Confounding (English Wikipedia)

Analysis of information sources in references of the Wikipedia article "Confounding" in English language version.

Last modified: 05:19:28, 16 August 2026 (UTC)

Ref.Un. Ref.Website

Global rank English rank

1916doi.org

2^nd place

1816nih.gov

5^th place

64worldcat.org

4^th place

42oup.com

292^nd place

233^rd place

33semanticscholar.org

15^th place

8^th place

32adsabs.harvard.edu

14^th place

9^th place

22jstor.org

23^rd place

15^th place

11ucla.edu

885^th place

584^th place

11bmj.com

1,341^st place

1,425^th place

11psu.edu

299^th place

159^th place

11archive.org

6^th place

adsabs.harvard.edu (Global: 14^th place; English: 9^th place)

ui.adsabs.harvard.edu

Lee, P. H. (2014). "Should We Adjust for a Confounder if Empirical and Theoretical Criteria Yield Contradictory Results? A Simulation Study". Sci Rep. 4 6085. Bibcode:2014NatSR...4.6085L. doi:10.1038/srep06085. PMC 5381407. PMID 25124526.
Greenland, S.; Robins, J. M.; Pearl, J. (1999). "Confounding and Collapsibility in Causal Inference". Statistical Science. 14 (1): 31. Bibcode:1999StaSc..1411805G. doi:10.1214/ss/1009211805.

archive.org (Global: 6^th place; English: 6^th place)

Mayrent, Sherry L. (1987). Epidemiology in Medicine. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. ISBN 978-0-316-35636-7.

bmj.com (Global: 1,341^st place; English: 1,425^th place)

jech.bmj.com

Morabia, A (2011). "History of the modern epidemiological concept of confounding" (PDF). Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health. 65 (4): 297–300. doi:10.1136/jech.2010.112565. PMID 20696848. S2CID 9068532.

doi.org (Global: 2^nd place; English: 2^nd place)

Miettinen, Olli (1995-06-15). "Confounding and Effect-Modification". American Journal of Epidemiology. 141 (12): 1113–1116. doi:10.1093/oxfordjournals.aje.a117384. ISSN 1476-6256. PMID 7771449.
Weinberg, Clarice R. (1993-01-01). "Toward a Clearer Definition of Confounding". American Journal of Epidemiology. 137 (1): 1–8. doi:10.1093/oxfordjournals.aje.a116591. ISSN 1476-6256. PMID 8434568.
Greenland, S.; Pearl, J.; Robins, J. M. (January 1999). "Causal diagrams for epidemiologic research". Epidemiology. 10 (1): 37–48. doi:10.1097/00001648-199901000-00008. ISSN 1044-3983. PMID 9888278.
VanderWeele, Tyler J.; Shpitser, Ilya (2013-02-01). "On the definition of a confounder". The Annals of Statistics. 41 (1): 196–220. doi:10.1214/12-AOS1058. ISSN 0090-5364. PMC 4276366. PMID 25544784.
Pearl, Judea (December 1995). "Causal Diagrams for Empirical Research". Biometrika. 82 (4): 669–688. doi:10.2307/2337329. JSTOR 2337329.
Lee, P. H. (2014). "Should We Adjust for a Confounder if Empirical and Theoretical Criteria Yield Contradictory Results? A Simulation Study". Sci Rep. 4 6085. Bibcode:2014NatSR...4.6085L. doi:10.1038/srep06085. PMC 5381407. PMID 25124526.
Morabia, A (2011). "History of the modern epidemiological concept of confounding" (PDF). Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health. 65 (4): 297–300. doi:10.1136/jech.2010.112565. PMID 20696848. S2CID 9068532.
Greenland, S.; Robins, J. M.; Pearl, J. (1999). "Confounding and Collapsibility in Causal Inference". Statistical Science. 14 (1): 31. Bibcode:1999StaSc..1411805G. doi:10.1214/ss/1009211805.
Vandenbroucke, J. P. (2004). "The history of confounding". Soz Praventivmed. 47 (4): 216–224. doi:10.1007/BF01326402. PMID 12415925. S2CID 198174446.
Kish, L (1959). "Some statistical problems in research design". Am Sociol. 26 (3): 328–338. doi:10.2307/2089381. JSTOR 2089381.
Greenland, S.; Robins, J. M. (1986). "Identifiability, exchangeability, and epidemiological confounding". International Journal of Epidemiology. 15 (3): 413–419. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.157.6445. doi:10.1093/ije/15.3.413. PMID 3771081. {{cite journal}}: Cite uses deprecated parameter |citeseerx= (help)
Rubin, D. B. (1974). "Estimating causal effects of treatments in randomized and nonrandomized studies". Journal of Educational Psychology. 66 (5): 688–701. doi:10.1037/h0037350. S2CID 52832751.
Johnston, S. C. (2001). "Identifying Confounding by Indication through Blinded Prospective Review". American Journal of Epidemiology. 154 (3): 276–284. doi:10.1093/aje/154.3.276. PMID 11479193.
Emanuel, Ezekiel J; Miller, Franklin G (Sep 20, 2001). "The Ethics of Placebo-Controlled Trials—A Middle Ground". New England Journal of Medicine. 345 (12): 915–9. doi:10.1056/nejm200109203451211. PMID 11565527.
Gustavson, K.; Torvik, F. A.; Davey Smith, G.; Røysamb, E.; Eilertsen, E. M. (2024). "Familial confounding or measurement error? How to interpret findings from sibling and co-twin control studies". European Journal of Epidemiology. 39 (6): 587–603. doi:10.1007/s10654-024-01132-6. PMC 11249619. PMID 38879863.
Madrid-Valero, J. J.; Verhulst, B.; López-López, J. A.; Ordoñana, J. R. (2024). "Calculating Within-Pair Difference Scores in the Co-twin Control Design. Effects of Alternative Strategies". Behavior Genetics. 54 (5): 426–435. doi:10.1007/s10519-024-10196-9. PMC 11371853. PMID 39177736.

jstor.org (Global: 23^rd place; English: 15^th place)

Pearl, Judea (December 1995). "Causal Diagrams for Empirical Research". Biometrika. 82 (4): 669–688. doi:10.2307/2337329. JSTOR 2337329.
Kish, L (1959). "Some statistical problems in research design". Am Sociol. 26 (3): 328–338. doi:10.2307/2089381. JSTOR 2089381.

nih.gov (Global: 5^th place; English: 5^th place)

pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov

Miettinen, Olli (1995-06-15). "Confounding and Effect-Modification". American Journal of Epidemiology. 141 (12): 1113–1116. doi:10.1093/oxfordjournals.aje.a117384. ISSN 1476-6256. PMID 7771449.
Weinberg, Clarice R. (1993-01-01). "Toward a Clearer Definition of Confounding". American Journal of Epidemiology. 137 (1): 1–8. doi:10.1093/oxfordjournals.aje.a116591. ISSN 1476-6256. PMID 8434568.
Greenland, S.; Pearl, J.; Robins, J. M. (January 1999). "Causal diagrams for epidemiologic research". Epidemiology. 10 (1): 37–48. doi:10.1097/00001648-199901000-00008. ISSN 1044-3983. PMID 9888278.
VanderWeele, Tyler J.; Shpitser, Ilya (2013-02-01). "On the definition of a confounder". The Annals of Statistics. 41 (1): 196–220. doi:10.1214/12-AOS1058. ISSN 0090-5364. PMC 4276366. PMID 25544784.
Lee, P. H. (2014). "Should We Adjust for a Confounder if Empirical and Theoretical Criteria Yield Contradictory Results? A Simulation Study". Sci Rep. 4 6085. Bibcode:2014NatSR...4.6085L. doi:10.1038/srep06085. PMC 5381407. PMID 25124526.
Morabia, A (2011). "History of the modern epidemiological concept of confounding" (PDF). Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health. 65 (4): 297–300. doi:10.1136/jech.2010.112565. PMID 20696848. S2CID 9068532.
Vandenbroucke, J. P. (2004). "The history of confounding". Soz Praventivmed. 47 (4): 216–224. doi:10.1007/BF01326402. PMID 12415925. S2CID 198174446.
Greenland, S.; Robins, J. M. (1986). "Identifiability, exchangeability, and epidemiological confounding". International Journal of Epidemiology. 15 (3): 413–419. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.157.6445. doi:10.1093/ije/15.3.413. PMID 3771081. {{cite journal}}: Cite uses deprecated parameter |citeseerx= (help)
Johnston, S. C. (2001). "Identifying Confounding by Indication through Blinded Prospective Review". American Journal of Epidemiology. 154 (3): 276–284. doi:10.1093/aje/154.3.276. PMID 11479193.
Emanuel, Ezekiel J; Miller, Franklin G (Sep 20, 2001). "The Ethics of Placebo-Controlled Trials—A Middle Ground". New England Journal of Medicine. 345 (12): 915–9. doi:10.1056/nejm200109203451211. PMID 11565527.
Gustavson, K.; Torvik, F. A.; Davey Smith, G.; Røysamb, E.; Eilertsen, E. M. (2024). "Familial confounding or measurement error? How to interpret findings from sibling and co-twin control studies". European Journal of Epidemiology. 39 (6): 587–603. doi:10.1007/s10654-024-01132-6. PMC 11249619. PMID 38879863.
Madrid-Valero, J. J.; Verhulst, B.; López-López, J. A.; Ordoñana, J. R. (2024). "Calculating Within-Pair Difference Scores in the Co-twin Control Design. Effects of Alternative Strategies". Behavior Genetics. 54 (5): 426–435. doi:10.1007/s10519-024-10196-9. PMC 11371853. PMID 39177736.

ncbi.nlm.nih.gov

VanderWeele, Tyler J.; Shpitser, Ilya (2013-02-01). "On the definition of a confounder". The Annals of Statistics. 41 (1): 196–220. doi:10.1214/12-AOS1058. ISSN 0090-5364. PMC 4276366. PMID 25544784.
Lee, P. H. (2014). "Should We Adjust for a Confounder if Empirical and Theoretical Criteria Yield Contradictory Results? A Simulation Study". Sci Rep. 4 6085. Bibcode:2014NatSR...4.6085L. doi:10.1038/srep06085. PMC 5381407. PMID 25124526.
Gustavson, K.; Torvik, F. A.; Davey Smith, G.; Røysamb, E.; Eilertsen, E. M. (2024). "Familial confounding or measurement error? How to interpret findings from sibling and co-twin control studies". European Journal of Epidemiology. 39 (6): 587–603. doi:10.1007/s10654-024-01132-6. PMC 11249619. PMID 38879863.
Madrid-Valero, J. J.; Verhulst, B.; López-López, J. A.; Ordoñana, J. R. (2024). "Calculating Within-Pair Difference Scores in the Co-twin Control Design. Effects of Alternative Strategies". Behavior Genetics. 54 (5): 426–435. doi:10.1007/s10519-024-10196-9. PMC 11371853. PMID 39177736.

oup.com (Global: 292^nd place; English: 233^rd place)

academic.oup.com

Miettinen, Olli (1995-06-15). "Confounding and Effect-Modification". American Journal of Epidemiology. 141 (12): 1113–1116. doi:10.1093/oxfordjournals.aje.a117384. ISSN 1476-6256. PMID 7771449.
Weinberg, Clarice R. (1993-01-01). "Toward a Clearer Definition of Confounding". American Journal of Epidemiology. 137 (1): 1–8. doi:10.1093/oxfordjournals.aje.a116591. ISSN 1476-6256. PMID 8434568.

psu.edu (Global: 299^th place; English: 159^th place)

citeseerx.ist.psu.edu

Greenland, S.; Robins, J. M. (1986). "Identifiability, exchangeability, and epidemiological confounding". International Journal of Epidemiology. 15 (3): 413–419. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.157.6445. doi:10.1093/ije/15.3.413. PMID 3771081. {{cite journal}}: Cite uses deprecated parameter |citeseerx= (help)

semanticscholar.org (Global: 15^th place; English: 8^th place)

api.semanticscholar.org

Morabia, A (2011). "History of the modern epidemiological concept of confounding" (PDF). Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health. 65 (4): 297–300. doi:10.1136/jech.2010.112565. PMID 20696848. S2CID 9068532.
Vandenbroucke, J. P. (2004). "The history of confounding". Soz Praventivmed. 47 (4): 216–224. doi:10.1007/BF01326402. PMID 12415925. S2CID 198174446.
Rubin, D. B. (1974). "Estimating causal effects of treatments in randomized and nonrandomized studies". Journal of Educational Psychology. 66 (5): 688–701. doi:10.1037/h0037350. S2CID 52832751.

ucla.edu (Global: 885^th place; English: 584^th place)

ftp.cs.ucla.edu

Cinelli, C.; Forney, A.; Pearl, J. (March 2022). "A Crash Course in Good and Bad Controls" (PDF). UCLA Cognitive Systems Laboratory, Technical Report (R-493).

worldcat.org (Global: 4^th place; English: 4^th place)

search.worldcat.org

Miettinen, Olli (1995-06-15). "Confounding and Effect-Modification". American Journal of Epidemiology. 141 (12): 1113–1116. doi:10.1093/oxfordjournals.aje.a117384. ISSN 1476-6256. PMID 7771449.
Weinberg, Clarice R. (1993-01-01). "Toward a Clearer Definition of Confounding". American Journal of Epidemiology. 137 (1): 1–8. doi:10.1093/oxfordjournals.aje.a116591. ISSN 1476-6256. PMID 8434568.
Greenland, S.; Pearl, J.; Robins, J. M. (January 1999). "Causal diagrams for epidemiologic research". Epidemiology. 10 (1): 37–48. doi:10.1097/00001648-199901000-00008. ISSN 1044-3983. PMID 9888278.
VanderWeele, Tyler J.; Shpitser, Ilya (2013-02-01). "On the definition of a confounder". The Annals of Statistics. 41 (1): 196–220. doi:10.1214/12-AOS1058. ISSN 0090-5364. PMC 4276366. PMID 25544784.

Confounding (English Wikipedia)

adsabs.harvard.edu (Global: 14th place; English: 9th place)

ui.adsabs.harvard.edu

archive.org (Global: 6th place; English: 6th place)

bmj.com (Global: 1,341st place; English: 1,425th place)