Computer (English Wikipedia)

Chartier, David (23 December 2008). "Global notebook shipments finally overtake desktops". Ars Technica. Archived from the original on 4 July 2017. Retrieved 14 June 2017.
Edwards, Benj (20 February 2025). "Microsoft's new AI agent can control software and robots". Ars Technica. Retrieved 17 May 2025.

arxiv.org (Global: 69^th place; English: 59^th place)

Leiner, Barry M.; Cerf, Vinton G.; Clark, David D.; Kahn, Robert E.; Kleinrock, Leonard; Lynch, Daniel C.; Postel, Jon; Roberts, Larry G.; Wolf, Stephen (1999). "A Brief History of the Internet". arXiv:cs/9901011.

bbc.co.uk (Global: 8^th place; English: 10^th place)

news.bbc.co.uk

"Bletchley's code-cracking Colossus". BBC. Archived from the original on 4 February 2010. Retrieved 24 November 2021.

bbc.com (Global: 20^th place; English: 30^th place)

Miller, Joe (10 November 2014). "The woman who cracked Enigma cyphers". BBC News. Archived from the original on 10 November 2014. Retrieved 14 October 2018.
"Nvidia: The chip maker that became an AI superpower". BBC. 25 May 2023. Retrieved 17 May 2025.

bcs.org (Global: low place; English: low place)

Lavington, Simon. "A brief history of British computers: the first 25 years (1948–1973)". British Computer Society. Archived from the original on 5 July 2010. Retrieved 10 January 2010.

bnf.fr (Global: 124^th place; English: 544^th place)

gallica.bnf.fr

Torres Quevedo, Leonardo (1901). "Machines á calculer". Mémoires Présentés par Divers Savants à l'Académie des Scienes de l'Institut de France (in French). XXXII. Impr. nationale (París).

books.google.com (Global: 3^rd place; English: 3^rd place)

Evans 2018, p. 23. Evans, Claire L. (2018). Broad Band: The Untold Story of the Women Who Made the Internet. New York: Portfolio/Penguin. ISBN 978-0-7352-1175-9. Retrieved 9 November 2020.
Leonardo Torres. Memoria sobre las máquinas algébricas: con un informe de la Real academia de ciencias exactas, fisicas y naturales, Misericordia, 1895.
Ronald T. Kneusel. Numbers and Computers, Springer, pp. 84–85, 2017. ISBN 978-3-319-50508-4
Cristopher Moore, Stephan Mertens. The Nature of Computation, Oxford, England: Oxford University Press, p. 291, 2011. ISBN 978-0-199-23321-2.
O’Regan, Gerard, ed. (2008). A Brief History of Computing. London: Springer London. p. 28. doi:10.1007/978-1-84800-084-1. ISBN 978-1-84800-083-4.
Arthur W. Burks (1989). The First Electronic Computer. University of Michigan Press. ISBN 0-472-08104-7. Retrieved 1 June 2019.
Evans 2018, p. 39. Evans, Claire L. (2018). Broad Band: The Untold Story of the Women Who Made the Internet. New York: Portfolio/Penguin. ISBN 978-0-7352-1175-9. Retrieved 9 November 2020.
Puers, Robert; Baldi, Livio; Voorde, Marcel Van de; Nooten, Sebastiaan E. van (2017). Nanoelectronics: Materials, Devices, Applications, 2 Volumes. John Wiley & Sons. p. 14. ISBN 978-3-527-34053-8. Retrieved 31 July 2019.
Moskowitz, Sanford L. (2016). Advanced Materials Innovation: Managing Global Technology in the 21st century. John Wiley & Sons. pp. 165–167. ISBN 978-0-470-50892-3. Retrieved 28 August 2019.
Malmstadt, Howard V.; Enke, Christie G.; Crouch, Stanley R. (1994). Making the Right Connections: Microcomputers and Electronic Instrumentation. American Chemical Society. p. 389. ISBN 978-0-8412-2861-0. Retrieved 28 August 2019. The relative simplicity and low power requirements of MOSFETs have fostered today's microcomputer revolution.
Fossum, Jerry G.; Trivedi, Vishal P. (2013). Fundamentals of Ultra-Thin-Body MOSFETs and FinFETs. Cambridge University Press. p. vii. ISBN 978-1-107-43449-3. Retrieved 28 August 2019.
Winston, Brian (1998). Media Technology and Society: A History: From the Telegraph to the Internet. Routledge. p. 221. ISBN 978-0-415-14230-4. Retrieved 6 June 2020.
Saxena, Arjun N. (2009). Invention of Integrated Circuits: Untold Important Facts. World Scientific. p. 140. ISBN 978-981-281-445-6. Retrieved 28 August 2019.
Moskowitz, Sanford L. (2016). Advanced Materials Innovation: Managing Global Technology in the 21st century. John Wiley & Sons. p. 168. ISBN 978-0-470-50892-3.
Lécuyer, Christophe; Brook, David C.; Last, Jay (2010). Makers of the Microchip: A Documentary History of Fairchild Semiconductor. MIT Press. pp. 62–63. ISBN 978-0-262-01424-3.
Claeys, Cor L. (2003). ULSI Process Integration III: Proceedings of the International Symposium. The Electrochemical Society. pp. 27–30. ISBN 978-1-56677-376-8.
Colinge, Jean-Pierre; Greer, James C. (2016). Nanowire Transistors: Physics of Devices and Materials in One Dimension. Cambridge University Press. p. 2. ISBN 978-1-107-05240-6. Retrieved 31 July 2019.
"Google Books Ngram Viewer". books.google.com.
"Google Books Ngram Viewer". books.google.com.
"Google Books Ngram Viewer". books.google.com.
"Google Books Ngram Viewer". books.google.com.
Cragon, Harvey (2000). Computer Architecture and Implementation. Cambridge University Press. p. 5. ISBN 978-0-521-65168-4. Archived from the original on 30 July 2022. Retrieved 10 June 2022.
Xu, Zhiwei; Zhang, Jialin (2021). Computational Thinking: A Perspective on Computer Science. Singapore: Springer. p. 60. ISBN 978-981-16-3848-0. Archived from the original on 30 July 2022. Retrieved 10 June 2022. It is called the stored program architecture or stored program model, also known as the von Neumann architecture. We will use these terms interchangeably.
Leach, Ronald J. (27 January 2016). Introduction to Software Engineering. CRC Press. p. 11. ISBN 978-1-4987-0528-8. Retrieved 26 November 2022.
Zhu, Hong (22 March 2005). Software Design Methodology: From Principles to Architectural Styles. Elsevier. pp. 47–72. ISBN 978-0-08-045496-2. Retrieved 26 November 2022.
Leach, Ronald J. (27 January 2016). Introduction to Software Engineering. CRC Press. p. 56. ISBN 978-1-4987-0528-8. Retrieved 26 November 2022.
Knight, John (12 January 2012). Fundamentals of Dependable Computing for Software Engineers. CRC Press. p. 186. ISBN 978-1-4665-1821-6. Retrieved 26 November 2022.
Brooks (Jr.), Frederick P. (1975). The Mythical Man-month: Essays on Software Engineering. Addison-Wesley Publishing Company. ISBN 978-0-201-00650-6. Retrieved 26 November 2022.
Sommerville, Ian (2007). Software Engineering. Pearson Education. pp. 4–17. ISBN 978-0-321-31379-9. Retrieved 26 November 2022.
Dumas II, Joseph D. (2005). Computer Architecture: Fundamentals and Principles of Computer Design. CRC Press. p. 340. ISBN 978-0-8493-2749-0. Retrieved 9 November 2020.

chonday.com (Global: low place; English: low place)

"The Writer Automaton, Switzerland". chonday.com. 11 July 2013. Archived from the original on 20 February 2015. Retrieved 28 January 2015.

computer50.org (Global: low place; English: low place)

"Early Electronic Computers (1946–51)". University of Manchester. Archived from the original on 5 January 2009. Retrieved 16 November 2008.
Napper, R. B. E. "Introduction to the Mark 1". The University of Manchester. Archived from the original on 26 October 2008. Retrieved 4 November 2008.

computerhistory.org (Global: 2,213^th place; English: 1,495^th place)

Laws, David (4 December 2013). "Who Invented the Transistor?". Computer History Museum. Archived from the original on 13 December 2013. Retrieved 20 July 2019.
"1959: Practical Monolithic Integrated Circuit Concept Patented". Computer History Museum. Archived from the original on 24 October 2019. Retrieved 13 August 2019.
"Tortoise of Transistors Wins the Race – CHM Revolution". Computer History Museum. Archived from the original on 10 March 2020. Retrieved 22 July 2019.
"1964 – First Commercial MOS IC Introduced". Computer History Museum. Archived from the original on 22 December 2015. Retrieved 31 July 2019.
"1968: Silicon Gate Technology Developed for ICs". Computer History Museum. Archived from the original on 29 July 2020. Retrieved 22 July 2019.
"1971: Microprocessor Integrates CPU Function onto a Single Chip". Computer History Museum. Archived from the original on 12 August 2021. Retrieved 22 July 2019.

computerhope.com (Global: 8,400^th place; English: 6,430^th place)

"Who is the Father of the Computer?". ComputerHope.

doi.org (Global: 2^nd place; English: 2^nd place)

According to Schmandt-Besserat 1981, these clay containers contained tokens, the total of which were the count of objects being transferred. The containers thus served as something of a bill of lading or an accounts book. In order to avoid breaking open the containers, first, clay impressions of the tokens were placed on the outside of the containers, for the count; the shapes of the impressions were abstracted into stylized marks; finally, the abstract marks were systematically used as numerals; these numerals were finally formalized as numbers.
Eventually the marks on the outside of the containers were all that were needed to convey the count, and the clay containers evolved into clay tablets with marks for the count. Schmandt-Besserat 1999 estimates it took 4000 years. Schmandt-Besserat, Denise (1981). "Decipherment of the earliest tablets". Science. 211 (4479): 283–285. Bibcode:1981Sci...211..283S. doi:10.1126/science.211.4479.283. PMID 17748027. Schmandt-Besserat, Denise (1999). "Tokens: The Cognitive Significance". Documenta Praehistorica. XXVI. Archived from the original on 30 January 2012.
Smith 2013, p. 6. Smith, Erika E. (2013). "Recognizing a Collective Inheritance through the History of Women in Computing". CLCWeb: Comparative Literature and Culture. 15 (1): 1–9. doi:10.7771/1481-4374.1972.
Marchant, Jo (1 November 2006). "In search of lost time". Nature. 444 (7119): 534–538. Bibcode:2006Natur.444..534M. doi:10.1038/444534a. ISSN 0028-0836. PMID 17136067. S2CID 4305761.
Charette, François (2006). "Archaeology: High tech from Ancient Greece". Nature. 444 (7119): 551–552. Bibcode:2006Natur.444..551C. doi:10.1038/444551a. PMID 17136077. S2CID 33513516.
Bedini, Silvio A.; Maddison, Francis R. (1966). "Mechanical Universe: The Astrarium of Giovanni de' Dondi". Transactions of the American Philosophical Society. 56 (5): 1–69. doi:10.2307/1006002. JSTOR 1006002.
Price, Derek de S. (1984). "A History of Calculating Machines". IEEE Micro. 4 (1): 22–52. doi:10.1109/MM.1984.291305.
Thomas, Federico (1 August 2008). "A short account on Leonardo Torres' endless spindle". Mechanism and Machine Theory. 43 (8). IFToMM: 1055–1063. doi:10.1016/j.mechmachtheory.2007.07.003. hdl:10261/30460. ISSN 0094-114X.
Gomez-Jauregui, Valentin; Gutierrez-Garcia, Andres; González-Redondo, Francisco A.; Iglesias, Miguel; Manchado, Cristina; Otero, Cesar (1 June 2022). "Torres Quevedo's mechanical calculator for second-degree equations with complex coefficients". Mechanism and Machine Theory. 172 (8). IFToMM: 104830. doi:10.1016/j.mechmachtheory.2022.104830. hdl:10902/24391. S2CID 247503677.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: article number as page number (link)
O’Regan, Gerard, ed. (2008). A Brief History of Computing. London: Springer London. p. 28. doi:10.1007/978-1-84800-084-1. ISBN 978-1-84800-083-4.
Rojas, R. (1998). "How to make Zuse's Z3 a universal computer". IEEE Annals of the History of Computing. 20 (3): 51–54. Bibcode:1998IAHC...20c..51R. doi:10.1109/85.707574. S2CID 14606587.
Light 1999, p. 459. Light, Jennifer S. (1999). "When Computers Were Women". Technology and Culture. 40 (3): 455–483. doi:10.1353/tech.1999.0128. JSTOR 25147356. S2CID 108407884.
Turing, A. M. (1937). "On Computable Numbers, with an Application to the Entscheidungsproblem". Proceedings of the London Mathematical Society. 2. 42 (1): 230–265. doi:10.1112/plms/s2-42.1.230. S2CID 73712.
Cooke-Yarborough, E. H. (June 1998). "Some early transistor applications in the UK". Engineering Science & Education Journal. 7 (3): 100–106. doi:10.1049/esej:19980301 (inactive 11 July 2025). ISSN 0963-7346. Archived from the original on 8 November 2020. Retrieved 7 June 2009.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of July 2025 (link) (subscription required).
Huff, Howard; Riordan, Michael (1 September 2007). "Frosch and Derick: Fifty Years Later (Foreword)". The Electrochemical Society Interface. 16 (3): 29. doi:10.1149/2.F02073IF. ISSN 1064-8208.
Frosch, C. J.; Derick, L (1957). "Surface Protection and Selective Masking during Diffusion in Silicon". Journal of the Electrochemical Society. 104 (9): 547. doi:10.1149/1.2428650.
Kahng, D. (1961). "Silicon-Silicon Dioxide Surface Device". Technical Memorandum of Bell Laboratories: 583–596. doi:10.1142/9789814503464_0076. ISBN 978-981-02-0209-5. {{cite journal}}: ISBN / Date incompatibility (help)
Ligenza, J. R.; Spitzer, W. G. (1960). "The mechanisms for silicon oxidation in steam and oxygen". Journal of Physics and Chemistry of Solids. 14: 131–136. Bibcode:1960JPCS...14..131L. doi:10.1016/0022-3697(60)90219-5.
Motoyoshi, M. (2009). "Through-Silicon Via (TSV)". Proceedings of the IEEE. 97 (1): 43–48. doi:10.1109/JPROC.2008.2007462. ISSN 0018-9219. S2CID 29105721.
Hittinger, William C. (1973). "Metal-Oxide-Semiconductor Technology". Scientific American. 229 (2): 48–59. Bibcode:1973SciAm.229b..48H. doi:10.1038/scientificamerican0873-48. ISSN 0036-8733. JSTOR 24923169.
Frosch, C. J.; Derick, L. (1957). "Surface Protection and Selective Masking during Diffusion in Silicon". Journal of the Electrochemical Society. 104 (9): 547. doi:10.1149/1.2428650.
Kuo, Yue (1 January 2013). "Thin Film Transistor Technology—Past, Present, and Future" (PDF). The Electrochemical Society Interface. 22 (1): 55–61. Bibcode:2013ECSIn..22a..55K. doi:10.1149/2.F06131if. ISSN 1064-8208. Archived (PDF) from the original on 29 August 2017. Retrieved 31 July 2019.

ed-thelen.org (Global: low place; English: 9,452^nd place)

Bromley 1990. Bromley, Allan G. (1990). "Difference and Analytical Engines". In Aspray, William (ed.). Computing Before Computers (PDF). Ames: Iowa State University Press. pp. 59–98. ISBN 978-0-8138-0047-9. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022.

eetimes.com (Global: 3,722^nd place; English: 2,509^th place)

Young, Ian (12 December 2018). "Transistors Keep Moore's Law Alive". EETimes. Archived from the original on 24 September 2019. Retrieved 18 July 2019.

electrochem.org (Global: low place; English: low place)

Kuo, Yue (1 January 2013). "Thin Film Transistor Technology—Past, Present, and Future" (PDF). The Electrochemical Society Interface. 22 (1): 55–61. Bibcode:2013ECSIn..22a..55K. doi:10.1149/2.F06131if. ISSN 1064-8208. Archived (PDF) from the original on 29 August 2017. Retrieved 31 July 2019.

elsevier.com (Global: 610^th place; English: 704^th place)

linkinghub.elsevier.com

Ligenza, J. R.; Spitzer, W. G. (1960). "The mechanisms for silicon oxidation in steam and oxygen". Journal of Physics and Chemistry of Solids. 14: 131–136. Bibcode:1960JPCS...14..131L. doi:10.1016/0022-3697(60)90219-5.

epemag.com (Global: low place; English: low place)

Zuse, Horst. "Part 4: Konrad Zuse's Z1 and Z3 Computers". The Life and Work of Konrad Zuse. EPE Online. Archived from the original on 1 June 2008. Retrieved 17 June 2008.

epn-online.com (Global: low place; English: low place)

"The Hapless Tale of Geoffrey Dummer" Archived 11 May 2013 at the Wayback Machine, (n.d.), (HTML), Electronic Product News, accessed 8 July 2008.

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Robert Noyce's Unitary circuit, US patent 2981877, "Semiconductor device-and-lead structure", issued 25 April 1961, assigned to Fairchild Semiconductor Corporation .

etymonline.com (Global: 287^th place; English: 321^st place)

"computer (n.)". Online Etymology Dictionary. Archived from the original on 16 November 2016. Retrieved 19 August 2021.

fu-berlin.de (Global: 3,329^th place; English: 4,598^th place)

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Rojas, Raúl. "How to Make Zuse's Z3 a Universal Computer" (PDF). fu-berlin.de. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 August 2017. Retrieved 28 September 2015.

ghostarchive.org (Global: 32^nd place; English: 21^st place)

Bromley 1990. Bromley, Allan G. (1990). "Difference and Analytical Engines". In Aspray, William (ed.). Computing Before Computers (PDF). Ames: Iowa State University Press. pp. 59–98. ISBN 978-0-8138-0047-9. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022.

handle.net (Global: 102^nd place; English: 76^th place)

hdl.handle.net

Thomas, Federico (1 August 2008). "A short account on Leonardo Torres' endless spindle". Mechanism and Machine Theory. 43 (8). IFToMM: 1055–1063. doi:10.1016/j.mechmachtheory.2007.07.003. hdl:10261/30460. ISSN 0094-114X.
Gomez-Jauregui, Valentin; Gutierrez-Garcia, Andres; González-Redondo, Francisco A.; Iglesias, Miguel; Manchado, Cristina; Otero, Cesar (1 June 2022). "Torres Quevedo's mechanical calculator for second-degree equations with complex coefficients". Mechanism and Machine Theory. 172 (8). IFToMM: 104830. doi:10.1016/j.mechmachtheory.2022.104830. hdl:10902/24391. S2CID 247503677.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: article number as page number (link)

harvard.edu (Global: 18^th place; English: 17^th place)

ui.adsabs.harvard.edu

According to Schmandt-Besserat 1981, these clay containers contained tokens, the total of which were the count of objects being transferred. The containers thus served as something of a bill of lading or an accounts book. In order to avoid breaking open the containers, first, clay impressions of the tokens were placed on the outside of the containers, for the count; the shapes of the impressions were abstracted into stylized marks; finally, the abstract marks were systematically used as numerals; these numerals were finally formalized as numbers.
Eventually the marks on the outside of the containers were all that were needed to convey the count, and the clay containers evolved into clay tablets with marks for the count. Schmandt-Besserat 1999 estimates it took 4000 years. Schmandt-Besserat, Denise (1981). "Decipherment of the earliest tablets". Science. 211 (4479): 283–285. Bibcode:1981Sci...211..283S. doi:10.1126/science.211.4479.283. PMID 17748027. Schmandt-Besserat, Denise (1999). "Tokens: The Cognitive Significance". Documenta Praehistorica. XXVI. Archived from the original on 30 January 2012.
Marchant, Jo (1 November 2006). "In search of lost time". Nature. 444 (7119): 534–538. Bibcode:2006Natur.444..534M. doi:10.1038/444534a. ISSN 0028-0836. PMID 17136067. S2CID 4305761.
Charette, François (2006). "Archaeology: High tech from Ancient Greece". Nature. 444 (7119): 551–552. Bibcode:2006Natur.444..551C. doi:10.1038/444551a. PMID 17136077. S2CID 33513516.
Rojas, R. (1998). "How to make Zuse's Z3 a universal computer". IEEE Annals of the History of Computing. 20 (3): 51–54. Bibcode:1998IAHC...20c..51R. doi:10.1109/85.707574. S2CID 14606587.
Ligenza, J. R.; Spitzer, W. G. (1960). "The mechanisms for silicon oxidation in steam and oxygen". Journal of Physics and Chemistry of Solids. 14: 131–136. Bibcode:1960JPCS...14..131L. doi:10.1016/0022-3697(60)90219-5.
Hittinger, William C. (1973). "Metal-Oxide-Semiconductor Technology". Scientific American. 229 (2): 48–59. Bibcode:1973SciAm.229b..48H. doi:10.1038/scientificamerican0873-48. ISSN 0036-8733. JSTOR 24923169.
Kuo, Yue (1 January 2013). "Thin Film Transistor Technology—Past, Present, and Future" (PDF). The Electrochemical Society Interface. 22 (1): 55–61. Bibcode:2013ECSIn..22a..55K. doi:10.1149/2.F06131if. ISSN 1064-8208. Archived (PDF) from the original on 29 August 2017. Retrieved 31 July 2019.

idc.com (Global: low place; English: low place)

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ieee.org (Global: 652^nd place; English: 515^th place)

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Cooke-Yarborough, E. H. (June 1998). "Some early transistor applications in the UK". Engineering Science & Education Journal. 7 (3): 100–106. doi:10.1049/esej:19980301 (inactive 11 July 2025). ISSN 0963-7346. Archived from the original on 8 November 2020. Retrieved 7 June 2009.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of July 2025 (link) (subscription required).
Federico Faggin, The Making of the First Microprocessor, IEEE Solid-State Circuits Magazine, Winter 2009, IEEE Xplore.

independent.co.uk (Global: 36^th place; English: 33^rd place)

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invent.org (Global: 8,673^rd place; English: 5,941^st place)

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iop.org (Global: 1,725^th place; English: 1,828^th place)

iopscience.iop.org

Huff, Howard; Riordan, Michael (1 September 2007). "Frosch and Derick: Fifty Years Later (Foreword)". The Electrochemical Society Interface. 16 (3): 29. doi:10.1149/2.F02073IF. ISSN 1064-8208.
Frosch, C. J.; Derick, L (1957). "Surface Protection and Selective Masking during Diffusion in Silicon". Journal of the Electrochemical Society. 104 (9): 547. doi:10.1149/1.2428650.
Frosch, C. J.; Derick, L. (1957). "Surface Protection and Selective Masking during Diffusion in Silicon". Journal of the Electrochemical Society. 104 (9): 547. doi:10.1149/1.2428650.

jstor.org (Global: 26^th place; English: 20^th place)

Bedini, Silvio A.; Maddison, Francis R. (1966). "Mechanical Universe: The Astrarium of Giovanni de' Dondi". Transactions of the American Philosophical Society. 56 (5): 1–69. doi:10.2307/1006002. JSTOR 1006002.
Light 1999, p. 459. Light, Jennifer S. (1999). "When Computers Were Women". Technology and Culture. 40 (3): 455–483. doi:10.1353/tech.1999.0128. JSTOR 25147356. S2CID 108407884.
Hittinger, William C. (1973). "Metal-Oxide-Semiconductor Technology". Scientific American. 229 (2): 48–59. Bibcode:1973SciAm.229b..48H. doi:10.1038/scientificamerican0873-48. ISSN 0036-8733. JSTOR 24923169.

kdnuggets.com (Global: low place; English: low place)

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nih.gov (Global: 4^th place; English: 4^th place)

pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov

According to Schmandt-Besserat 1981, these clay containers contained tokens, the total of which were the count of objects being transferred. The containers thus served as something of a bill of lading or an accounts book. In order to avoid breaking open the containers, first, clay impressions of the tokens were placed on the outside of the containers, for the count; the shapes of the impressions were abstracted into stylized marks; finally, the abstract marks were systematically used as numerals; these numerals were finally formalized as numbers.
Eventually the marks on the outside of the containers were all that were needed to convey the count, and the clay containers evolved into clay tablets with marks for the count. Schmandt-Besserat 1999 estimates it took 4000 years. Schmandt-Besserat, Denise (1981). "Decipherment of the earliest tablets". Science. 211 (4479): 283–285. Bibcode:1981Sci...211..283S. doi:10.1126/science.211.4479.283. PMID 17748027. Schmandt-Besserat, Denise (1999). "Tokens: The Cognitive Significance". Documenta Praehistorica. XXVI. Archived from the original on 30 January 2012.
Marchant, Jo (1 November 2006). "In search of lost time". Nature. 444 (7119): 534–538. Bibcode:2006Natur.444..534M. doi:10.1038/444534a. ISSN 0028-0836. PMID 17136067. S2CID 4305761.
Charette, François (2006). "Archaeology: High tech from Ancient Greece". Nature. 444 (7119): 551–552. Bibcode:2006Natur.444..551C. doi:10.1038/444551a. PMID 17136077. S2CID 33513516.

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According to Schmandt-Besserat 1981, these clay containers contained tokens, the total of which were the count of objects being transferred. The containers thus served as something of a bill of lading or an accounts book. In order to avoid breaking open the containers, first, clay impressions of the tokens were placed on the outside of the containers, for the count; the shapes of the impressions were abstracted into stylized marks; finally, the abstract marks were systematically used as numerals; these numerals were finally formalized as numbers.
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etymonline.com (Global: 287^th place; English: 321^st place)

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ghostarchive.org (Global: 32^nd place; English: 21^st place)

handle.net (Global: 102^nd place; English: 76^th place)

harvard.edu (Global: 18^th place; English: 17^th place)

ieee.org (Global: 652^nd place; English: 515^th place)

independent.co.uk (Global: 36^th place; English: 33^rd place)

intel.com (Global: 1,118^th place; English: 825^th place)

invent.org (Global: 8,673^rd place; English: 5,941^st place)

iop.org (Global: 1,725^th place; English: 1,828^th place)

jstor.org (Global: 26^th place; English: 20^th place)

nasa.gov (Global: 75^th place; English: 83^rd place)

ncl.ac.uk (Global: 4,362^nd place; English: 3,162^nd place)

networkworld.com (Global: 4,121^st place; English: 2,662^nd place)

newscientist.com (Global: 774^th place; English: 716^th place)

nih.gov (Global: 4^th place; English: 4^th place)

nobelprize.org (Global: 301^st place; English: 478^th place)

nytimes.com (Global: 7^th place; English: 7^th place)

patents.google.com (Global: 1,182^nd place; English: 725^th place)

quantamagazine.org (Global: 6,413^th place; English: 4,268^th place)

sciencedirect.com (Global: 149^th place; English: 178^th place)

sciencemuseum.org.uk (Global: 9,230^th place; English: 7,258^th place)

scientificamerican.com (Global: 896^th place; English: 674^th place)

semanticscholar.org (Global: 11^th place; English: 8^th place)

st-and.ac.uk (Global: 3,503^rd place; English: 3,612^th place)

stanford.edu (Global: 179^th place; English: 183^rd place)

technologyreview.com (Global: 1,943^rd place; English: 1,253^rd place)

thefreedictionary.com (Global: 614^th place; English: 572^nd place)

theguardian.com (Global: 12^th place; English: 11^th place)

thoughtco.com (Global: 1,430^th place; English: 1,166^th place)

ti.com (Global: 4,228^th place; English: 2,818^th place)

time.com (Global: 61^st place; English: 54^th place)

top500.org (Global: 7,602^nd place; English: 6,867^th place)

uottawa.ca (Global: 9,033^rd place; English: 6,971^st place)

uspto.gov (Global: 1,459^th place; English: 991^st place)

utexas.edu (Global: 916^th place; English: 706^th place)

web.archive.org (Global: 1^st place; English: 1^st place)

worldcat.org (Global: 5^th place; English: 5^th place)

youtube.com (Global: 9^th place; English: 13^th place)