Equal Protection Clause (English Wikipedia)

Analysis of information sources in references of the Wikipedia article "Equal Protection Clause" in English language version.

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archive.org (Global: 6^th place; English: 6^th place)

For details on the rationale for, and ratification of, the Fourteenth Amendment, see generally Foner, Eric (1988). Reconstruction: America's Unfinished Revolution, 1863—1877. New York: Harper & Row. ISBN 978-0-06-091453-0., as well as Brest, Paul; et al. (2000). Processes of Constitutional Decisionmaking. Gaithersburg: Aspen Law & Business. pp. 241–242. ISBN 978-0-7355-1250-4.
For an exhaustive history of the Brown case from start to finish, see Kluger, Richard (1977). Simple Justice. New York: Vintage. ISBN 978-0-394-72255-9.
For the history of the American political branches' engagement with the Supreme Court's commitment to desegregation (and vice versa), see Powe, Lucas A. Jr. (2001). The Warren Court and American Politics. Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press. ISBN 978-0-674-00683-6., and Kotz, Nick (2004). Judgment Days: Lyndon Baines Johnson, Martin Luther King, Jr., and the Laws That Changed America. Boston: Houghton Mifflin. ISBN 978-0-618-08825-6. For more on the debate summarized in the text, see, e.g., Rosenberg, Gerald N. (1993). The Hollow Hope: Can Courts Bring About Social Change?. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0-226-72703-5., and Klarman, Michael J. (1994). "Brown, Racial Change, and the Civil Rights Movement". Virginia Law Review. 80 (1): 7–150. doi:10.2307/1073592. JSTOR 1073592.
Gerstmann, Evan. Same Sex Marriage and the Constitution, p. 55 (Cambridge University Press, 2004).

bc.edu (Global: 4,784^th place; English: 3,078^th place)

lawdigitalcommons.bc.edu

Curtis, Michael. "Resurrecting the Privileges or Immunities Clause and Revising the Slaughter-House Cases Without Exhuming Lochner: Individual Rights and the Fourteenth Amendment", Boston College Law Review, Vol. 38 (1997).

berkeley.edu (Global: 580^th place; English: 462^nd place)

scholarship.law.berkeley.edu

Antieau, Chester James (1952). "Equal Protection outside the Clause". California Law Review. 40 (3): 362–377. doi:10.2307/3477928. JSTOR 3477928. Archived from the original on 2019-10-13. Retrieved 2019-07-08.
Farber, Daniel and Frickey, Philip. "Is Carolene Products Dead--Reflections on Affirmative Action and the Dynamics of Civil Rights Legislation", California Law Review, Vol. 79, p. 685 (1991). Farber and Frickey point out that "only Chief Justice Hughes, Justice Brandeis, and Justice Roberts joined Justice Stone's footnote", and in any event "It is simply a myth ... that the process theory of footnote four in Carolene Products is, or ever has been, the primary justification for invalidating laws embodying prejudice against racial minorities."

bloomberglaw.com (Global: 5,670^th place; English: 3,086^th place)

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United States v. Windsor Archived 2015-04-27 at the Wayback Machine, No. 12-307, 2013 BL 169620, 118 FEP Cases 1417 (U.S. June 26, 2013).

books.google.com (Global: 3^rd place; English: 3^rd place)

Failinger, Marie (2009). "Equal protection of the laws". In Schultz, David Andrew (ed.). The Encyclopedia of American Law. Infobase. pp. 152–53. ISBN 978-1-4381-0991-6. Archived from the original on July 24, 2020. The equal protection clause guarantees the right of "similarly situated" people to be treated the same way by the law.
Glidden, William. Congress and the Fourteenth Amendment: Enforcing Liberty and Equality in the States, p. 79 (Lexington Books 2013).
Wallenstein, Peter. Tell the Court I Love My Wife: Race, Marriage, and Law--An American History, p. 253 (Palgrave Macmillan, Jan 17, 2004). The four of the original thirteen states are New Hampshire, Connecticut, New Jersey, and New York. Id.
Foner, Eric. Reconstruction: America's Unfinished Revolution, 1863–1877, pp. 321–322 (HarperCollins 2002).
Finkelman, Paul. "Rehearsal for Reconstruction: Antebellum Origins of the Fourteenth Amendment", in The Facts of Reconstruction: Essays in Honor of John Hope Franklin, p. 19 (Eric Anderson and Alfred A. Moss, eds., LSU Press, 1991).
Wayne, Stephen. Is This Any Way to Run a Democratic Election?, p. 27 (CQ PRESS 2013).
McInerney, Daniel. A Traveller's History of the USA, p. 212 (Interlink Books, 2001).
Kerber, Linda. No Constitutional Right to Be Ladies: Women and the Obligations of Citizenship, p. 133 (Macmillan, 1999).
Hymowitz, Carol and Weissman, Michaele. A History of Women in America, p. 128 (Random House Digital, 2011).

bu.edu (Global: 2,120^th place; English: 1,328^th place)

scholarship.law.bu.edu

Feingold, Jonathon (2019). "Equal Protection Design Defects". Temple Law Review. 91.

cornell.edu (Global: 332^nd place; English: 246^th place)

law.cornell.edu

"Equal Protection". Legal Information Institute at Cornell Law School. Archived from the original on June 22, 2020. Retrieved July 24, 2020. Equal Protection refers to the idea that a governmental body may not deny people equal protection of its governing laws. The governing body state must treat an individual in the same manner as others in similar conditions and circumstances.

doi.org (Global: 2^nd place; English: 2^nd place)

Antieau, Chester James (1952). "Equal Protection outside the Clause". California Law Review. 40 (3): 362–377. doi:10.2307/3477928. JSTOR 3477928. Archived from the original on 2019-10-13. Retrieved 2019-07-08.
Swisher, Carl Brent (1957). "Dred Scott One Hundred Years After". The Journal of Politics. 19 (2): 167–183. doi:10.2307/2127194. JSTOR 2127194. S2CID 154345582.
Zuckert, Michael P. (1992). "Completing the Constitution: The Fourteenth Amendment and Constitutional Rights". Publius. 22 (2): 69–91. doi:10.2307/3330348. JSTOR 3330348.
Perry, Michael J. (1979). "Modern Equal Protection: A Conceptualization and Appraisal". Columbia Law Review. 79 (6): 1023–1084. doi:10.2307/1121988. JSTOR 1121988.
Boyd, William M. (1955). "The Second Emancipation". Phylon. 16 (1): 77–86. doi:10.2307/272626. JSTOR 272626.
Frank, John P.; Munro, Robert F. (1950). "The Original Understanding of "Equal Protection of the Laws"". Columbia Law Review. 50 (2): 131–169. doi:10.2307/1118709. JSTOR 1118709.
See Currie, David P. (1987). "The Constitution in the Supreme Court: The New Deal, 1931–1940". University of Chicago Law Review (Submitted manuscript). 54 (2): 504–555. doi:10.2307/1599798. JSTOR 1599798.
For the history of the American political branches' engagement with the Supreme Court's commitment to desegregation (and vice versa), see Powe, Lucas A. Jr. (2001). The Warren Court and American Politics. Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press. ISBN 978-0-674-00683-6., and Kotz, Nick (2004). Judgment Days: Lyndon Baines Johnson, Martin Luther King, Jr., and the Laws That Changed America. Boston: Houghton Mifflin. ISBN 978-0-618-08825-6. For more on the debate summarized in the text, see, e.g., Rosenberg, Gerald N. (1993). The Hollow Hope: Can Courts Bring About Social Change?. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0-226-72703-5., and Klarman, Michael J. (1994). "Brown, Racial Change, and the Civil Rights Movement". Virginia Law Review. 80 (1): 7–150. doi:10.2307/1073592. JSTOR 1073592.
Jacobs, Nicholas (8 August 2011). "Racial, Economic, and Linguistic Segregation: Analyzing Market Supports in the District of Columbia's Public Charter Schools". Education and Urban Society. 45 (1): 120–141. doi:10.1177/0013124511407317. S2CID 144814662. Retrieved 28 October 2013.
See Krieger, Linda Hamilton (1995). "The Content of Our Categories: A Cognitive Bias Approach to Discrimination and Equal Protection Opportunity". Stanford Law Review. 47 (6): 1161–1248. doi:10.2307/1229191. hdl:10125/66110. JSTOR 1229191., and Lawrence, Charles R. III (1987). "Reckoning with Unconscious Racism". Stanford Law Review. 39 (2): 317–388. doi:10.2307/1228797. hdl:10125/65975. JSTOR 1228797.
Baldus, David C.; Pulaski, Charles; Woodworth, George (1983). "Comparative Review of Death Sentences: An Empirical Study of the Georgia Experience". Journal of Criminal Law and Criminology (Submitted manuscript). 74 (3): 661–753. doi:10.2307/1143133. JSTOR 1143133.
See Schnapper, Eric (1985). "Affirmative Action and the Legislative History of the Fourteenth Amendment" (PDF). Virginia Law Review. 71 (5): 753–798. doi:10.2307/1073012. JSTOR 1073012.
See Siegel, Reva B. (2004). "Equality Talk: Antisubordination and Anticlassification Values in Constitutional Struggles over Brown". Harvard Law Review (Submitted manuscript). 117 (5): 1470–1547. doi:10.2307/4093259. JSTOR 4093259.; Carter, Stephen L. (1988). "When Victims Happen to Be Black". Yale Law Journal. 97 (3): 420–447. doi:10.2307/796412. JSTOR 796412.

findlaw.com (Global: 1,478^th place; English: 868^th place)

constitution.findlaw.com

"Annotation 18 - Fourteenth Amendment: Section 1 – Rights Guaranteed: Equal Protection of the Laws: Scope and application state action". FindLaw for Legal Professionals - Law & Legal Information by FindLaw, a Thomson Reuters business. Retrieved 23 November 2013.

caselaw.lp.findlaw.com

"FindLaw | Cases and Codes". Caselaw.lp.findlaw.com. 1954-05-17. Retrieved 2012-08-13.

fordham.edu (Global: 1,648^th place; English: 1,137^th place)

ir.lawnet.fordham.edu

Fleming, James. "'There is Only One Equal Protection Clause': An Appreciation of Justice Stevens's Equal Protection Jurisprudence", Fordham Law Review, Vol. 74, p. 2301, 2306 (2006).

georgialegalaid.org (Global: low place; English: low place)

"Fair Treatment by the Government: Equal Protection". GeorgiaLegalAid.org. Carl Vinson Institute of Government at University of Georgia. July 30, 2004. Archived from the original on March 20, 2020. Retrieved July 24, 2020. The basic intent of equal protection is to make sure that people are treated as equally as possible under our legal system. For example, it is to see that everyone who gets a speeding ticket will face the samEpocedures [sic!]. A further intent is to ensure that all Americans are provided with equal opportunities in education, employment, and other areas. [...] The U.S. Constitution makes a similar provision in the Fourteenth Amendment. It says that no state shall make or enforce any law that will "deny to any person within its jurisdiction the equal protection of the law." These provisions require the government to treat persons equally and impartially.

handle.net (Global: 102^nd place; English: 76^th place)

hdl.handle.net

See Krieger, Linda Hamilton (1995). "The Content of Our Categories: A Cognitive Bias Approach to Discrimination and Equal Protection Opportunity". Stanford Law Review. 47 (6): 1161–1248. doi:10.2307/1229191. hdl:10125/66110. JSTOR 1229191., and Lawrence, Charles R. III (1987). "Reckoning with Unconscious Racism". Stanford Law Review. 39 (2): 317–388. doi:10.2307/1228797. hdl:10125/65975. JSTOR 1228797.

harvard.edu (Global: 18^th place; English: 17^th place)

civilrightsproject.harvard.edu

For data and analysis, see Orfield (July 2001). "Schools More Separate" (PDF). Harvard University Civil Rights Project. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2007-06-28. Retrieved 2008-07-16.

jstor.org (Global: 26^th place; English: 20^th place)

Antieau, Chester James (1952). "Equal Protection outside the Clause". California Law Review. 40 (3): 362–377. doi:10.2307/3477928. JSTOR 3477928. Archived from the original on 2019-10-13. Retrieved 2019-07-08.
"Dred Scott, 150 Years Ago". The Journal of Blacks in Higher Education (55): 19. 2007. JSTOR 25073625.
Swisher, Carl Brent (1957). "Dred Scott One Hundred Years After". The Journal of Politics. 19 (2): 167–183. doi:10.2307/2127194. JSTOR 2127194. S2CID 154345582.
Zuckert, Michael P. (1992). "Completing the Constitution: The Fourteenth Amendment and Constitutional Rights". Publius. 22 (2): 69–91. doi:10.2307/3330348. JSTOR 3330348.
Perry, Michael J. (1979). "Modern Equal Protection: A Conceptualization and Appraisal". Columbia Law Review. 79 (6): 1023–1084. doi:10.2307/1121988. JSTOR 1121988.
Boyd, William M. (1955). "The Second Emancipation". Phylon. 16 (1): 77–86. doi:10.2307/272626. JSTOR 272626.
Frank, John P.; Munro, Robert F. (1950). "The Original Understanding of "Equal Protection of the Laws"". Columbia Law Review. 50 (2): 131–169. doi:10.2307/1118709. JSTOR 1118709.
See Currie, David P. (1987). "The Constitution in the Supreme Court: The New Deal, 1931–1940". University of Chicago Law Review (Submitted manuscript). 54 (2): 504–555. doi:10.2307/1599798. JSTOR 1599798.
Karlan, Pamela S. (2009). "What Can Brown® do for You?: Neutral Principles and the Struggle over the Equal Protection Clause". Duke Law Journal. 58 (6): 1049–1069. JSTOR 20684748.
For the history of the American political branches' engagement with the Supreme Court's commitment to desegregation (and vice versa), see Powe, Lucas A. Jr. (2001). The Warren Court and American Politics. Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press. ISBN 978-0-674-00683-6., and Kotz, Nick (2004). Judgment Days: Lyndon Baines Johnson, Martin Luther King, Jr., and the Laws That Changed America. Boston: Houghton Mifflin. ISBN 978-0-618-08825-6. For more on the debate summarized in the text, see, e.g., Rosenberg, Gerald N. (1993). The Hollow Hope: Can Courts Bring About Social Change?. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0-226-72703-5., and Klarman, Michael J. (1994). "Brown, Racial Change, and the Civil Rights Movement". Virginia Law Review. 80 (1): 7–150. doi:10.2307/1073592. JSTOR 1073592.
See Krieger, Linda Hamilton (1995). "The Content of Our Categories: A Cognitive Bias Approach to Discrimination and Equal Protection Opportunity". Stanford Law Review. 47 (6): 1161–1248. doi:10.2307/1229191. hdl:10125/66110. JSTOR 1229191., and Lawrence, Charles R. III (1987). "Reckoning with Unconscious Racism". Stanford Law Review. 39 (2): 317–388. doi:10.2307/1228797. hdl:10125/65975. JSTOR 1228797.
Baldus, David C.; Pulaski, Charles; Woodworth, George (1983). "Comparative Review of Death Sentences: An Empirical Study of the Georgia Experience". Journal of Criminal Law and Criminology (Submitted manuscript). 74 (3): 661–753. doi:10.2307/1143133. JSTOR 1143133.
Barocas, Solon (2016). "Big Data's Disparate Impact". California Law Review. 104 (3): 671–732. JSTOR 24758720.
See Schnapper, Eric (1985). "Affirmative Action and the Legislative History of the Fourteenth Amendment" (PDF). Virginia Law Review. 71 (5): 753–798. doi:10.2307/1073012. JSTOR 1073012.
See Siegel, Reva B. (2004). "Equality Talk: Antisubordination and Anticlassification Values in Constitutional Struggles over Brown". Harvard Law Review (Submitted manuscript). 117 (5): 1470–1547. doi:10.2307/4093259. JSTOR 4093259.; Carter, Stephen L. (1988). "When Victims Happen to Be Black". Yale Law Journal. 97 (3): 420–447. doi:10.2307/796412. JSTOR 796412.

justia.com (Global: 696^th place; English: 428^th place)

supreme.justia.com

"Dred Scott v. Sandford, 60 U.S. 393 (1856)". Justia Law. Retrieved 2018-11-10.
"Coleman v. Miller, 307 U.S. 433 (1939)". Justia Law. Retrieved 2018-11-30.
"Slaughterhouse Cases, 83 U.S. 36 (1872)". Justia Law. Retrieved 2018-11-10.
Yick Wo v. Hopkins, 118 U.S. 356 (1886).
However, the legal concept of corporate personhood predates the Fourteenth Amendment. See Providence Bank v. Billings, 29 U.S. 514 (1830), in which Chief Justice Marshall wrote: "The great object of an incorporation is to bestow the character and properties of individuality on a collective and changing body of men." Nevertheless, the concept of corporate personhood remains controversial. See Mayer, Carl J. (1990). "Personalizing the Impersonal: Corporations and the Bill of Rights". Hastings Law Journal. 41: 577. ISSN 0017-8322. Archived from the original on 2007-02-06. Retrieved 2007-02-24.
Santa Clara County v. Southern Pacific Railroad, 118 U.S. 394 (1886). John C. Bancroft was a former railway company president. In the summary of the case Bancroft wrote that the Court declared that it did not need to hear argument on whether the Equal Protection Clause protected corporations, because "we are all of the opinion that it does." Id. at 396. Chief Justice Morrison Waite announced from the bench that the Court would not hear argument on the question whether the equal protection clause applied to corporations: "We are all of the opinion that it does." The background and developments from this utterance are treated in H. Graham, Everyman's Constitution--Historical Essays on the Fourteenth Amendment, the Conspiracy Theory, and American Constitutionalism (1968), chs. 9, 10, and pp. 566-84. Justice Hugo Black, in Connecticut General Life Ins. Co. v. Johnson, 303 U.S. 77, 85 (1938), and Justice William O. Douglas, in Wheeling Steel Corp. v. Glander, 337 U.S. 562, 576 (1949), have disagreed that corporations are persons for equal protection purposes.
Lawrence v. Texas, 539 U.S. 598 (2003), at page 2482

launchknowledge.com (Global: low place; English: low place)

"Constitution of the United States - We the People". launchknowledge.com. 10 September 2020.

law.com (Global: 3,163^rd place; English: 1,731^st place)

m.law.com

Chemerinsky, Erwin. "Justice Kennedy's World Archived 2013-07-09 at the Wayback Machine", The National Law Journal (July 1, 2013): "There is another similarity between his opinion in Windsor and his earlier ones in Romer and Lawrence: the Supreme Court invalidated the law without using heightened scrutiny for sexual-orientation discrimination ... A law based on animus fails to meet even rational-basis review so there was no need to adopt a higher level of scrutiny."

loc.gov (Global: 70^th place; English: 63^rd place)

loc.gov

Sumner, Charles, and Daniel Murray Pamphlet Collection. . Washington: S. & R. O. Polkinhorn, Printers, 1874. Pdf. https://www.loc.gov/item/12005313/ .

memory.loc.gov

Bickel, Alexander. "The Original Understanding and the Segregation Decision", Harvard Law Review, Vol. 69, pp. 35-37 (1955). Bingham was speaking on February 27, 1866. See transcript.

northwestern.edu (Global: 2,302^nd place; English: 1,389^th place)

scholarlycommons.law.northwestern.edu

Baldus, David C.; Pulaski, Charles; Woodworth, George (1983). "Comparative Review of Death Sentences: An Empirical Study of the Georgia Experience". Journal of Criminal Law and Criminology (Submitted manuscript). 74 (3): 661–753. doi:10.2307/1143133. JSTOR 1143133.

pitt.edu (Global: 1,476^th place; English: 1,056^th place)

jurist.law.pitt.edu

See Schuck, Peter H. (September 5, 2003). "Reflections on Grutter". Jurist. Archived from the original on 2005-09-09.

reclaimdemocracy.org (Global: low place; English: low place)

However, the legal concept of corporate personhood predates the Fourteenth Amendment. See Providence Bank v. Billings, 29 U.S. 514 (1830), in which Chief Justice Marshall wrote: "The great object of an incorporation is to bestow the character and properties of individuality on a collective and changing body of men." Nevertheless, the concept of corporate personhood remains controversial. See Mayer, Carl J. (1990). "Personalizing the Impersonal: Corporations and the Bill of Rights". Hastings Law Journal. 41: 577. ISSN 0017-8322. Archived from the original on 2007-02-06. Retrieved 2007-02-24.

sagepub.com (Global: 731^st place; English: 638^th place)

eus.sagepub.com

Jacobs, Nicholas (8 August 2011). "Racial, Economic, and Linguistic Segregation: Analyzing Market Supports in the District of Columbia's Public Charter Schools". Education and Urban Society. 45 (1): 120–141. doi:10.1177/0013124511407317. S2CID 144814662. Retrieved 28 October 2013.

semanticscholar.org (Global: 11^th place; English: 8^th place)

api.semanticscholar.org

Swisher, Carl Brent (1957). "Dred Scott One Hundred Years After". The Journal of Politics. 19 (2): 167–183. doi:10.2307/2127194. JSTOR 2127194. S2CID 154345582.
Jacobs, Nicholas (8 August 2011). "Racial, Economic, and Linguistic Segregation: Analyzing Market Supports in the District of Columbia's Public Charter Schools". Education and Urban Society. 45 (1): 120–141. doi:10.1177/0013124511407317. S2CID 144814662. Retrieved 28 October 2013.

ssrn.com (Global: 703^rd place; English: 501^st place)

papers.ssrn.com

For a skeptical evaluation of Harlan, see Chin, Gabriel J. (1996). "The Plessy Myth: Justice Harlan and the Chinese Cases". Iowa Law Review. 82: 151. ISSN 0021-0552. SSRN 1121505.

stanford.edu (Global: 179^th place; English: 183^rd place)

plato.stanford.edu

"Affirmative Action". Stanford University. Retrieved April 6, 2012.

supremecourthistory.org (Global: low place; English: low place)

"Supreme Court Decisions & Women's Rights: Interpreting the Equal Protection Clause". Supreme Court Historical Society.

typepad.com (Global: 1,429^th place; English: 932^nd place)

left2right.typepad.com

Herzog, Don (March 22, 2005). "Constitutional Rights: Two". Left2Right. Note that the Court has put significant limits on the congressional power of enforcement. See City of Boerne v. Flores (1997), Board of Trustees of the University of Alabama v. Garrett (2001), and United States v. Morrison (2000). The Court has also interpreted federal statutory law as limiting the power of states to correct disparate effects. See Ricci v. DeStefano (2009).

uchicago.edu (Global: 230^th place; English: 214^th place)

chicagounbound.uchicago.edu

See Currie, David P. (1987). "The Constitution in the Supreme Court: The New Deal, 1931–1940". University of Chicago Law Review (Submitted manuscript). 54 (2): 504–555. doi:10.2307/1599798. JSTOR 1599798.

upenn.edu (Global: 702^nd place; English: 520^th place)

law.upenn.edu

Goldstein, Leslie. "Between the Tiers: The New(est) Equal Protection and Bush v. Gore Archived 2016-03-04 at the Wayback Machine", University of Pennsylvania Journal of Constitutional Law, Vol. 4, p. 372 (2002) .

scholarship.law.upenn.edu

Kroll, Joshua (2017). "Accountable Algorithms (Ricci v. DeStefano: The Tensions Between Equal Protection, Disparate Treatment, and Disparate Impact)". University of Pennsylvania Law Review. 165: 692.

usconstitution.net (Global: low place; English: low place)

Mount, Steve (January 2007). "Ratification of Constitutional Amendments". Retrieved February 24, 2007.

utexas.edu (Global: 916^th place; English: 706^th place)

Kelly, Alfred. "Clio and the Court: An Illicit Love Affair^{[permanent dead link]}", The Supreme Court Review at p. 148 (1965) reprinted in The Supreme Court in and of the Stream of Power (Kermit Hall ed., Psychology Press 2000).
See Schnapper, Eric (1985). "Affirmative Action and the Legislative History of the Fourteenth Amendment" (PDF). Virginia Law Review. 71 (5): 753–798. doi:10.2307/1073012. JSTOR 1073012.

villanova.edu (Global: low place; English: 8,527^th place)

digitalcommons.law.villanova.edu

Ayers, Ava (2020). "Discriminatory Cooperative Federalism". Villanova Law Review. 65 (1).

web.archive.org (Global: 1^st place; English: 1^st place)

Failinger, Marie (2009). "Equal protection of the laws". In Schultz, David Andrew (ed.). The Encyclopedia of American Law. Infobase. pp. 152–53. ISBN 978-1-4381-0991-6. Archived from the original on July 24, 2020. The equal protection clause guarantees the right of "similarly situated" people to be treated the same way by the law.
"Fair Treatment by the Government: Equal Protection". GeorgiaLegalAid.org. Carl Vinson Institute of Government at University of Georgia. July 30, 2004. Archived from the original on March 20, 2020. Retrieved July 24, 2020. The basic intent of equal protection is to make sure that people are treated as equally as possible under our legal system. For example, it is to see that everyone who gets a speeding ticket will face the samEpocedures [sic!]. A further intent is to ensure that all Americans are provided with equal opportunities in education, employment, and other areas. [...] The U.S. Constitution makes a similar provision in the Fourteenth Amendment. It says that no state shall make or enforce any law that will "deny to any person within its jurisdiction the equal protection of the law." These provisions require the government to treat persons equally and impartially.
"Equal Protection". Legal Information Institute at Cornell Law School. Archived from the original on June 22, 2020. Retrieved July 24, 2020. Equal Protection refers to the idea that a governmental body may not deny people equal protection of its governing laws. The governing body state must treat an individual in the same manner as others in similar conditions and circumstances.
Antieau, Chester James (1952). "Equal Protection outside the Clause". California Law Review. 40 (3): 362–377. doi:10.2307/3477928. JSTOR 3477928. Archived from the original on 2019-10-13. Retrieved 2019-07-08.
However, the legal concept of corporate personhood predates the Fourteenth Amendment. See Providence Bank v. Billings, 29 U.S. 514 (1830), in which Chief Justice Marshall wrote: "The great object of an incorporation is to bestow the character and properties of individuality on a collective and changing body of men." Nevertheless, the concept of corporate personhood remains controversial. See Mayer, Carl J. (1990). "Personalizing the Impersonal: Corporations and the Bill of Rights". Hastings Law Journal. 41: 577. ISSN 0017-8322. Archived from the original on 2007-02-06. Retrieved 2007-02-24.
For data and analysis, see Orfield (July 2001). "Schools More Separate" (PDF). Harvard University Civil Rights Project. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2007-06-28. Retrieved 2008-07-16.
Goldstein, Leslie. "Between the Tiers: The New(est) Equal Protection and Bush v. Gore Archived 2016-03-04 at the Wayback Machine", University of Pennsylvania Journal of Constitutional Law, Vol. 4, p. 372 (2002) .
Chemerinsky, Erwin. "Justice Kennedy's World Archived 2013-07-09 at the Wayback Machine", The National Law Journal (July 1, 2013): "There is another similarity between his opinion in Windsor and his earlier ones in Romer and Lawrence: the Supreme Court invalidated the law without using heightened scrutiny for sexual-orientation discrimination ... A law based on animus fails to meet even rational-basis review so there was no need to adopt a higher level of scrutiny."
United States v. Windsor Archived 2015-04-27 at the Wayback Machine, No. 12-307, 2013 BL 169620, 118 FEP Cases 1417 (U.S. June 26, 2013).
See Schuck, Peter H. (September 5, 2003). "Reflections on Grutter". Jurist. Archived from the original on 2005-09-09.

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For a skeptical evaluation of Harlan, see Chin, Gabriel J. (1996). "The Plessy Myth: Justice Harlan and the Chinese Cases". Iowa Law Review. 82: 151. ISSN 0021-0552. SSRN 1121505.
However, the legal concept of corporate personhood predates the Fourteenth Amendment. See Providence Bank v. Billings, 29 U.S. 514 (1830), in which Chief Justice Marshall wrote: "The great object of an incorporation is to bestow the character and properties of individuality on a collective and changing body of men." Nevertheless, the concept of corporate personhood remains controversial. See Mayer, Carl J. (1990). "Personalizing the Impersonal: Corporations and the Bill of Rights". Hastings Law Journal. 41: 577. ISSN 0017-8322. Archived from the original on 2007-02-06. Retrieved 2007-02-24.
See Pettinga, Gayle Lynn (1987). "Rational Basis with Bite: Intermediate Scrutiny by Any Other Name". Indiana Law Journal. 62: 779. ISSN 0019-6665.; Wadhwani, Neelum J. (2006). "Rational Reviews, Irrational Results". Texas Law Review. 84: 801, 809–811. ISSN 0040-4411.
Joslin, Courtney (1997). "Equal Protection and Anti-Gay Legislation". Harvard Civil Rights-Civil Liberties Law Review. 32: 225, 240. ISSN 0017-8039. The Romer Court applied a more 'active,' Cleburne-like rational basis standard ...; Farrell, Robert C. (1999). "Successful Rational Basis Claims in the Supreme Court from the 1971 Term Through Romer v. Evans". Indiana Law Review. 32: 357. ISSN 0019-6665.
See Koppelman, Andrew (1994). "Why Discrimination against Lesbians and Gay Men is Sex Discrimination". New York University Law Review. 69: 197. ISSN 0028-7881.; see also Fricke v. Lynch, 491 F.Supp. 381, 388, fn. 6 (1980), vacated 627 F.2d 1088 [case decided on First Amendment free-speech grounds, but "This case can also be profitably analyzed under the Equal Protection Clause of the fourteenth amendment. In preventing Aaron Fricke from attending the senior reception, the school has afforded disparate treatment to a certain class of students those wishing to attend the reception with companions of the same sex."]

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Frank, John P.; Munro, Robert F. (1950). "The Original Understanding of "Equal Protection of the Laws"". Columbia Law Review. 50 (2): 131–169. doi:10.2307/1118709. JSTOR 1118709.
Bickel, Alexander. "The Original Understanding and the Segregation Decision", Harvard Law Review, Vol. 69, pp. 35-37 (1955). Bingham was speaking on February 27, 1866. See transcript.
Bickel, Alexander. "The Original Understanding and the Segregation Decision", Harvard Law Review, Vol. 69, pp. 35–37 (1955).
See Siegel, Reva B. (2004). "Equality Talk: Antisubordination and Anticlassification Values in Constitutional Struggles over Brown". Harvard Law Review (Submitted manuscript). 117 (5): 1470–1547. doi:10.2307/4093259. JSTOR 4093259.; Carter, Stephen L. (1988). "When Victims Happen to Be Black". Yale Law Journal. 97 (3): 420–447. doi:10.2307/796412. JSTOR 796412.

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