Computer (English Wikipedia)

According to Schmandt-Besserat 1981, these clay containers contained tokens, the total of which were the count of objects being transferred. The containers thus served as something of a bill of lading or an accounts book. In order to avoid breaking open the containers, first, clay impressions of the tokens were placed on the outside of the containers, for the count; the shapes of the impressions were abstracted into stylized marks; finally, the abstract marks were systematically used as numerals; these numerals were finally formalized as numbers.
Eventually, the marks on the outside of the containers were all that was needed to convey the count, and the clay containers evolved into clay tablets with marks for the count. Schmandt-Besserat 1999 estimates it took 4000 years. Schmandt-Besserat, Denise (1981). "Decipherment of the earliest tablets". Science. 211 (4479): 283–285. Bibcode:1981Sci...211..283S. doi:10.1126/science.211.4479.283. PMID 17748027. Schmandt-Besserat, Denise (1999). "Tokens: The Cognitive Significance". Documenta Praehistorica. XXVI. Archived from the original on 30 January 2012.
Marchant, Jo (1 November 2006). "In search of lost time". Nature. 444 (7119): 534–538. Bibcode:2006Natur.444..534M. doi:10.1038/444534a. ISSN 0028-0836. PMID 17136067. S2CID 4305761.
Charette, François (2006). "Archaeology: High tech from Ancient Greece". Nature. 444 (7119): 551–552. Bibcode:2006Natur.444..551C. doi:10.1038/444551a. PMID 17136077. S2CID 33513516.
Price, Derek de S. (1984). "A History of Calculating Machines". IEEE Micro. 4 (1): 22–52. Bibcode:1984IMicr...4a..22S. doi:10.1109/MM.1984.291305.
Rojas, R. (1998). "How to make Zuse's Z3 a universal computer". IEEE Annals of the History of Computing. 20 (3): 51–54. Bibcode:1998IAHC...20c..51R. doi:10.1109/85.707574. S2CID 14606587.
Turing, A. M. (1937). "On Computable Numbers, with an Application to the Entscheidungsproblem". Proceedings of the London Mathematical Society. 2. 42 (1): 230–265. Bibcode:1937PLMS...42..230T. doi:10.1112/plms/s2-42.1.230. S2CID 73712.
Ligenza, J.R.; Spitzer, W.G. (July 1960). "The mechanisms for silicon oxidation in steam and oxygen". Journal of Physics and Chemistry of Solids. 14: 131–136. Bibcode:1960JPCS...14..131L. doi:10.1016/0022-3697(60)90219-5.
Hittinger, William C. (1973). "Metal-Oxide-Semiconductor Technology". Scientific American. 229 (2): 48–59. Bibcode:1973SciAm.229b..48H. doi:10.1038/scientificamerican0873-48. ISSN 0036-8733. JSTOR 24923169.
Kuo, Yue (1 January 2013). "Thin Film Transistor Technology—Past, Present, and Future" (PDF). The Electrochemical Society Interface. 22 (1): 55–61. Bibcode:2013ECSIn..22a..55K. doi:10.1149/2.F06131if. ISSN 1064-8208. Archived (PDF) from the original on 29 August 2017. Retrieved 31 July 2019.

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According to Schmandt-Besserat 1981, these clay containers contained tokens, the total of which were the count of objects being transferred. The containers thus served as something of a bill of lading or an accounts book. In order to avoid breaking open the containers, first, clay impressions of the tokens were placed on the outside of the containers, for the count; the shapes of the impressions were abstracted into stylized marks; finally, the abstract marks were systematically used as numerals; these numerals were finally formalized as numbers.
Eventually, the marks on the outside of the containers were all that was needed to convey the count, and the clay containers evolved into clay tablets with marks for the count. Schmandt-Besserat 1999 estimates it took 4000 years. Schmandt-Besserat, Denise (1981). "Decipherment of the earliest tablets". Science. 211 (4479): 283–285. Bibcode:1981Sci...211..283S. doi:10.1126/science.211.4479.283. PMID 17748027. Schmandt-Besserat, Denise (1999). "Tokens: The Cognitive Significance". Documenta Praehistorica. XXVI. Archived from the original on 30 January 2012.
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Charette, François (2006). "Archaeology: High tech from Ancient Greece". Nature. 444 (7119): 551–552. Bibcode:2006Natur.444..551C. doi:10.1038/444551a. PMID 17136077. S2CID 33513516.
Bedini, Silvio A.; Maddison, Francis R. (1966). "Mechanical Universe: The Astrarium of Giovanni de' Dondi". Transactions of the American Philosophical Society. 56 (5): 1–69. doi:10.2307/1006002. JSTOR 1006002.
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Thomas, Federico (August 2008). "A short account on Leonardo Torres' endless spindle". Mechanism and Machine Theory. 43 (8): 1055–1063. doi:10.1016/j.mechmachtheory.2007.07.003. hdl:10261/30460.
Gomez-Jauregui, Valentin; Gutierrez-Garcia, Andres; González-Redondo, Francisco A.; Iglesias, Miguel; Manchado, Cristina; Otero, Cesar (1 June 2022). "Torres Quevedo's mechanical calculator for second-degree equations with complex coefficients". Mechanism and Machine Theory. 172 (8) 104830. IFToMM. doi:10.1016/j.mechmachtheory.2022.104830. hdl:10902/24391. S2CID 247503677.
O'Regan, Gerard, ed. (2008). A Brief History of Computing. London: Springer London. p. 28. doi:10.1007/978-1-84800-084-1. ISBN 978-1-84800-083-4.
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According to Schmandt-Besserat 1981, these clay containers contained tokens, the total of which were the count of objects being transferred. The containers thus served as something of a bill of lading or an accounts book. In order to avoid breaking open the containers, first, clay impressions of the tokens were placed on the outside of the containers, for the count; the shapes of the impressions were abstracted into stylized marks; finally, the abstract marks were systematically used as numerals; these numerals were finally formalized as numbers.
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According to Schmandt-Besserat 1981, these clay containers contained tokens, the total of which were the count of objects being transferred. The containers thus served as something of a bill of lading or an accounts book. In order to avoid breaking open the containers, first, clay impressions of the tokens were placed on the outside of the containers, for the count; the shapes of the impressions were abstracted into stylized marks; finally, the abstract marks were systematically used as numerals; these numerals were finally formalized as numbers.
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According to Schmandt-Besserat 1981, these clay containers contained tokens, the total of which were the count of objects being transferred. The containers thus served as something of a bill of lading or an accounts book. In order to avoid breaking open the containers, first, clay impressions of the tokens were placed on the outside of the containers, for the count; the shapes of the impressions were abstracted into stylized marks; finally, the abstract marks were systematically used as numerals; these numerals were finally formalized as numbers.
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techiwarehouse.com (Global: low place; English: low place)

technologyreview.com (Global: 2,515th place; English: 1,716th place)

thefreedictionary.com (Global: 1,251st place; English: 1,161st place)

theguardian.com (Global: 16th place; English: 11th place)

theiet.org (Global: 8,778th place; English: 5,384th place)

digital-library.theiet.org

thoughtco.com (Global: 2,170th place; English: 1,937th place)

ti.com (Global: 6,779th place; English: 4,625th place)

time.com (Global: 84th place; English: 63rd place)

tnmoc.org (Global: low place; English: low place)

uottawa.ca (Global: 8,582nd place; English: 6,246th place)

adsabs.harvard.edu (Global: 14^th place; English: 9^th place)

archive.org (Global: 6^th place; English: 6^th place)

arquivo.pt (Global: 2,454^th place; English: 1,792^nd place)

arstechnica.com (Global: 473^rd place; English: 338^th place)

arxiv.org (Global: 49^th place; English: 31^st place)

bbc.co.uk (Global: 11^th place; English: 10^th place)

bbc.com (Global: 26^th place; English: 23^rd place)

bnf.fr (Global: 61^st place; English: 357^th place)

books.google.com (Global: 3^rd place; English: 3^rd place)

computerhistory.org (Global: 2,702^nd place; English: 1,789^th place)

doi.org (Global: 2^nd place; English: 2^nd place)

ed-thelen.org (Global: low place; English: 9,943^rd place)

eetimes.com (Global: 4,224^th place; English: 2,761^st place)

espacenet.com (Global: 950^th place; English: 813^th place)

etymonline.com (Global: 669^th place; English: 670^th place)

fu-berlin.de (Global: 3,170^th place; English: 4,291^st place)

ghostarchive.org (Global: 64^th place; English: 28^th place)

hdl.handle.net (Global: 66^th place; English: 34^th place)

ieee.org (Global: 912^th place; English: 722^nd place)

independent.co.uk (Global: 46^th place; English: 29^th place)

intel.com (Global: 1,727^th place; English: 1,234^th place)

invent.org (Global: 8,450^th place; English: 6,923^rd place)

jstor.org (Global: 23^rd place; English: 15^th place)

nasa.gov (Global: 12^th place; English: 73^rd place)

ncl.ac.uk (Global: 5,403^rd place; English: 3,489^th place)

networkworld.com (Global: 5,743^rd place; English: 3,776^th place)

newscientist.com (Global: 1,041^st place; English: 901^st place)

nih.gov (Global: 5^th place; English: 5^th place)

nobelprize.org (Global: 265^th place; English: 450^th place)

nytimes.com (Global: 7^th place; English: 7^th place)

patents.google.com (Global: 1,154^th place; English: 606^th place)

quantamagazine.org (Global: 6,258^th place; English: 4,046^th place)

sciencemuseum.org.uk (Global: low place; English: 8,101^st place)

scientificamerican.com (Global: 1,110^th place; English: 817^th place)

semanticscholar.org (Global: 15^th place; English: 8^th place)

st-and.ac.uk (Global: 4,765^th place; English: 5,091^st place)

stanford.edu (Global: 194^th place; English: 182^nd place)

technologyreview.com (Global: 2,515^th place; English: 1,716^th place)

thefreedictionary.com (Global: 1,251^st place; English: 1,161^st place)

theguardian.com (Global: 16^th place; English: 11^th place)

theiet.org (Global: 8,778^th place; English: 5,384^th place)

thoughtco.com (Global: 2,170^th place; English: 1,937^th place)

ti.com (Global: 6,779^th place; English: 4,625^th place)

time.com (Global: 84^th place; English: 63^rd place)

uottawa.ca (Global: 8,582^nd place; English: 6,246^th place)

uspto.gov (Global: 2,155^th place; English: 1,380^th place)

utexas.edu (Global: 868^th place; English: 634^th place)

web.archive.org (Global: 1^st place; English: 1^st place)

worldcat.org (Global: 4^th place; English: 4^th place)

youtube.com (Global: 13^th place; English: 14^th place)