponsors and benefactors. See Humphrey 1986, pp. 65–66, 68–69, for early metae and a possible canal as central dividing barrier, see summary on pp. 292–3. Humphrey, John H. (1986). Roman Circuses: Arenas for Chariot Racing. University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-04921-5.

In the earliest exercise of the right, a curule chair would have been brought to the spot; its permanent positioning there is unlikely. See Humphrey 1986, p. 61 Humphrey, John H. (1986). Roman Circuses: Arenas for Chariot Racing. University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-04921-5.

Livy has the plebs seated "promiscuously" (antea in promiscuo spectabant) up to then: see Humphrey 1986, p. 70 Humphrey, John H. (1986). Roman Circuses: Arenas for Chariot Racing. University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-04921-5.

Humphrey 1986, p. 171; the gates probably used the same animal-sinew torsion springing as the Roman ballista; Ibid, pp. 137–138: opposing teams of Reds and Whites are prominent in late Republican literature, and Greens and Blues in the Imperial era. Some Roman authors held that team-racing in multiple colors dated back to the regal era. Ibid, p. 175 for allocation of stalls by lottery. Humphrey, John H. (1986). Roman Circuses: Arenas for Chariot Racing. University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-04921-5.

Humphrey 1986, pp. 261–265 Humphrey, John H. (1986). Roman Circuses: Arenas for Chariot Racing. University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-04921-5.

A processional entrance at the semi-circular end,. prior to the erection there of Titus' triumphal arch, is assumed by most modern sources. See Humphrey 1986, pp. 69, 97ff Humphrey, John H. (1986). Roman Circuses: Arenas for Chariot Racing. University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-04921-5.

Humphrey 1986, pp. 75, 84 Humphrey, John H. (1986). Roman Circuses: Arenas for Chariot Racing. University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-04921-5.

As far as is known, there was no significant expansion of seating between Caesar's improvements and Pliny's estimate of 250,000 seats. His estimate ignores the necessary interruptions of seating rows by access stairways and corridors. It might represent a per foot run seating estimate, or include those watching from the nearby heights, outside the building proper. In late Imperial regionary catalogues, seating estimates for the Circus become even wilder; one gives an impossible 450,000 seats. Discussion is in Humphrey 1986, p. 126 Humphrey, John H. (1986). Roman Circuses: Arenas for Chariot Racing. University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-04921-5.

Humphrey 1986, pp. 72–73. Dionysius of Halicarnassus described the Circus and its seating c.30 BC–AD 8. Augustus also rebuilt Ceres' temple, above the starting gates; it was probably damaged in the fire of 31 BC. Ibid, pp. 268–272 for Augustus' obelisk. Humphrey, John H. (1986). Roman Circuses: Arenas for Chariot Racing. University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-04921-5.

Humphrey 1986, pp. 100–101. Claudius' improvements at the Circus included stone-built or marble-clad starting stalls and rebuilt turning posts. Humphrey, John H. (1986). Roman Circuses: Arenas for Chariot Racing. University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-04921-5.

Nero, inordinately fond of chariot-racing, may have considered the Circus rebuilding a priority but the overall cost of Rome's rebuilding must have proved an extraordinary drain on Imperial and public funds. Wooden bleachers for the Roman masses were an expedient, cost-effective solution. If Nero had grander plans for the Circus, they ended with his suicide under compulsion, after a coup d'etat in AD 68. Humphrey 1986, p. 101 Humphrey, John H. (1986). Roman Circuses: Arenas for Chariot Racing. University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-04921-5.

Humphrey 1986, pp. 293–294 Humphrey, John H. (1986). Roman Circuses: Arenas for Chariot Racing. University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-04921-5.

Humphrey 1986, p. 74 Humphrey, John H. (1986). Roman Circuses: Arenas for Chariot Racing. University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-04921-5.

Humphrey 1986, pp. 80, 102, 126–9 Humphrey, John H. (1986). Roman Circuses: Arenas for Chariot Racing. University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-04921-5.

The prestige attached to the curule chair granted Manius Valerius Maximus and his descendants in 494 BC would have been enhanced by its positioning close to this shrine. See Humphrey 1986, p. 61 Humphrey, John H. (1986). Roman Circuses: Arenas for Chariot Racing. University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-04921-5.

Humphrey 1986, p. 62 Humphrey, John H. (1986). Roman Circuses: Arenas for Chariot Racing. University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-04921-5.

Humphrey 1986, p. 62; "later Roman authors often reported the Consualia were held in honour of Neptunus Equestris." Humphrey, John H. (1986). Roman Circuses: Arenas for Chariot Racing. University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-04921-5.

Most modern sources use spina (a spine) for the central barrier, based on a single, very late Roman source (Cassiodorus), but most Roman sources used euripus, a Greek word meaning a channel, strait, or canal, and thus a barrier. See Humphrey 1986, p. 175 Humphrey, John H. (1986). Roman Circuses: Arenas for Chariot Racing. University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-04921-5.

Humphrey 1986, pp. 61–62. For Murcia's shifting topographical associations, see Otto Skutsch, "Enniana IV: Condendae urbis auspicia", The Classical Quarterly, New Series, Vol. 11, No. 2 (Nov., 1961), pp. 252–67. Humphrey, John H. (1986). Roman Circuses: Arenas for Chariot Racing. University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-04921-5.

Humphrey 1986, pp. 61–64, 92–94, 270–273 Humphrey, John H. (1986). Roman Circuses: Arenas for Chariot Racing. University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-04921-5.

Partner, Peter (1976). Renaissance Rome 1500–1559: A Portrait of a Society. University of California Press. pp. 4, 166. ISBN 978-0-520-03945-2.

Humphrey 1986, p. 57. Humphrey, John H. (1986). Roman Circuses: Arenas for Chariot Racing. University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-04921-5.

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Circus Maximus (English Wikipedia)

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