General relativity (English Wikipedia)

Analysis of information sources in references of the Wikipedia article "General relativity" in English language version.

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Kramer, M.; Stairs, I. H.; Manchester, R. N.; Wex, N.; Deller, A. T.; Coles, W. A.; Ali, M.; Burgay, M.; Camilo, F.; Cognard, I.; Damour, T. (13 December 2021). "Strong-Field Gravity Tests with the Double Pulsar". Physical Review X. 11 (4): 041050. arXiv:2112.06795. Bibcode:2021PhRvX..11d1050K. doi:10.1103/PhysRevX.11.041050. ISSN 2160-3308. S2CID 245124502.

archive.org

Pais 1982, ch. 9 to 15, Janssen 2005; an up-to-date collection of current research, including reprints of many of the original articles, is Renn 2007; an accessible overview can be found in Renn 2005, pp. 110ff. Einstein's original papers are found in Digital Einstein, volumes 4 and 6. An early key article is Einstein 1907, cf. Pais 1982, ch. 9. The publication featuring the field equations is Einstein 1915, cf. Pais 1982, ch. 11–15 Pais, Abraham (1982), 'Subtle is the Lord ...' The Science and life of Albert Einstein, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0-19-853907-0 Janssen, Michel (2005), "Of pots and holes: Einstein's bumpy road to general relativity", Annalen der Physik, 14 (S1): 58–85, Bibcode:2005AnP...517S..58J, doi:10.1002/andp.200410130, S2CID 10641693, archived from the original (PDF) on 25 August 2020, retrieved 28 August 2010 Renn, Jürgen, ed. (2007), The Genesis of General Relativity (4 Volumes), Dordrecht: Springer, ISBN 978-1-4020-3999-7 Renn, Jürgen, ed. (2005), Albert Einstein—Chief Engineer of the Universe: Einstein's Life and Work in Context, Berlin: Wiley-VCH, ISBN 978-3-527-40571-8 Einstein, Albert (1907), "Über das Relativitätsprinzip und die aus demselben gezogene Folgerungen", Jahrbuch der Radioaktivität und Elektronik, 4: 411 See also English translation at Einstein Papers Project Pais, Abraham (1982), 'Subtle is the Lord ...' The Science and life of Albert Einstein, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0-19-853907-0 Einstein, Albert (1915), "Die Feldgleichungen der Gravitation", Sitzungsberichte der Preussischen Akademie der Wissenschaften zu Berlin: 844–847, Bibcode:1915SPAW.......844E See also English translation at Einstein Papers Project Pais, Abraham (1982), 'Subtle is the Lord ...' The Science and life of Albert Einstein, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0-19-853907-0
Einstein 1917, cf. Pais 1982, ch. 15e Einstein, Albert (1917), "Kosmologische Betrachtungen zur allgemeinen Relativitätstheorie", Sitzungsberichte der Preußischen Akademie der Wissenschaften: 142, Bibcode:1917SPAW.......142E See also English translation at Einstein Papers Project Pais, Abraham (1982), 'Subtle is the Lord ...' The Science and life of Albert Einstein, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0-19-853907-0
Pais 1982, pp. 253–254 Pais, Abraham (1982), 'Subtle is the Lord ...' The Science and life of Albert Einstein, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0-19-853907-0
Pais 1982, ch. 16 Pais, Abraham (1982), 'Subtle is the Lord ...' The Science and life of Albert Einstein, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0-19-853907-0
Good introductions are, in order of increasing presupposed knowledge of mathematics, Giulini 2005, Mermin 2005, and Rindler 1991; for accounts of precision experiments, cf. part IV of Ehlers & Lämmerzahl 2006 Giulini, Domenico (2005), Special Relativity: A First Encounter, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0-19-856746-2 Mermin, N. David (2005), It's About Time. Understanding Einstein's Relativity, Princeton University Press, Bibcode:2005iatu.book.....M, ISBN 978-0-691-12201-4 Rindler, Wolfgang (1991), Introduction to Special Relativity, Clarendon Press, Oxford, ISBN 978-0-19-853952-0 Ehlers, Jürgen; Lämmerzahl, Claus, eds. (2006), Special Relativity—Will it Survive the Next 101 Years?, Springer, ISBN 978-3-540-34522-0
Rindler 1991, sec. 22, Synge 1972, ch. 1 and 2 Rindler, Wolfgang (1991), Introduction to Special Relativity, Clarendon Press, Oxford, ISBN 978-0-19-853952-0 Synge, J. L. (1972), Relativity: The Special Theory, North-Holland Publishing Company, ISBN 978-0-7204-0064-9
Ehlers 1973, pp. 17ff; a derivation can be found in Mermin 2005, ch. 12. For the experimental evidence, cf. the section Gravitational time dilation and frequency shift, below Ehlers, Jürgen (1973), "Survey of general relativity theory", in Israel, Werner (ed.), Relativity, Astrophysics and Cosmology, D. Reidel, pp. 1–125, ISBN 978-90-277-0369-9 Mermin, N. David (2005), It's About Time. Understanding Einstein's Relativity, Princeton University Press, Bibcode:2005iatu.book.....M, ISBN 978-0-691-12201-4
Ehlers 1973, p. 16, Kenyon 1990, sec. 7.2, Weinberg 1972, sec. 2.8 Ehlers, Jürgen (1973), "Survey of general relativity theory", in Israel, Werner (ed.), Relativity, Astrophysics and Cosmology, D. Reidel, pp. 1–125, ISBN 978-90-277-0369-9 Kenyon, I. R. (1990), General Relativity, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0-19-851996-6 Weinberg, Steven (1972), Gravitation and Cosmology: Principles and Applications of the General Theory of Relativity, John Wiley, Bibcode:1972gcpa.book.....W, ISBN 978-0-471-92567-5
Ehlers 1973, pp. 19–22; for similar derivations, see sections 1 and 2 of ch. 7 in Weinberg 1972. The Einstein tensor is the only divergence-free tensor that is a function of the metric coefficients, their first and second derivatives at most, and allows the spacetime of special relativity as a solution in the absence of sources of gravity, cf. Lovelock 1972. The tensors on both side are of second rank, that is, they can each be thought of as 4×4 matrices, each of which contains ten independent terms; hence, the above represents ten coupled equations. The fact that, as a consequence of geometric relations known as Bianchi identities, the Einstein tensor satisfies a further four identities reduces these to six independent equations, e.g. Schutz 1985, sec. 8.3 Ehlers, Jürgen (1973), "Survey of general relativity theory", in Israel, Werner (ed.), Relativity, Astrophysics and Cosmology, D. Reidel, pp. 1–125, ISBN 978-90-277-0369-9 Weinberg, Steven (1972), Gravitation and Cosmology: Principles and Applications of the General Theory of Relativity, John Wiley, Bibcode:1972gcpa.book.....W, ISBN 978-0-471-92567-5 Lovelock, David (1972), "The Four-Dimensionality of Space and the Einstein Tensor", J. Math. Phys., 13 (6): 874–876, Bibcode:1972JMP....13..874L, doi:10.1063/1.1666069 Schutz, Bernard F. (1985), A first course in general relativity, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0-521-27703-7
Brans & Dicke 1961, Weinberg 1972, sec. 3 in ch. 7, Goenner 2004, sec. 7.2, and Trautman 2006, respectively Brans, C. H.; Dicke, R. H. (1961), "Mach's Principle and a Relativistic Theory of Gravitation", Physical Review, 124 (3): 925–935, Bibcode:1961PhRv..124..925B, doi:10.1103/PhysRev.124.925 Weinberg, Steven (1972), Gravitation and Cosmology: Principles and Applications of the General Theory of Relativity, John Wiley, Bibcode:1972gcpa.book.....W, ISBN 978-0-471-92567-5 Goenner, Hubert F. M. (2004), "On the History of Unified Field Theories", Living Reviews in Relativity, 7 (1): 2, Bibcode:2004LRR.....7....2G, doi:10.12942/lrr-2004-2, PMC 5256024, PMID 28179864 Trautman, Andrzej (2006), "Einstein–Cartan theory", in Françoise, J.-P.; Naber, G. L.; Tsou, S. T. (eds.), Encyclopedia of Mathematical Physics, Vol. 2, Elsevier, pp. 189–195, arXiv:gr-qc/0606062, Bibcode:2006gr.qc.....6062T
Wald 1984, ch. 4, Weinberg 1972, ch. 7 or, in fact, any other textbook on general relativity Wald, Robert M. (1984), General Relativity, University of Chicago Press, ISBN 978-0-226-87033-5 Weinberg, Steven (1972), Gravitation and Cosmology: Principles and Applications of the General Theory of Relativity, John Wiley, Bibcode:1972gcpa.book.....W, ISBN 978-0-471-92567-5
section 5 in ch. 12 of Weinberg 1972 Weinberg, Steven (1972), Gravitation and Cosmology: Principles and Applications of the General Theory of Relativity, John Wiley, Bibcode:1972gcpa.book.....W, ISBN 978-0-471-92567-5
Rindler 2001, pp. 24–26 vs. pp. 236–237 and Ohanian & Ruffini 1994, pp. 164–172. Einstein derived these effects using the equivalence principle as early as 1907, cf. Einstein 1907 and the description in Pais 1982, pp. 196–198 Rindler, Wolfgang (2001), Relativity. Special, General and Cosmological, Oxford University Press, Bibcode:2001rsgc.book.....R, ISBN 978-0-19-850836-6 Ohanian, Hans C.; Ruffini, Remo (1994), Gravitation and Spacetime, W. W. Norton & Company, ISBN 978-0-393-96501-8 Einstein, Albert (1907), "Über das Relativitätsprinzip und die aus demselben gezogene Folgerungen", Jahrbuch der Radioaktivität und Elektronik, 4: 411 See also English translation at Einstein Papers Project Pais, Abraham (1982), 'Subtle is the Lord ...' The Science and life of Albert Einstein, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0-19-853907-0
For the Sun's gravitational field using radar signals reflected from planets such as Venus and Mercury, cf. Shapiro 1964, Weinberg 1972, ch. 8, sec. 7; for signals actively sent back by space probes (transponder measurements), cf. Bertotti, Iess & Tortora 2003; for an overview, see Ohanian & Ruffini 1994, table 4.4 on p. 200; for more recent measurements using signals received from a pulsar that is part of a binary system, the gravitational field causing the time delay being that of the other pulsar, cf. Stairs 2003, sec. 4.4 Shapiro, Irwin I. (1964), "Fourth test of general relativity", Phys. Rev. Lett., 13 (26): 789–791, Bibcode:1964PhRvL..13..789S, doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.13.789 Weinberg, Steven (1972), Gravitation and Cosmology: Principles and Applications of the General Theory of Relativity, John Wiley, Bibcode:1972gcpa.book.....W, ISBN 978-0-471-92567-5 Bertotti, Bruno; Iess, L.; Tortora, P. (2003), "A test of general relativity using radio links with the Cassini spacecraft", Nature, 425 (6956): 374–376, Bibcode:2003Natur.425..374B, doi:10.1038/nature01997, PMID 14508481, S2CID 4337125 Ohanian, Hans C.; Ruffini, Remo (1994), Gravitation and Spacetime, W. W. Norton & Company, ISBN 978-0-393-96501-8 Stairs, Ingrid H. (2003), "Testing General Relativity with Pulsar Timing", Living Reviews in Relativity, 6 (1): 5, arXiv:astro-ph/0307536, Bibcode:2003LRR.....6....5S, doi:10.12942/lrr-2003-5, PMC 5253800, PMID 28163640
Schutz 2003, pp. 48–49, Pais 1982, pp. 253–254 Schutz, Bernard F. (2003), Gravity from the ground up, Cambridge University Press, Bibcode:2003ggu..book.....S, ISBN 978-0-521-45506-0 Pais, Abraham (1982), 'Subtle is the Lord ...' The Science and life of Albert Einstein, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0-19-853907-0
Penrose 2004, § 14.5, Misner, Thorne & Wheeler 1973, § 11.4 Penrose, Roger (2004), The Road to Reality, A. A. Knopf, ISBN 978-0-679-45443-4 Misner, Charles W.; Thorne, Kip. S.; Wheeler, John A. (1973), Gravitation, W. H. Freeman, ISBN 978-0-7167-0344-0
Weinberg 1972, sec. 9.6, Ohanian & Ruffini 1994, sec. 7.8 Weinberg, Steven (1972), Gravitation and Cosmology: Principles and Applications of the General Theory of Relativity, John Wiley, Bibcode:1972gcpa.book.....W, ISBN 978-0-471-92567-5 Ohanian, Hans C.; Ruffini, Remo (1994), Gravitation and Spacetime, W. W. Norton & Company, ISBN 978-0-393-96501-8
Ohanian & Ruffini 1994, sec. 4.7, Weinberg 1972, sec. 9.7; for a more recent review, see Schäfer 2004 Ohanian, Hans C.; Ruffini, Remo (1994), Gravitation and Spacetime, W. W. Norton & Company, ISBN 978-0-393-96501-8 Weinberg, Steven (1972), Gravitation and Cosmology: Principles and Applications of the General Theory of Relativity, John Wiley, Bibcode:1972gcpa.book.....W, ISBN 978-0-471-92567-5 Schäfer, Gerhard (2004), "Gravitomagnetic Effects", General Relativity and Gravitation, 36 (10): 2223–2235, arXiv:gr-qc/0407116, Bibcode:2004GReGr..36.2223S, doi:10.1023/B:GERG.0000046180.97877.32, S2CID 14255129
Barish 2005, Bartusiak 2000, Blair & McNamara 1997 Barish, Barry (2005), "Towards detection of gravitational waves", in Florides, P.; Nolan, B.; Ottewil, A. (eds.), General Relativity and Gravitation. Proceedings of the 17th International Conference, World Scientific, pp. 24–34, Bibcode:2005grg..conf.....F, ISBN 978-981-256-424-5 Bartusiak, Marcia (2000), Einstein's Unfinished Symphony: Listening to the Sounds of Space-Time, Berkley, ISBN 978-0-425-18620-6 Blair, David; McNamara, Geoff (1997), Ripples on a Cosmic Sea. The Search for Gravitational Waves, Perseus, ISBN 978-0-7382-0137-5
Einstein 1917; cf. Pais 1982, pp. 285–288 Einstein, Albert (1917), "Kosmologische Betrachtungen zur allgemeinen Relativitätstheorie", Sitzungsberichte der Preußischen Akademie der Wissenschaften: 142, Bibcode:1917SPAW.......142E See also English translation at Einstein Papers Project Pais, Abraham (1982), 'Subtle is the Lord ...' The Science and life of Albert Einstein, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0-19-853907-0
Bergström & Goobar 2003, ch. 9–11; use of these models is justified by the fact that, at large scales of around hundred million light-years and more, our own universe indeed appears to be isotropic and homogeneous, cf. Peebles et al. 1991 Bergström, Lars; Goobar, Ariel (2003), Cosmology and Particle Astrophysics (2nd ed.), Wiley & Sons, ISBN 978-3-540-43128-2 Peebles, P.J.E.; Schramm, D.N.; Turner, E.L.; Kron, R.G. (1991), "The case for the relativistic hot Big Bang cosmology", Nature, 352 (6338): 769–776, Bibcode:1991Natur.352..769P, doi:10.1038/352769a0, S2CID 4337502
Alpher & Herman 1948, for a pedagogical introduction, see Bergström & Goobar 2003, ch. 11; for the initial detection, see Penzias & Wilson 1965 and, for precision measurements by satellite observatories, Mather et al. 1994 (COBE) and Bennett et al. 2003 (WMAP). Future measurements could also reveal evidence about gravitational waves in the early universe; this additional information is contained in the background radiation's polarization, cf. Kamionkowski, Kosowsky & Stebbins 1997 and Seljak & Zaldarriaga 1997 Alpher, R. A.; Herman, R. C. (1948), "Evolution of the universe", Nature, 162 (4124): 774–775, Bibcode:1948Natur.162..774A, doi:10.1038/162774b0, S2CID 4113488 Bergström, Lars; Goobar, Ariel (2003), Cosmology and Particle Astrophysics (2nd ed.), Wiley & Sons, ISBN 978-3-540-43128-2 Penzias, A. A.; Wilson, R. W. (1965), "A measurement of excess antenna temperature at 4080 Mc/s", Astrophysical Journal, 142: 419–421, Bibcode:1965ApJ...142..419P, doi:10.1086/148307 Mather, J. C.; Cheng, E. S.; Cottingham, D. A.; Eplee, R. E.; Fixsen, D. J.; Hewagama, T.; Isaacman, R. B.; Jensen, K. A.; et al. (1994), "Measurement of the cosmic microwave spectrum by the COBE FIRAS instrument", Astrophysical Journal, 420: 439–444, Bibcode:1994ApJ...420..439M, doi:10.1086/173574 Bennett, C. L.; Halpern, M.; Hinshaw, G.; Jarosik, N.; Kogut, A.; Limon, M.; Meyer, S. S.; Page, L.; et al. (2003), "First Year Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe (WMAP) Observations: Preliminary Maps and Basic Results", Astrophys. J. Suppl. Ser., 148 (1): 1–27, arXiv:astro-ph/0302207, Bibcode:2003ApJS..148....1B, doi:10.1086/377253, S2CID 115601 Kamionkowski, Marc; Kosowsky, Arthur; Stebbins, Albert (1997), "Statistics of Cosmic Microwave Background Polarization", Phys. Rev. D, 55 (12): 7368–7388, arXiv:astro-ph/9611125, Bibcode:1997PhRvD..55.7368K, doi:10.1103/PhysRevD.55.7368, S2CID 14018215 Seljak, Uros̆; Zaldarriaga, Matias (1997), "Signature of Gravity Waves in the Polarization of the Microwave Background", Phys. Rev. Lett., 78 (11): 2054–2057, arXiv:astro-ph/9609169, Bibcode:1997PhRvL..78.2054S, doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.78.2054, S2CID 30795875
Evidence for this comes from the determination of cosmological parameters and additional observations involving the dynamics of galaxies and galaxy clusters cf. Peebles 1993, ch. 18, evidence from gravitational lensing, cf. Peacock 1999, sec. 4.6, and simulations of large-scale structure formation, see Springel et al. 2005 Peebles, P. J. E. (1993), Principles of physical cosmology, Princeton University Press, ISBN 978-0-691-01933-8 Peacock, John A. (1999), Cosmological Physics, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0-521-41072-4 Springel, Volker; White, Simon D. M.; Jenkins, Adrian; Frenk, Carlos S.; Yoshida, Naoki; Gao, Liang; Navarro, Julio; Thacker, Robert; et al. (2005), "Simulations of the formation, evolution and clustering of galaxies and quasars", Nature, 435 (7042): 629–636, arXiv:astro-ph/0504097, Bibcode:2005Natur.435..629S, doi:10.1038/nature03597, PMID 15931216, S2CID 4383030
Ramond 1990, Weinberg 1995, Peskin & Schroeder 1995; a more accessible overview is Auyang 1995 Ramond, Pierre (1990), Field Theory: A Modern Primer, Addison-Wesley, ISBN 978-0-201-54611-8 Weinberg, Steven (1995), The Quantum Theory of Fields I: Foundations, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0-521-55001-7 Peskin, Michael E.; Schroeder, Daniel V. (1995), An Introduction to Quantum Field Theory, Addison-Wesley, ISBN 978-0-201-50397-5 Auyang, Sunny Y. (1995), How is Quantum Field Theory Possible?, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0-19-509345-2
In particular, a perturbative technique known as renormalization, an integral part of deriving predictions which take into account higher-energy contributions, cf. Weinberg 1996, ch. 17, 18, fails in this case; cf. Veltman 1975, Goroff & Sagnotti 1985; for a recent comprehensive review of the failure of perturbative renormalizability for quantum gravity see Hamber 2009 Weinberg, Steven (1996), The Quantum Theory of Fields II: Modern Applications, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0-521-55002-4 Veltman, Martinus (1975), "Quantum Theory of Gravitation", in Balian, Roger; Zinn-Justin, Jean (eds.), Methods in Field Theory – Les Houches Summer School in Theoretical Physics., vol. 77, North Holland Goroff, Marc H.; Sagnotti, Augusto (1985), "Quantum gravity at two loops", Phys. Lett., 160B (1–3): 81–86, Bibcode:1985PhLB..160...81G, doi:10.1016/0370-2693(85)91470-4 Hamber, Herbert W. (2009), Hamber, Herbert W (ed.), Quantum Gravitation – The Feynman Path Integral Approach, Springer Publishing, doi:10.1007/978-3-540-85293-3, hdl:11858/00-001M-0000-0013-471D-A, ISBN 978-3-540-85292-6
Weinberg 2000, ch. 31 Weinberg, Steven (2000), The Quantum Theory of Fields III: Supersymmetry, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0-521-66000-6
Penrose 2004, ch. 33 and refs therein Penrose, Roger (2004), The Road to Reality, A. A. Knopf, ISBN 978-0-679-45443-4
Maddox 1998, pp. 52–59, 98–122; Penrose 2004, sec. 34.1, ch. 30 Maddox, John (1998), What Remains To Be Discovered, Macmillan, ISBN 978-0-684-82292-1 Penrose, Roger (2004), The Road to Reality, A. A. Knopf, ISBN 978-0-679-45443-4

arxiv.org

Kennefick 2005, Kennefick 2007 Kennefick, Daniel (2005), "Astronomers Test General Relativity: Light-bending and the Solar Redshift", in Renn, Jürgen (ed.), One hundred authors for Einstein, Wiley-VCH, pp. 178–181, ISBN 978-3-527-40574-9 Kennefick, Daniel (2007), "Not Only Because of Theory: Dyson, Eddington and the Competing Myths of the 1919 Eclipse Expedition", Proceedings of the 7th Conference on the History of General Relativity, Tenerife, 2005, vol. 0709, p. 685, arXiv:0709.0685, Bibcode:2007arXiv0709.0685K, doi:10.1016/j.shpsa.2012.07.010, S2CID 119203172
Will 1993, sec. 2.4, Will 2006, sec. 2 Will, Clifford M. (1993), Theory and experiment in gravitational physics, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0-521-43973-2 Will, Clifford M. (2006), "The Confrontation between General Relativity and Experiment", Living Reviews in Relativity, 9 (1): 3, arXiv:gr-qc/0510072, Bibcode:2006LRR.....9....3W, doi:10.12942/lrr-2006-3, PMC 5256066, PMID 28179873
An in-depth comparison between the two symmetry groups can be found in Giulini 2006 Giulini, Domenico (2006), "Algebraic and Geometric Structures in Special Relativity", in Ehlers, Jürgen; Lämmerzahl, Claus (eds.), Special Relativity—Will it Survive the Next 101 Years?, Lecture Notes in Physics, vol. 702, pp. 45–111, arXiv:math-ph/0602018, Bibcode:2006math.ph...2018G, doi:10.1007/3-540-34523-X_4, ISBN 978-3-540-34522-0, S2CID 15948765
Brans & Dicke 1961, Weinberg 1972, sec. 3 in ch. 7, Goenner 2004, sec. 7.2, and Trautman 2006, respectively Brans, C. H.; Dicke, R. H. (1961), "Mach's Principle and a Relativistic Theory of Gravitation", Physical Review, 124 (3): 925–935, Bibcode:1961PhRv..124..925B, doi:10.1103/PhysRev.124.925 Weinberg, Steven (1972), Gravitation and Cosmology: Principles and Applications of the General Theory of Relativity, John Wiley, Bibcode:1972gcpa.book.....W, ISBN 978-0-471-92567-5 Goenner, Hubert F. M. (2004), "On the History of Unified Field Theories", Living Reviews in Relativity, 7 (1): 2, Bibcode:2004LRR.....7....2G, doi:10.12942/lrr-2004-2, PMC 5256024, PMID 28179864 Trautman, Andrzej (2006), "Einstein–Cartan theory", in Françoise, J.-P.; Naber, G. L.; Tsou, S. T. (eds.), Encyclopedia of Mathematical Physics, Vol. 2, Elsevier, pp. 189–195, arXiv:gr-qc/0606062, Bibcode:2006gr.qc.....6062T
At least approximately, cf. Poisson 2004a Poisson, Eric (27 May 2004a). "The Motion of Point Particles in Curved Spacetime". Living Reviews in Relativity. 7 (1). 6. arXiv:gr-qc/0306052. Bibcode:2004LRR.....7....6P. doi:10.12942/lrr-2004-6. PMC 5256043. PMID 28179866.
For the (conceptual and historical) difficulties in defining a general principle of relativity and separating it from the notion of general covariance, see Giulini 2007 Giulini, Domenico (2007), "Remarks on the Notions of General Covariance and Background Independence", in Stamatescu, I. O. (ed.), Approaches to Fundamental Physics, Lecture Notes in Physics, vol. 721, pp. 105–120, arXiv:gr-qc/0603087, Bibcode:2007LNP...721..105G, doi:10.1007/978-3-540-71117-9_6, ISBN 978-3-540-71115-5, S2CID 14772226
A review showing Einstein's equation in the broader context of other PDEs with physical significance is Geroch 1996 Geroch, Robert (1996). "Partial Differential Equations of Physics". General Relativity: 19. arXiv:gr-qc/9602055. Bibcode:1996gere.conf...19G.
For background information and a list of solutions, cf. Stephani et al. 2003; a more recent review can be found in MacCallum 2006 Stephani, H.; Kramer, D.; MacCallum, M.; Hoenselaers, C.; Herlt, E. (2003), Exact Solutions of Einstein's Field Equations (2 ed.), Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0-521-46136-8 MacCallum, M. (2006), "Finding and using exact solutions of the Einstein equations", in Mornas, L.; Alonso, J. D. (eds.), AIP Conference Proceedings (A Century of Relativity Physics: ERE05, the XXVIII Spanish Relativity Meeting), vol. 841, pp. 129–143, arXiv:gr-qc/0601102, Bibcode:2006AIPC..841..129M, doi:10.1063/1.2218172, S2CID 13096531
Lehner 2002 Lehner, Luis (2002). "Numerical Relativity: Status and Prospects". In Nigel T. Bishop; Sunil D. Maharaj (eds.). General Relativity and Gravitation. General Relativity and Gravitation: Proceedings of the 16th International Conference, Durban, South Africa, 15–21 July 2001. p. 210. arXiv:gr-qc/0202055. Bibcode:2002grg..conf..210L. doi:10.1142/9789812776556_0010. ISBN 978-981-238-171-2. S2CID 9145148.
Will 2006, sec. 3.2, Will 1993, ch. 4 Will, Clifford M. (2006), "The Confrontation between General Relativity and Experiment", Living Reviews in Relativity, 9 (1): 3, arXiv:gr-qc/0510072, Bibcode:2006LRR.....9....3W, doi:10.12942/lrr-2006-3, PMC 5256066, PMID 28179873 Will, Clifford M. (1993), Theory and experiment in gravitational physics, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0-521-43973-2
Greenstein, Oke & Shipman 1971; the most recent and most accurate Sirius B measurements are published in Barstow, Bond et al. 2005. Greenstein, J. L.; Oke, J. B.; Shipman, H. L. (1971), "Effective Temperature, Radius, and Gravitational Redshift of Sirius B", Astrophysical Journal, 169: 563, Bibcode:1971ApJ...169..563G, doi:10.1086/151174 Barstow, M.; Bond, Howard E.; Holberg, J. B.; Burleigh, M. R.; Hubeny, I.; Koester, D. (2005), "Hubble Space Telescope Spectroscopy of the Balmer lines in Sirius B", Mon. Not. R. Astron. Soc., 362 (4): 1134–1142, arXiv:astro-ph/0506600, Bibcode:2005MNRAS.362.1134B, doi:10.1111/j.1365-2966.2005.09359.x, S2CID 4607496
Stairs 2003 and Kramer 2004 Stairs, Ingrid H. (2003), "Testing General Relativity with Pulsar Timing", Living Reviews in Relativity, 6 (1): 5, arXiv:astro-ph/0307536, Bibcode:2003LRR.....6....5S, doi:10.12942/lrr-2003-5, PMC 5253800, PMID 28163640 Kramer, Michael (2004). "Millisecond Pulsarsas Tools of Fundamental Physics". In Karshenboim, S. G.; Peik, E. (eds.). Astrophysics, Clocks and Fundamental Constants. Lecture Notes in Physics. Vol. 648. pp. 33–54. arXiv:astro-ph/0405178. Bibcode:2004LNP...648...33K. doi:10.1007/978-3-540-40991-5_3. ISBN 978-3-540-21967-5.
For the Sun's gravitational field using radar signals reflected from planets such as Venus and Mercury, cf. Shapiro 1964, Weinberg 1972, ch. 8, sec. 7; for signals actively sent back by space probes (transponder measurements), cf. Bertotti, Iess & Tortora 2003; for an overview, see Ohanian & Ruffini 1994, table 4.4 on p. 200; for more recent measurements using signals received from a pulsar that is part of a binary system, the gravitational field causing the time delay being that of the other pulsar, cf. Stairs 2003, sec. 4.4 Shapiro, Irwin I. (1964), "Fourth test of general relativity", Phys. Rev. Lett., 13 (26): 789–791, Bibcode:1964PhRvL..13..789S, doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.13.789 Weinberg, Steven (1972), Gravitation and Cosmology: Principles and Applications of the General Theory of Relativity, John Wiley, Bibcode:1972gcpa.book.....W, ISBN 978-0-471-92567-5 Bertotti, Bruno; Iess, L.; Tortora, P. (2003), "A test of general relativity using radio links with the Cassini spacecraft", Nature, 425 (6956): 374–376, Bibcode:2003Natur.425..374B, doi:10.1038/nature01997, PMID 14508481, S2CID 4337125 Ohanian, Hans C.; Ruffini, Remo (1994), Gravitation and Spacetime, W. W. Norton & Company, ISBN 978-0-393-96501-8 Stairs, Ingrid H. (2003), "Testing General Relativity with Pulsar Timing", Living Reviews in Relativity, 6 (1): 5, arXiv:astro-ph/0307536, Bibcode:2003LRR.....6....5S, doi:10.12942/lrr-2003-5, PMC 5253800, PMID 28163640
B. P. Abbott; et al. (LIGO Scientific Collaboration and Virgo Collaboration) (2016). "Observation of Gravitational Waves from a Binary Black Hole Merger". Physical Review Letters. 116 (6): 061102. arXiv:1602.03837. Bibcode:2016PhRvL.116f1102A. doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.116.061102. PMID 26918975. S2CID 124959784.
See Lehner 2002 for a brief introduction to the methods of numerical relativity, and Seidel 1998 for the connection with gravitational wave astronomy Lehner, Luis (2002). "Numerical Relativity: Status and Prospects". In Nigel T. Bishop; Sunil D. Maharaj (eds.). General Relativity and Gravitation. General Relativity and Gravitation: Proceedings of the 16th International Conference, Durban, South Africa, 15–21 July 2001. p. 210. arXiv:gr-qc/0202055. Bibcode:2002grg..conf..210L. doi:10.1142/9789812776556_0010. ISBN 978-981-238-171-2. S2CID 9145148. Seidel, Edward (1998), "Numerical Relativity: Towards Simulations of 3D Black Hole Coalescence", in Narlikar, J. V.; Dadhich, N. (eds.), Gravitation and Relativity: At the turn of the millennium (Proceedings of the GR-15 Conference, held at IUCAA, Pune, India, December 16–21, 1997), IUCAA, p. 6088, arXiv:gr-qc/9806088, Bibcode:1998gr.qc.....6088S, ISBN 978-81-900378-3-9
In consequence, in the parameterized post-Newtonian formalism (PPN), measurements of this effect determine a linear combination of the terms β and γ, cf. Will 2006, sec. 3.5 and Will 1993, sec. 7.3 Will, Clifford M. (2006), "The Confrontation between General Relativity and Experiment", Living Reviews in Relativity, 9 (1): 3, arXiv:gr-qc/0510072, Bibcode:2006LRR.....9....3W, doi:10.12942/lrr-2006-3, PMC 5256066, PMID 28179873 Will, Clifford M. (1993), Theory and experiment in gravitational physics, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0-521-43973-2
The most precise measurements are VLBI measurements of planetary positions; see Will 1993, ch. 5, Will 2006, sec. 3.5, Anderson et al. 1992; for an overview, Ohanian & Ruffini 1994, pp. 406–407 Will, Clifford M. (1993), Theory and experiment in gravitational physics, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0-521-43973-2 Will, Clifford M. (2006), "The Confrontation between General Relativity and Experiment", Living Reviews in Relativity, 9 (1): 3, arXiv:gr-qc/0510072, Bibcode:2006LRR.....9....3W, doi:10.12942/lrr-2006-3, PMC 5256066, PMID 28179873 Anderson, J. D.; Campbell, J. K.; Jurgens, R. F.; Lau, E. L. (1992), "Recent developments in solar-system tests of general relativity", in Sato, H.; Nakamura, T. (eds.), Proceedings of the Sixth Marcel Grossmann Meeting on General Relativity, World Scientific, pp. 353–355, ISBN 978-981-02-0950-6 Ohanian, Hans C.; Ruffini, Remo (1994), Gravitation and Spacetime, W. W. Norton & Company, ISBN 978-0-393-96501-8
Kramer et al. 2006 Kramer, M.; Stairs, I. H.; Manchester, R. N.; McLaughlin, M. A.; Lyne, A. G.; Ferdman, R. D.; Burgay, M.; Lorimer, D. R.; et al. (2006), "Tests of general relativity from timing the double pulsar", Science, 314 (5796): 97–102, arXiv:astro-ph/0609417, Bibcode:2006Sci...314...97K, doi:10.1126/science.1132305, PMID 16973838, S2CID 6674714
Kramer, M.; Stairs, I. H.; Manchester, R. N.; Wex, N.; Deller, A. T.; Coles, W. A.; Ali, M.; Burgay, M.; Camilo, F.; Cognard, I.; Damour, T. (13 December 2021). "Strong-Field Gravity Tests with the Double Pulsar". Physical Review X. 11 (4): 041050. arXiv:2112.06795. Bibcode:2021PhRvX..11d1050K. doi:10.1103/PhysRevX.11.041050. ISSN 2160-3308. S2CID 245124502.
Stairs 2003, Schutz 2003, pp. 317–321, Bartusiak 2000, pp. 70–86 Stairs, Ingrid H. (2003), "Testing General Relativity with Pulsar Timing", Living Reviews in Relativity, 6 (1): 5, arXiv:astro-ph/0307536, Bibcode:2003LRR.....6....5S, doi:10.12942/lrr-2003-5, PMC 5253800, PMID 28163640 Schutz, Bernard F. (2003), Gravity from the ground up, Cambridge University Press, Bibcode:2003ggu..book.....S, ISBN 978-0-521-45506-0 Bartusiak, Marcia (2000), Einstein's Unfinished Symphony: Listening to the Sounds of Space-Time, Berkley, ISBN 978-0-425-18620-6
Kramer 2004 Kramer, Michael (2004). "Millisecond Pulsarsas Tools of Fundamental Physics". In Karshenboim, S. G.; Peik, E. (eds.). Astrophysics, Clocks and Fundamental Constants. Lecture Notes in Physics. Vol. 648. pp. 33–54. arXiv:astro-ph/0405178. Bibcode:2004LNP...648...33K. doi:10.1007/978-3-540-40991-5_3. ISBN 978-3-540-21967-5.
Bertotti, Ciufolini & Bender 1987, Nordtvedt 2003 Bertotti, Bruno; Ciufolini, Ignazio; Bender, Peter L. (1987), "New test of general relativity: Measurement of de Sitter geodetic precession rate for lunar perigee", Physical Review Letters, 58 (11): 1062–1065, Bibcode:1987PhRvL..58.1062B, doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.58.1062, PMID 10034329 Nordtvedt, Kenneth (2003). "Lunar Laser Ranging—a comprehensive probe of post-Newtonian gravity". arXiv:gr-qc/0301024.
Townsend 1997, sec. 4.2.1, Ohanian & Ruffini 1994, pp. 469–471 Townsend, Paul K. (1997). "Black Holes (Lecture notes)". arXiv:gr-qc/9707012. Ohanian, Hans C.; Ruffini, Remo (1994), Gravitation and Spacetime, W. W. Norton & Company, ISBN 978-0-393-96501-8
Ohanian & Ruffini 1994, sec. 4.7, Weinberg 1972, sec. 9.7; for a more recent review, see Schäfer 2004 Ohanian, Hans C.; Ruffini, Remo (1994), Gravitation and Spacetime, W. W. Norton & Company, ISBN 978-0-393-96501-8 Weinberg, Steven (1972), Gravitation and Cosmology: Principles and Applications of the General Theory of Relativity, John Wiley, Bibcode:1972gcpa.book.....W, ISBN 978-0-471-92567-5 Schäfer, Gerhard (2004), "Gravitomagnetic Effects", General Relativity and Gravitation, 36 (10): 2223–2235, arXiv:gr-qc/0407116, Bibcode:2004GReGr..36.2223S, doi:10.1023/B:GERG.0000046180.97877.32, S2CID 14255129
Ciufolini & Pavlis 2004, Ciufolini, Pavlis & Peron 2006, Iorio 2009 Ciufolini, Ignazio; Pavlis, Erricos C. (2004), "A confirmation of the general relativistic prediction of the Lense–Thirring effect", Nature, 431 (7011): 958–960, Bibcode:2004Natur.431..958C, doi:10.1038/nature03007, PMID 15496915, S2CID 4423434 Ciufolini, Ignazio; Pavlis, Erricos C.; Peron, R. (2006), "Determination of frame-dragging using Earth gravity models from CHAMP and GRACE", New Astron., 11 (8): 527–550, Bibcode:2006NewA...11..527C, doi:10.1016/j.newast.2006.02.001 Iorio, L. (2009), "An Assessment of the Systematic Uncertainty in Present and Future Tests of the Lense–Thirring Effect with Satellite Laser Ranging", Space Sci. Rev., 148 (1–4): 363–381, arXiv:0809.1373, Bibcode:2009SSRv..148..363I, doi:10.1007/s11214-008-9478-1, S2CID 15698399
Iorio 2006, Iorio 2010 Iorio, L. (2006), "A note on the evidence of the gravitomagnetic field of Mars", Classical and Quantum Gravity, 23 (17): 5451–5454, arXiv:gr-qc/0606092, Bibcode:2006CQGra..23.5451I, doi:10.1088/0264-9381/23/17/N01, S2CID 118233440 Iorio, L. (2010), "On the Lense–Thirring test with the Mars Global Surveyor in the gravitational field of Mars", Central European Journal of Physics, 8 (3): 509–513, arXiv:gr-qc/0701146, Bibcode:2010CEJPh...8..509I, doi:10.2478/s11534-009-0117-6, S2CID 16052420
For overviews of gravitational lensing and its applications, see Ehlers, Falco & Schneider 1992 and Wambsganss 1998 Ehlers, Jürgen; Falco, Emilio E.; Schneider, Peter (1992), Gravitational lenses, Springer, ISBN 978-3-540-66506-9 Wambsganss, Joachim (1998), "Gravitational Lensing in Astronomy", Living Reviews in Relativity, 1 (1): 12, arXiv:astro-ph/9812021, Bibcode:1998LRR.....1...12W, doi:10.12942/lrr-1998-12, PMC 5567250, PMID 28937183
For a simple derivation, see Schutz 2003, ch. 23; cf. Narayan & Bartelmann 1997, sec. 3 Schutz, Bernard F. (2003), Gravity from the ground up, Cambridge University Press, Bibcode:2003ggu..book.....S, ISBN 978-0-521-45506-0 Narayan, Ramesh; Bartelmann, Matthias (1997). "Lectures on Gravitational Lensing". arXiv:astro-ph/9606001.
Roulet & Mollerach 1997 Roulet, E.; Mollerach, S. (1997), "Microlensing", Physics Reports, 279 (2): 67–118, arXiv:astro-ph/9603119, Bibcode:1997PhR...279...67R, doi:10.1016/S0370-1573(96)00020-8, S2CID 262685723
Narayan & Bartelmann 1997, sec. 3.7 Narayan, Ramesh; Bartelmann, Matthias (1997). "Lectures on Gravitational Lensing". arXiv:astro-ph/9606001.
Hobbs, George; Archibald, A.; Arzoumanian, Z.; Backer, D.; Bailes, M.; Bhat, N. D. R.; Burgay, M.; Burke-Spolaor, S.; et al. (2010), "The international pulsar timing array project: using pulsars as a gravitational wave detector", Classical and Quantum Gravity, 27 (8): 084013, arXiv:0911.5206, Bibcode:2010CQGra..27h4013H, doi:10.1088/0264-9381/27/8/084013, S2CID 56073764
Thorne 1995 Thorne, Kip S. (1995), "Gravitational radiation", Particle and Nuclear Astrophysics and Cosmology in the Next Millennium: 160, arXiv:gr-qc/9506086, Bibcode:1995pnac.conf..160T, ISBN 978-0-521-36853-7
Cutler & Thorne 2002 Cutler, Curt; Thorne, Kip S. (2002), "An overview of gravitational wave sources", in Bishop, Nigel; Maharaj, Sunil D. (eds.), Proceedings of 16th International Conference on General Relativity and Gravitation (GR16), World Scientific, p. 4090, arXiv:gr-qc/0204090, Bibcode:2002gr.qc.....4090C, ISBN 978-981-238-171-2
Celotti, Miller & Sciama 1999, sec. 3 Celotti, Annalisa; Miller, John C.; Sciama, Dennis W. (1999), "Astrophysical evidence for the existence of black holes", Class. Quantum Grav., 16 (12A): A3 – A21, arXiv:astro-ph/9912186, Bibcode:1999CQGra..16A...3C, doi:10.1088/0264-9381/16/12A/301, S2CID 17677758
Springel et al. 2005 and the accompanying summary Gnedin 2005 Springel, Volker; White, Simon D. M.; Jenkins, Adrian; Frenk, Carlos S.; Yoshida, Naoki; Gao, Liang; Navarro, Julio; Thacker, Robert; et al. (2005), "Simulations of the formation, evolution and clustering of galaxies and quasars", Nature, 435 (7042): 629–636, arXiv:astro-ph/0504097, Bibcode:2005Natur.435..629S, doi:10.1038/nature03597, PMID 15931216, S2CID 4383030 Gnedin, Nickolay Y. (2005), "Digitizing the Universe", Nature, 435 (7042): 572–573, Bibcode:2005Natur.435..572G, doi:10.1038/435572a, PMID 15931201, S2CID 3023436
For stellar end states, cf. Oppenheimer & Snyder 1939 or, for more recent numerical work, Font 2003, sec. 4.1; for supernovae, there are still major problems to be solved, cf. Buras et al. 2003; for simulating accretion and the formation of jets, cf. Font 2003, sec. 4.2. Also, relativistic lensing effects are thought to play a role for the signals received from X-ray pulsars, cf. Kraus 1998 Oppenheimer, J. Robert; Snyder, H. (1939), "On continued gravitational contraction", Physical Review, 56 (5): 455–459, Bibcode:1939PhRv...56..455O, doi:10.1103/PhysRev.56.455 Font, José A. (2003), "Numerical Hydrodynamics in General Relativity", Living Reviews in Relativity, 6 (1): 4, Bibcode:2003LRR.....6....4F, doi:10.12942/lrr-2003-4, PMC 5660627, PMID 29104452 Buras, R.; Rampp, M.; Janka, H.-Th.; Kifonidis, K. (2003), "Improved Models of Stellar Core Collapse and Still no Explosions: What is Missing?", Phys. Rev. Lett., 90 (24): 241101, arXiv:astro-ph/0303171, Bibcode:2003PhRvL..90x1101B, doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.90.241101, PMID 12857181, S2CID 27632148 Font, José A. (2003), "Numerical Hydrodynamics in General Relativity", Living Reviews in Relativity, 6 (1): 4, Bibcode:2003LRR.....6....4F, doi:10.12942/lrr-2003-4, PMC 5660627, PMID 29104452 Kraus, Ute (1998), "Light Deflection Near Neutron Stars", Relativistic Astrophysics, Vieweg, pp. 66–81, ISBN 978-3-528-06909-4
The evidence includes limits on compactness from the observation of accretion-driven phenomena ("Eddington luminosity"), see Celotti, Miller & Sciama 1999, observations of stellar dynamics in the center of our own Milky Way galaxy, cf. Schödel et al. 2003, and indications that at least some of the compact objects in question appear to have no solid surface, which can be deduced from the examination of X-ray bursts for which the central compact object is either a neutron star or a black hole; cf. Remillard et al. 2006 for an overview, Narayan 2006, sec. 5. Observations of the "shadow" of the Milky Way galaxy's central black hole horizon are eagerly sought for, cf. Falcke, Melia & Agol 2000 Celotti, Annalisa; Miller, John C.; Sciama, Dennis W. (1999), "Astrophysical evidence for the existence of black holes", Class. Quantum Grav., 16 (12A): A3 – A21, arXiv:astro-ph/9912186, Bibcode:1999CQGra..16A...3C, doi:10.1088/0264-9381/16/12A/301, S2CID 17677758 Schödel, R.; Ott, T.; Genzel, R.; Eckart, A.; Mouawad, N.; Alexander, T. (2003), "Stellar Dynamics in the Central Arcsecond of Our Galaxy", Astrophysical Journal, 596 (2): 1015–1034, arXiv:astro-ph/0306214, Bibcode:2003ApJ...596.1015S, doi:10.1086/378122, S2CID 17719367 Remillard, Ronald A.; Lin, Dacheng; Cooper, Randall L.; Narayan, Ramesh (2006), "The Rates of Type I X-Ray Bursts from Transients Observed with RXTE: Evidence for Black Hole Event Horizons", Astrophysical Journal, 646 (1): 407–419, arXiv:astro-ph/0509758, Bibcode:2006ApJ...646..407R, doi:10.1086/504862, S2CID 14949527 Narayan, Ramesh (2006), "Black holes in astrophysics", New Journal of Physics, 7 (1): 199, arXiv:gr-qc/0506078, Bibcode:2005NJPh....7..199N, doi:10.1088/1367-2630/7/1/199, S2CID 17986323 Falcke, Heino; Melia, Fulvio; Agol, Eric (2000), "Viewing the Shadow of the Black Hole at the Galactic Center", Astrophysical Journal, 528 (1): L13 – L16, arXiv:astro-ph/9912263, Bibcode:2000ApJ...528L..13F, doi:10.1086/312423, PMID 10587484, S2CID 119433133
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Carroll 2001, ch. 2 Carroll, Sean M. (2001), "The Cosmological Constant", Living Reviews in Relativity, 4 (1): 1, arXiv:astro-ph/0004075, Bibcode:2001LRR.....4....1C, doi:10.12942/lrr-2001-1, PMC 5256042, PMID 28179856
E.g. with WMAP data, see Spergel et al. 2003 Spergel, D. N.; Verde, L.; Peiris, H. V.; Komatsu, E.; Nolta, M. R.; Bennett, C. L.; Halpern, M.; Hinshaw, G.; et al. (2003), "First Year Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe (WMAP) Observations: Determination of Cosmological Parameters", Astrophys. J. Suppl. Ser., 148 (1): 175–194, arXiv:astro-ph/0302209, Bibcode:2003ApJS..148..175S, doi:10.1086/377226, S2CID 10794058
These tests involve the separate observations detailed further on, see, e.g., fig. 2 in Bridle et al. 2003 Bridle, Sarah L.; Lahav, Ofer; Ostriker, Jeremiah P.; Steinhardt, Paul J. (2003), "Precision Cosmology? Not Just Yet", Science, 299 (5612): 1532–1533, arXiv:astro-ph/0303180, Bibcode:2003Sci...299.1532B, doi:10.1126/science.1082158, PMID 12624255, S2CID 119368762
Peebles 1966; for a recent account of predictions, see Coc, Vangioni‐Flam et al. 2004; an accessible account can be found in Weiss 2006; compare with the observations in Olive & Skillman 2004, Bania, Rood & Balser 2002, O'Meara et al. 2001, and Charbonnel & Primas 2005 Peebles, P. J. E. (1966), "Primordial Helium abundance and primordial fireball II", Astrophysical Journal, 146: 542–552, Bibcode:1966ApJ...146..542P, doi:10.1086/148918 Coc, A.; Vangioni-Flam, Elisabeth; Descouvemont, Pierre; Adahchour, Abderrahim; Angulo, Carmen (2004), "Updated Big Bang Nucleosynthesis confronted to WMAP observations and to the Abundance of Light Elements", Astrophysical Journal, 600 (2): 544–552, arXiv:astro-ph/0309480, Bibcode:2004ApJ...600..544C, doi:10.1086/380121, S2CID 16276658 Weiss, Achim (2006), "Elements of the past: Big Bang Nucleosynthesis and observation", Einstein Online, Max Planck Institute for Gravitational Physics, archived from the original on 8 February 2007, retrieved 24 February 2007 Olive, K. A.; Skillman, E. A. (2004), "A Realistic Determination of the Error on the Primordial Helium Abundance", Astrophysical Journal, 617 (1): 29–49, arXiv:astro-ph/0405588, Bibcode:2004ApJ...617...29O, doi:10.1086/425170, S2CID 15187664 Bania, T. M.; Rood, R. T.; Balser, D. S. (2002), "The cosmological density of baryons from observations of 3He+ in the Milky Way", Nature, 415 (6867): 54–57, Bibcode:2002Natur.415...54B, doi:10.1038/415054a, PMID 11780112, S2CID 4303625 O'Meara, John M.; Tytler, David; Kirkman, David; Suzuki, Nao; Prochaska, Jason X.; Lubin, Dan; Wolfe, Arthur M. (2001), "The Deuterium to Hydrogen Abundance Ratio Towards a Fourth QSO: HS0105+1619", Astrophysical Journal, 552 (2): 718–730, arXiv:astro-ph/0011179, Bibcode:2001ApJ...552..718O, doi:10.1086/320579, S2CID 14164537 Charbonnel, C.; Primas, F. (2005), "The Lithium Content of the Galactic Halo Stars", Astronomy & Astrophysics, 442 (3): 961–992, arXiv:astro-ph/0505247, Bibcode:2005A&A...442..961C, doi:10.1051/0004-6361:20042491, S2CID 119340132
Lahav & Suto 2004, Bertschinger 1998, Springel et al. 2005 Lahav, Ofer; Suto, Yasushi (2004), "Measuring our Universe from Galaxy Redshift Surveys", Living Reviews in Relativity, 7 (1): 8, arXiv:astro-ph/0310642, Bibcode:2004LRR.....7....8L, doi:10.12942/lrr-2004-8, PMC 5253994, PMID 28163643 Bertschinger, Edmund (1998), "Simulations of structure formation in the universe", Annu. Rev. Astron. Astrophys., 36 (1): 599–654, Bibcode:1998ARA&A..36..599B, doi:10.1146/annurev.astro.36.1.599 Springel, Volker; White, Simon D. M.; Jenkins, Adrian; Frenk, Carlos S.; Yoshida, Naoki; Gao, Liang; Navarro, Julio; Thacker, Robert; et al. (2005), "Simulations of the formation, evolution and clustering of galaxies and quasars", Nature, 435 (7042): 629–636, arXiv:astro-ph/0504097, Bibcode:2005Natur.435..629S, doi:10.1038/nature03597, PMID 15931216, S2CID 4383030
Alpher & Herman 1948, for a pedagogical introduction, see Bergström & Goobar 2003, ch. 11; for the initial detection, see Penzias & Wilson 1965 and, for precision measurements by satellite observatories, Mather et al. 1994 (COBE) and Bennett et al. 2003 (WMAP). Future measurements could also reveal evidence about gravitational waves in the early universe; this additional information is contained in the background radiation's polarization, cf. Kamionkowski, Kosowsky & Stebbins 1997 and Seljak & Zaldarriaga 1997 Alpher, R. A.; Herman, R. C. (1948), "Evolution of the universe", Nature, 162 (4124): 774–775, Bibcode:1948Natur.162..774A, doi:10.1038/162774b0, S2CID 4113488 Bergström, Lars; Goobar, Ariel (2003), Cosmology and Particle Astrophysics (2nd ed.), Wiley & Sons, ISBN 978-3-540-43128-2 Penzias, A. A.; Wilson, R. W. (1965), "A measurement of excess antenna temperature at 4080 Mc/s", Astrophysical Journal, 142: 419–421, Bibcode:1965ApJ...142..419P, doi:10.1086/148307 Mather, J. C.; Cheng, E. S.; Cottingham, D. A.; Eplee, R. E.; Fixsen, D. J.; Hewagama, T.; Isaacman, R. B.; Jensen, K. A.; et al. (1994), "Measurement of the cosmic microwave spectrum by the COBE FIRAS instrument", Astrophysical Journal, 420: 439–444, Bibcode:1994ApJ...420..439M, doi:10.1086/173574 Bennett, C. L.; Halpern, M.; Hinshaw, G.; Jarosik, N.; Kogut, A.; Limon, M.; Meyer, S. S.; Page, L.; et al. (2003), "First Year Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe (WMAP) Observations: Preliminary Maps and Basic Results", Astrophys. J. Suppl. Ser., 148 (1): 1–27, arXiv:astro-ph/0302207, Bibcode:2003ApJS..148....1B, doi:10.1086/377253, S2CID 115601 Kamionkowski, Marc; Kosowsky, Arthur; Stebbins, Albert (1997), "Statistics of Cosmic Microwave Background Polarization", Phys. Rev. D, 55 (12): 7368–7388, arXiv:astro-ph/9611125, Bibcode:1997PhRvD..55.7368K, doi:10.1103/PhysRevD.55.7368, S2CID 14018215 Seljak, Uros̆; Zaldarriaga, Matias (1997), "Signature of Gravity Waves in the Polarization of the Microwave Background", Phys. Rev. Lett., 78 (11): 2054–2057, arXiv:astro-ph/9609169, Bibcode:1997PhRvL..78.2054S, doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.78.2054, S2CID 30795875
Evidence for this comes from the determination of cosmological parameters and additional observations involving the dynamics of galaxies and galaxy clusters cf. Peebles 1993, ch. 18, evidence from gravitational lensing, cf. Peacock 1999, sec. 4.6, and simulations of large-scale structure formation, see Springel et al. 2005 Peebles, P. J. E. (1993), Principles of physical cosmology, Princeton University Press, ISBN 978-0-691-01933-8 Peacock, John A. (1999), Cosmological Physics, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0-521-41072-4 Springel, Volker; White, Simon D. M.; Jenkins, Adrian; Frenk, Carlos S.; Yoshida, Naoki; Gao, Liang; Navarro, Julio; Thacker, Robert; et al. (2005), "Simulations of the formation, evolution and clustering of galaxies and quasars", Nature, 435 (7042): 629–636, arXiv:astro-ph/0504097, Bibcode:2005Natur.435..629S, doi:10.1038/nature03597, PMID 15931216, S2CID 4383030
Peacock 1999, ch. 12, Peskin 2007; in particular, observations indicate that all but a negligible portion of that matter is not in the form of the usual elementary particles ("non-baryonic matter"), cf. Peacock 1999, ch. 12 Peacock, John A. (1999), Cosmological Physics, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0-521-41072-4 Peskin, Michael E. (2007), "Dark Matter and Particle Physics", Journal of the Physical Society of Japan, 76 (11): 111017, arXiv:0707.1536, Bibcode:2007JPSJ...76k1017P, doi:10.1143/JPSJ.76.111017, S2CID 16276112 Peacock, John A. (1999), Cosmological Physics, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0-521-41072-4
Namely, some physicists have questioned whether or not the evidence for dark matter is, in fact, evidence for deviations from the Einsteinian (and the Newtonian) description of gravity cf. the overview in Mannheim 2006, sec. 9 Mannheim, Philip D. (2006), "Alternatives to Dark Matter and Dark Energy", Prog. Part. Nucl. Phys., 56 (2): 340–445, arXiv:astro-ph/0505266, Bibcode:2006PrPNP..56..340M, doi:10.1016/j.ppnp.2005.08.001, S2CID 14024934
Carroll 2001; an accessible overview is given in Caldwell 2004. Here, too, scientists have argued that the evidence indicates not a new form of energy, but the need for modifications in our cosmological models, cf. Mannheim 2006, sec. 10; aforementioned modifications need not be modifications of general relativity, they could, for example, be modifications in the way we treat the inhomogeneities in the universe, cf. Buchert 2008 Carroll, Sean M. (2001), "The Cosmological Constant", Living Reviews in Relativity, 4 (1): 1, arXiv:astro-ph/0004075, Bibcode:2001LRR.....4....1C, doi:10.12942/lrr-2001-1, PMC 5256042, PMID 28179856 Caldwell, Robert R. (2004), "Dark Energy", Physics World, 17 (5): 37–42, doi:10.1088/2058-7058/17/5/36 Mannheim, Philip D. (2006), "Alternatives to Dark Matter and Dark Energy", Prog. Part. Nucl. Phys., 56 (2): 340–445, arXiv:astro-ph/0505266, Bibcode:2006PrPNP..56..340M, doi:10.1016/j.ppnp.2005.08.001, S2CID 14024934 Buchert, Thomas (2008), "Dark Energy from Structure—A Status Report", General Relativity and Gravitation, 40 (2–3): 467–527, arXiv:0707.2153, Bibcode:2008GReGr..40..467B, doi:10.1007/s10714-007-0554-8, S2CID 17281664
A good introduction is Linde 2005; for a more recent review, see Linde 2006 Linde, Andrei (2005), Particle Physics and Inflationary Cosmology, Contemporary Concepts in Physics, vol. 5, pp. 1–362, arXiv:hep-th/0503203, Bibcode:2005hep.th....3203L, ISBN 978-3-7186-0489-0 Linde, Andrei (2006), "Towards inflation in string theory", J. Phys. Conf. Ser., 24 (1): 151–160, arXiv:hep-th/0503195, Bibcode:2005JPhCS..24..151L, doi:10.1088/1742-6596/24/1/018, S2CID 250677699
Spergel et al. 2007, sec. 5,6 Spergel, D. N.; Bean, R.; Doré, O.; Nolta, M. R.; Bennett, C. L.; Dunkley, J.; Hinshaw, G.; Jarosik, N.; et al. (2007), "Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe (WMAP) Three Year Results: Implications for Cosmology", Astrophysical Journal Supplement, 170 (2): 377–408, arXiv:astro-ph/0603449, Bibcode:2007ApJS..170..377S, doi:10.1086/513700, S2CID 1386346
Brandenberger 2008, sec. 2 Brandenberger, Robert H. (2008), "Conceptual problems of inflationary cosmology and a new approach to cosmological structure formation", in Lemoine, Martin; Martin, Jerome; Peter, Patrick (eds.), Inflationary Cosmology, Lecture Notes in Physics, vol. 738, pp. 393–424, arXiv:hep-th/0701111, Bibcode:2007LNP...738..393B, doi:10.1007/978-3-540-74353-8_11, ISBN 978-3-540-74352-1, S2CID 18752698
Finazzi, Stefano; Liberati, Stefano; Barceló, Carlos (15 June 2009). "Semiclassical instability of dynamical warp drives". Physical Review D. 79 (12): 124017. arXiv:0904.0141. Bibcode:2009PhRvD..79l4017F. doi:10.1103/PhysRevD.79.124017. S2CID 59575856.
Strominger, Andrew (2017). "Lectures on the Infrared Structure of Gravity and Gauge Theory". arXiv:1703.05448 [hep-th]. ...redacted transcript of a course given by the author at Harvard in spring semester 2016. It contains a pedagogical overview of recent developments connecting the subjects of soft theorems, the memory effect and asymptotic symmetries in four-dimensional QED, nonabelian gauge theory and gravity with applications to black holes. To be published Princeton University Press, 158 pages.
Thorne 1972; for more recent numerical studies, see Berger 2002, sec. 2.1 Thorne, Kip S. (1972), "Nonspherical Gravitational Collapse—A Short Review", in Klauder, J. (ed.), Magic without Magic, W. H. Freeman, pp. 231–258 Berger, Beverly K. (2002), "Numerical Approaches to Spacetime Singularities", Living Reviews in Relativity, 5 (1): 1, arXiv:gr-qc/0201056, Bibcode:2002LRR.....5....1B, doi:10.12942/lrr-2002-1, PMC 5256073, PMID 28179859
Israel 1987. A more exact mathematical description distinguishes several kinds of horizon, notably event horizons and apparent horizons cf. Hawking & Ellis 1973, pp. 312–320 or Wald 1984, sec. 12.2; there are also more intuitive definitions for isolated systems that do not require knowledge of spacetime properties at infinity, cf. Ashtekar & Krishnan 2004 Israel, Werner (1987), "Dark stars: the evolution of an idea", in Hawking, Stephen W.; Israel, Werner (eds.), 300 Years of Gravitation, Cambridge University Press, pp. 199–276, ISBN 978-0-521-37976-2 Hawking, Stephen W.; Ellis, George F. R. (1973), The large scale structure of space-time, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0-521-09906-6 Wald, Robert M. (1984), General Relativity, University of Chicago Press, ISBN 978-0-226-87033-5 Ashtekar, Abhay; Krishnan, Badri (2004), "Isolated and Dynamical Horizons and Their Applications", Living Reviews in Relativity, 7 (1): 10, arXiv:gr-qc/0407042, Bibcode:2004LRR.....7...10A, doi:10.12942/lrr-2004-10, PMC 5253930, PMID 28163644
For first steps, cf. Israel 1971; see Hawking & Ellis 1973, sec. 9.3 or Heusler 1996, ch. 9 and 10 for a derivation, and Heusler 1998 as well as Beig & Chruściel 2006 as overviews of more recent results Israel, Werner (1971), "Event Horizons and Gravitational Collapse", General Relativity and Gravitation, 2 (1): 53–59, Bibcode:1971GReGr...2...53I, doi:10.1007/BF02450518, S2CID 119645546 Hawking, Stephen W.; Ellis, George F. R. (1973), The large scale structure of space-time, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0-521-09906-6 Heusler, Markus (1996), "Black Hole Uniqueness Theorems", Cambridge Lecture Notes in Physics, 6, Cambridge University Press, Bibcode:1996CLNP....6.....H, ISBN 978-0-521-56735-0 Heusler, Markus (1998), "Stationary Black Holes: Uniqueness and Beyond", Living Reviews in Relativity, 1 (1): 6, Bibcode:1998LRR.....1....6H, doi:10.12942/lrr-1998-6, PMC 5567259, PMID 28937184 Beig, Robert; Chruściel, Piotr T. (2006), "Stationary black holes", in Françoise, J.-P.; Naber, G.; Tsou, T.S. (eds.), Encyclopedia of Mathematical Physics, Volume 2, Elsevier, p. 2041, arXiv:gr-qc/0502041, Bibcode:2005gr.qc.....2041B, ISBN 978-0-12-512660-1
The laws of black hole mechanics were first described in Bardeen, Carter & Hawking 1973; a more pedagogical presentation can be found in Carter 1979; for a more recent review, see Wald 2001, ch. 2. A thorough, book-length introduction including an introduction to the necessary mathematics Poisson 2004. For the Penrose process, see Penrose 1969 Bardeen, J. M.; Carter, B.; Hawking, S. W. (1973), "The Four Laws of Black Hole Mechanics", Comm. Math. Phys., 31 (2): 161–170, Bibcode:1973CMaPh..31..161B, doi:10.1007/BF01645742, S2CID 54690354 Carter, Brandon (1979), "The general theory of the mechanical, electromagnetic and thermodynamic properties of black holes", in Hawking, S. W.; Israel, W. (eds.), General Relativity, an Einstein Centenary Survey, Cambridge University Press, pp. 294–369 and 860–863, ISBN 978-0-521-29928-2 Wald, Robert M. (2001), "The Thermodynamics of Black Holes", Living Reviews in Relativity, 4 (1): 6, arXiv:gr-qc/9912119, Bibcode:2001LRR.....4....6W, doi:10.12942/lrr-2001-6, PMC 5253844, PMID 28163633 Poisson, Eric (2004), A Relativist's Toolkit. The Mathematics of Black-Hole Mechanics, Cambridge University Press, Bibcode:2004rtmb.book.....P, ISBN 978-0-521-83091-1 Penrose, Roger (1969), "Gravitational collapse: the role of general relativity", Rivista del Nuovo Cimento, 1: 252–276, Bibcode:1969NCimR...1..252P
The fact that black holes radiate, quantum mechanically, was first derived in Hawking 1975; a more thorough derivation can be found in Wald 1975. A review is given in Wald 2001, ch. 3 Hawking, S. W. (1975), "Particle Creation by Black Holes", Communications in Mathematical Physics, 43 (3): 199–220, Bibcode:1975CMaPh..43..199H, doi:10.1007/BF02345020, S2CID 55539246 Wald, Robert M. (1975), "On Particle Creation by Black Holes", Commun. Math. Phys., 45 (3): 9–34, Bibcode:1975CMaPh..45....9W, doi:10.1007/BF01609863, S2CID 120950657 Wald, Robert M. (2001), "The Thermodynamics of Black Holes", Living Reviews in Relativity, 4 (1): 6, arXiv:gr-qc/9912119, Bibcode:2001LRR.....4....6W, doi:10.12942/lrr-2001-6, PMC 5253844, PMID 28163633
Horizons: cf. Rindler 2001, sec. 12.4. Unruh effect: Unruh 1976, cf. Wald 2001, ch. 3 Rindler, Wolfgang (2001), Relativity. Special, General and Cosmological, Oxford University Press, Bibcode:2001rsgc.book.....R, ISBN 978-0-19-850836-6 Unruh, W. G. (1976), "Notes on Black Hole Evaporation", Phys. Rev. D, 14 (4): 870–892, Bibcode:1976PhRvD..14..870U, doi:10.1103/PhysRevD.14.870 Wald, Robert M. (2001), "The Thermodynamics of Black Holes", Living Reviews in Relativity, 4 (1): 6, arXiv:gr-qc/9912119, Bibcode:2001LRR.....4....6W, doi:10.12942/lrr-2001-6, PMC 5253844, PMID 28163633
Townsend 1997, ch. 2; a more extensive treatment of this solution can be found in Chandrasekhar 1983, ch. 3 Townsend, Paul K. (1997). "Black Holes (Lecture notes)". arXiv:gr-qc/9707012. Chandrasekhar, Subrahmanyan (1983), The Mathematical Theory of Black Holes, New York: Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0-19-850370-5
Townsend 1997, ch. 4; for a more extensive treatment, cf. Chandrasekhar 1983, ch. 6 Townsend, Paul K. (1997). "Black Holes (Lecture notes)". arXiv:gr-qc/9707012. Chandrasekhar, Subrahmanyan (1983), The Mathematical Theory of Black Holes, New York: Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0-19-850370-5
Ellis & Van Elst 1999; a closer look at the singularity itself is taken in Börner 1993, sec. 1.2 Ellis, George F R; Van Elst, Henk (1999), "Cosmological Models", in Lachièze-Rey, Marc (ed.), Theoretical and Observational Cosmology, vol. 541, pp. 1–116, arXiv:gr-qc/9812046, Bibcode:1999ASIC..541....1E, doi:10.1007/978-94-011-4455-1_1, ISBN 978-0-7923-5946-3, S2CID 122994560 Börner, Gerhard (1993), The Early Universe. Facts and Fiction, Springer, Bibcode:1993euff.book.....B, ISBN 978-0-387-56729-7
The conjecture was made in Belinskii, Khalatnikov & Lifschitz 1971; for a more recent review, see Berger 2002. An accessible exposition is given by Garfinkle 2007 Belinskii, V. A.; Khalatnikov, I. M.; Lifschitz, E. M. (1971), "Oscillatory approach to the singular point in relativistic cosmology", Advances in Physics, 19 (80): 525–573, Bibcode:1970AdPhy..19..525B, doi:10.1080/00018737000101171; original paper in Russian: Belinsky, V. A.; Lifshits, I. M.; Khalatnikov, E. M. (1970), "Колебательный Режим Приближения К Особой Точке В Релятивистской Космологии", Uspekhi Fizicheskikh Nauk, 102 (11): 463–500, Bibcode:1970UsFiN.102..463B, doi:10.3367/ufnr.0102.197011d.0463 Berger, Beverly K. (2002), "Numerical Approaches to Spacetime Singularities", Living Reviews in Relativity, 5 (1): 1, arXiv:gr-qc/0201056, Bibcode:2002LRR.....5....1B, doi:10.12942/lrr-2002-1, PMC 5256073, PMID 28179859 Garfinkle, David (2007), "Of singularities and breadmaking", Einstein Online, Max Planck Institute for Gravitational Physics, archived from the original on 10 August 2007, retrieved 3 August 2007
The restriction to future singularities naturally excludes initial singularities such as the big bang singularity, which in principle be visible to observers at later cosmic time. The cosmic censorship conjecture was first presented in Penrose 1969; a textbook-level account is given in Wald 1984, pp. 302–305. For numerical results, see the review Berger 2002, sec. 2.1 Penrose, Roger (1969), "Gravitational collapse: the role of general relativity", Rivista del Nuovo Cimento, 1: 252–276, Bibcode:1969NCimR...1..252P Wald, Robert M. (1984), General Relativity, University of Chicago Press, ISBN 978-0-226-87033-5 Berger, Beverly K. (2002), "Numerical Approaches to Spacetime Singularities", Living Reviews in Relativity, 5 (1): 1, arXiv:gr-qc/0201056, Bibcode:2002LRR.....5....1B, doi:10.12942/lrr-2002-1, PMC 5256073, PMID 28179859
Gourgoulhon 2007; for a review of the basics of numerical relativity, including the problems arising from the peculiarities of Einstein's equations, see Lehner 2001 Gourgoulhon, Eric (2007). "3+1 Formalism and Bases of Numerical Relativity". arXiv:gr-qc/0703035. Lehner, Luis (2001), "Numerical Relativity: A review", Class. Quantum Grav., 18 (17): R25 – R86, arXiv:gr-qc/0106072, Bibcode:2001CQGra..18R..25L, doi:10.1088/0264-9381/18/17/202, S2CID 9715975
Townsend 1997, ch. 5 Townsend, Paul K. (1997). "Black Holes (Lecture notes)". arXiv:gr-qc/9707012.
For Hawking radiation Hawking 1975, Wald 1975; an accessible introduction to black hole evaporation can be found in Traschen 2000 Hawking, S. W. (1975), "Particle Creation by Black Holes", Communications in Mathematical Physics, 43 (3): 199–220, Bibcode:1975CMaPh..43..199H, doi:10.1007/BF02345020, S2CID 55539246 Wald, Robert M. (1975), "On Particle Creation by Black Holes", Commun. Math. Phys., 45 (3): 9–34, Bibcode:1975CMaPh..45....9W, doi:10.1007/BF01609863, S2CID 120950657 Traschen, Jennie (2000), Bytsenko, A.; Williams, F. (eds.), "An Introduction to Black Hole Evaporation", Mathematical Methods of Physics (Proceedings of the 1999 Londrina Winter School), World Scientific: 180, arXiv:gr-qc/0010055, Bibcode:2000mmp..conf..180T
Wald 2001, ch. 3 Wald, Robert M. (2001), "The Thermodynamics of Black Holes", Living Reviews in Relativity, 4 (1): 6, arXiv:gr-qc/9912119, Bibcode:2001LRR.....4....6W, doi:10.12942/lrr-2001-6, PMC 5253844, PMID 28163633
Put simply, matter is the source of spacetime curvature, and once matter has quantum properties, we can expect spacetime to have them as well. Cf. Carlip 2001, sec. 2 Carlip, Steven (2001), "Quantum Gravity: a Progress Report", Rep. Prog. Phys., 64 (8): 885–942, arXiv:gr-qc/0108040, Bibcode:2001RPPh...64..885C, doi:10.1088/0034-4885/64/8/301, S2CID 118923209
A timeline and overview can be found in Rovelli 2000 Rovelli, Carlo (2000). "Notes for a brief history of quantum gravity". arXiv:gr-qc/0006061.
Donoghue 1995 Donoghue, John F. (1995), "Introduction to the Effective Field Theory Description of Gravity", in Cornet, Fernando (ed.), Effective Theories: Proceedings of the Advanced School, Almunecar, Spain, 26 June–1 July 1995, Singapore: World Scientific, p. 12024, arXiv:gr-qc/9512024, Bibcode:1995gr.qc....12024D, ISBN 978-981-02-2908-5
At the energies reached in current experiments, these strings are indistinguishable from point-like particles, but, crucially, different modes of oscillation of one and the same type of fundamental string appear as particles with different (electric and other) charges, e.g. Ibanez 2000. The theory is successful in that one mode will always correspond to a graviton, the messenger particle of gravity, e.g. Green, Schwarz & Witten 1987, sec. 2.3, 5.3 Ibanez, L. E. (2000), "The second string (phenomenology) revolution", Class. Quantum Grav., 17 (5): 1117–1128, arXiv:hep-ph/9911499, Bibcode:2000CQGra..17.1117I, doi:10.1088/0264-9381/17/5/321, S2CID 15707877 Green, M. B.; Schwarz, J. H.; Witten, E. (1987), Superstring theory. Volume 1: Introduction, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0-521-35752-4
Townsend 1996, Duff 1996 Townsend, Paul K. (1996). "Four Lectures on M-Theory". High Energy Physics and Cosmology. 13: 385. arXiv:hep-th/9612121. Bibcode:1997hepcbconf..385T. Duff, Michael (1996), "M-Theory (the Theory Formerly Known as Strings)", Int. J. Mod. Phys. A, 11 (32): 5623–5641, arXiv:hep-th/9608117, Bibcode:1996IJMPA..11.5623D, doi:10.1142/S0217751X96002583, S2CID 17432791
For a review, see Thiemann 2007; more extensive accounts can be found in Rovelli 1998, Ashtekar & Lewandowski 2004 as well as in the lecture notes Thiemann 2003 Thiemann, Thomas (2007), "Loop Quantum Gravity: An Inside View", Approaches to Fundamental Physics, Lecture Notes in Physics, vol. 721, pp. 185–263, arXiv:hep-th/0608210, Bibcode:2007LNP...721..185T, doi:10.1007/978-3-540-71117-9_10, ISBN 978-3-540-71115-5, S2CID 119572847 Rovelli, Carlo (1998), "Loop Quantum Gravity", Living Reviews in Relativity, 1 (1): 1, arXiv:gr-qc/9710008, Bibcode:1998LRR.....1....1R, CiteSeerX 10.1.1.90.7036, doi:10.12942/lrr-1998-1, PMC 5567241, PMID 28937180 Ashtekar, Abhay; Lewandowski, Jerzy (2004), "Background Independent Quantum Gravity: A Status Report", Class. Quantum Grav., 21 (15): R53 – R152, arXiv:gr-qc/0404018, Bibcode:2004CQGra..21R..53A, doi:10.1088/0264-9381/21/15/R01, S2CID 119175535 Thiemann, Thomas (2003). "Lectures on Loop Quantum Gravity". In Domenico J.W. Giulini; Claus Kiefer; Claus Lämmerzahl (eds.). Quantum Gravity: From Theory to Experimental Search. Lecture Notes in Physics. Vol. 631. pp. 41–135. arXiv:gr-qc/0210094. Bibcode:2003LNP...631...41T. doi:10.1007/978-3-540-45230-0_3. ISBN 978-3-540-40810-9. S2CID 119151491.
Isham 1994, Sorkin 1997 Isham, Christopher J. (1994), "Prima facie questions in quantum gravity", in Ehlers, Jürgen; Friedrich, Helmut (eds.), Canonical Gravity: From Classical to Quantum, Lecture Notes in Physics, vol. 434, Springer, Bibcode:1994LNP...434.....E, doi:10.1007/3540583394, ISBN 978-3-540-58339-4 Sorkin, Rafael D. (1997), "Forks in the Road, on the Way to Quantum Gravity", Int. J. Theor. Phys., 36 (12): 2759–2781, arXiv:gr-qc/9706002, Bibcode:1997IJTP...36.2759S, doi:10.1007/BF02435709, S2CID 4803804
Loll 1998 Loll, Renate (1998), "Discrete Approaches to Quantum Gravity in Four Dimensions", Living Reviews in Relativity, 1 (1): 13, arXiv:gr-qc/9805049, Bibcode:1998LRR.....1...13L, doi:10.12942/lrr-1998-13, PMC 5253799, PMID 28191826
Sorkin 2005 Sorkin, Rafael D. (2005), "Causal Sets: Discrete Gravity", in Gomberoff, Andres; Marolf, Donald (eds.), Lectures on Quantum Gravity, Springer, p. 9009, arXiv:gr-qc/0309009, Bibcode:2003gr.qc.....9009S, ISBN 978-0-387-23995-8
Ashtekar 2007, Schwarz 2007 Ashtekar, Abhay (2007), "Loop Quantum Gravity: Four Recent Advances and a Dozen Frequently Asked Questions", Proceedings of the Eleventh Marcel Grossmann Meeting Meeting on General Relativity, The Eleventh Marcel Grossmann Meeting on Recent Developments in Theoretical and Experimental General Relativity, p. 126, arXiv:0705.2222, Bibcode:2008mgm..conf..126A, doi:10.1142/9789812834300_0008, ISBN 978-981-283-426-3, S2CID 119663169 Schwarz, John H. (2007), "String Theory: Progress and Problems", Progress of Theoretical Physics Supplement, 170: 214–226, arXiv:hep-th/0702219, Bibcode:2007PThPS.170..214S, doi:10.1143/PTPS.170.214, S2CID 16762545
Friedrich 2005 Friedrich, Helmut (2005), "Is general relativity 'essentially understood'?", Annalen der Physik, 15 (1–2): 84–108, arXiv:gr-qc/0508016, Bibcode:2006AnP...518...84F, doi:10.1002/andp.200510173, S2CID 37236624
A review of the various problems and the techniques being developed to overcome them, see Lehner 2002 Lehner, Luis (2002). "Numerical Relativity: Status and Prospects". In Nigel T. Bishop; Sunil D. Maharaj (eds.). General Relativity and Gravitation. General Relativity and Gravitation: Proceedings of the 16th International Conference, Durban, South Africa, 15–21 July 2001. p. 210. arXiv:gr-qc/0202055. Bibcode:2002grg..conf..210L. doi:10.1142/9789812776556_0010. ISBN 978-981-238-171-2. S2CID 9145148.
For the most recent papers on gravitational wave polarizations of inspiralling compact binaries, see Blanchet et al. 2008, and Arun et al. 2008; for a review of work on compact binaries, see Blanchet 2006 and Futamase & Itoh 2006; for a general review of experimental tests of general relativity, see Will 2006 Blanchet, L.; Faye, G.; Iyer, B. R.; Sinha, S. (2008), "The third post-Newtonian gravitational wave polarisations and associated spherical harmonic modes for inspiralling compact binaries in quasi-circular orbits", Classical and Quantum Gravity, 25 (16): 165003, arXiv:0802.1249, Bibcode:2008CQGra..25p5003B, doi:10.1088/0264-9381/25/16/165003, S2CID 54608927 Arun, K.G.; Blanchet, L.; Iyer, B. R.; Qusailah, M. S. S. (2008), "Inspiralling compact binaries in quasi-elliptical orbits: The complete 3PN energy flux", Physical Review D, 77 (6): 064035, arXiv:0711.0302, Bibcode:2008PhRvD..77f4035A, doi:10.1103/PhysRevD.77.064035, S2CID 55825202 Blanchet, Luc (2006), "Gravitational Radiation from Post-Newtonian Sources and Inspiralling Compact Binaries", Living Reviews in Relativity, 9 (1): 4, Bibcode:2006LRR.....9....4B, doi:10.12942/lrr-2006-4, PMC 5255899, PMID 28179874 Futamase, T.; Itoh, Y. (2006), "The Post-Newtonian Approximation for Relativistic Compact Binaries", Living Reviews in Relativity, 10 (1): 2, Bibcode:2007LRR....10....2F, doi:10.12942/lrr-2007-2, PMC 5255906, PMID 28179819 Will, Clifford M. (2006), "The Confrontation between General Relativity and Experiment", Living Reviews in Relativity, 9 (1): 3, arXiv:gr-qc/0510072, Bibcode:2006LRR.....9....3W, doi:10.12942/lrr-2006-3, PMC 5256066, PMID 28179873

bbc.co.uk

Al-Khalili, Jim (26 March 2021). "Gravity and Me: The force that shapes our lives". www.bbc.co.uk. Retrieved 9 April 2021.

black-holes.org

"GW150914: LIGO Detects Gravitational Waves". Black-holes.org. 11 February 2016. Retrieved 18 April 2016.

books.google.com

Thorne 2003, p. 74 Thorne, Kip (2003). "Warping spacetime". In G.W. Gibbons; E.P.S. Shellard; S.J. Rankin (eds.). The future of theoretical physics and cosmology: celebrating Stephen Hawking's 60th birthday. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-82081-3.
Albert Einstein (2011). Relativity – The Special and General Theory. Read Books Ltd. p. 4. ISBN 978-1-4474-9358-7. Extract of page 4
Dediu, Magdalena & Martín-Vide 2015, p. 141. Dediu, Adrian-Horia; Magdalena, Luis; Martín-Vide, Carlos, eds. (2015). Theory and Practice of Natural Computing: Fourth International Conference, TPNC 2015, Mieres, Spain, December 15–16, 2015. Proceedings. Springer. ISBN 978-3-319-26841-5.

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Danzmann & Rüdiger 2003 Danzmann, Karsten; Rüdiger, Albrecht (2003), "LISA Technology—Concepts, Status, Prospects" (PDF), Class. Quantum Grav., 20 (10): S1 – S9, Bibcode:2003CQGra..20S...1D, doi:10.1088/0264-9381/20/10/301, hdl:11858/00-001M-0000-0013-5233-E, S2CID 250836327, archived from the original (PDF) on 26 September 2007

cern.ch

cds.cern.ch

Weisberg & Taylor 2003; for the pulsar discovery, see Hulse & Taylor 1975; for the initial evidence for gravitational radiation, see Taylor 1994 Weisberg, Joel M.; Taylor, Joseph H. (2003), "The Relativistic Binary Pulsar B1913+16"", in Bailes, M.; Nice, D. J.; Thorsett, S. E. (eds.), Proceedings of "Radio Pulsars," Chania, Crete, August, 2002, ASP Conference Series Hulse, Russell A.; Taylor, Joseph H. (1975), "Discovery of a pulsar in a binary system", Astrophys. J., 195: L51 – L55, Bibcode:1975ApJ...195L..51H, doi:10.1086/181708 Taylor, Joseph H. (1994), "Binary pulsars and relativistic gravity", Rev. Mod. Phys., 66 (3): 711–719, Bibcode:1994RvMP...66..711T, doi:10.1103/RevModPhys.66.711, S2CID 120534048
Hamber 2009 Hamber, Herbert W. (2009), Hamber, Herbert W (ed.), Quantum Gravitation – The Feynman Path Integral Approach, Springer Publishing, doi:10.1007/978-3-540-85293-3, hdl:11858/00-001M-0000-0013-471D-A, ISBN 978-3-540-85292-6
In particular, a perturbative technique known as renormalization, an integral part of deriving predictions which take into account higher-energy contributions, cf. Weinberg 1996, ch. 17, 18, fails in this case; cf. Veltman 1975, Goroff & Sagnotti 1985; for a recent comprehensive review of the failure of perturbative renormalizability for quantum gravity see Hamber 2009 Weinberg, Steven (1996), The Quantum Theory of Fields II: Modern Applications, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0-521-55002-4 Veltman, Martinus (1975), "Quantum Theory of Gravitation", in Balian, Roger; Zinn-Justin, Jean (eds.), Methods in Field Theory – Les Houches Summer School in Theoretical Physics., vol. 77, North Holland Goroff, Marc H.; Sagnotti, Augusto (1985), "Quantum gravity at two loops", Phys. Lett., 160B (1–3): 81–86, Bibcode:1985PhLB..160...81G, doi:10.1016/0370-2693(85)91470-4 Hamber, Herbert W. (2009), Hamber, Herbert W (ed.), Quantum Gravitation – The Feynman Path Integral Approach, Springer Publishing, doi:10.1007/978-3-540-85293-3, hdl:11858/00-001M-0000-0013-471D-A, ISBN 978-3-540-85292-6

cfa-harvard.edu

Images of all the known lenses can be found on the pages of the CASTLES project, Kochanek et al. 2007 Kochanek, C.S.; Falco, E.E.; Impey, C.; Lehar, J. (2007), CASTLES Survey Website, Harvard-Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics, retrieved 21 August 2007

doi.org

Pais 1982, ch. 9 to 15, Janssen 2005; an up-to-date collection of current research, including reprints of many of the original articles, is Renn 2007; an accessible overview can be found in Renn 2005, pp. 110ff. Einstein's original papers are found in Digital Einstein, volumes 4 and 6. An early key article is Einstein 1907, cf. Pais 1982, ch. 9. The publication featuring the field equations is Einstein 1915, cf. Pais 1982, ch. 11–15 Pais, Abraham (1982), 'Subtle is the Lord ...' The Science and life of Albert Einstein, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0-19-853907-0 Janssen, Michel (2005), "Of pots and holes: Einstein's bumpy road to general relativity", Annalen der Physik, 14 (S1): 58–85, Bibcode:2005AnP...517S..58J, doi:10.1002/andp.200410130, S2CID 10641693, archived from the original (PDF) on 25 August 2020, retrieved 28 August 2010 Renn, Jürgen, ed. (2007), The Genesis of General Relativity (4 Volumes), Dordrecht: Springer, ISBN 978-1-4020-3999-7 Renn, Jürgen, ed. (2005), Albert Einstein—Chief Engineer of the Universe: Einstein's Life and Work in Context, Berlin: Wiley-VCH, ISBN 978-3-527-40571-8 Einstein, Albert (1907), "Über das Relativitätsprinzip und die aus demselben gezogene Folgerungen", Jahrbuch der Radioaktivität und Elektronik, 4: 411 See also English translation at Einstein Papers Project Pais, Abraham (1982), 'Subtle is the Lord ...' The Science and life of Albert Einstein, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0-19-853907-0 Einstein, Albert (1915), "Die Feldgleichungen der Gravitation", Sitzungsberichte der Preussischen Akademie der Wissenschaften zu Berlin: 844–847, Bibcode:1915SPAW.......844E See also English translation at Einstein Papers Project Pais, Abraham (1982), 'Subtle is the Lord ...' The Science and life of Albert Einstein, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0-19-853907-0
Schwarzschild 1916a, Schwarzschild 1916b and Reissner 1916 (later complemented in Nordström 1918) Schwarzschild, Karl (1916a), "Über das Gravitationsfeld eines Massenpunktes nach der Einsteinschen Theorie", Sitzungsber. Preuss. Akad. D. Wiss.: 189–196, Bibcode:1916SPAW.......189S Schwarzschild, Karl (1916b), "Über das Gravitationsfeld einer Kugel aus inkompressibler Flüssigkeit nach der Einsteinschen Theorie", Sitzungsber. Preuss. Akad. D. Wiss.: 424–434, Bibcode:1916skpa.conf..424S Reissner, H. (1916), "Über die Eigengravitation des elektrischen Feldes nach der Einsteinschen Theorie", Annalen der Physik, 355 (9): 106–120, Bibcode:1916AnP...355..106R, doi:10.1002/andp.19163550905 Nordström, Gunnar (1918), "On the Energy of the Gravitational Field in Einstein's Theory", Verhandl. Koninkl. Ned. Akad. Wetenschap., 26: 1238–1245, Bibcode:1918KNAB...20.1238N
Hubble's original article is Hubble 1929; an accessible overview is given in Singh 2004, ch. 2–4 Hubble, Edwin (1929), "A Relation between Distance and Radial Velocity among Extra-Galactic Nebulae", Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci., 15 (3): 168–173, Bibcode:1929PNAS...15..168H, doi:10.1073/pnas.15.3.168, PMC 522427, PMID 16577160 Singh, Simon (2004), Big Bang: The Origin of the Universe, Fourth Estate, Bibcode:2004biba.book.....S, ISBN 978-0-00-715251-3
Kennefick 2005, Kennefick 2007 Kennefick, Daniel (2005), "Astronomers Test General Relativity: Light-bending and the Solar Redshift", in Renn, Jürgen (ed.), One hundred authors for Einstein, Wiley-VCH, pp. 178–181, ISBN 978-3-527-40574-9 Kennefick, Daniel (2007), "Not Only Because of Theory: Dyson, Eddington and the Competing Myths of the 1919 Eclipse Expedition", Proceedings of the 7th Conference on the History of General Relativity, Tenerife, 2005, vol. 0709, p. 685, arXiv:0709.0685, Bibcode:2007arXiv0709.0685K, doi:10.1016/j.shpsa.2012.07.010, S2CID 119203172
Chandrasekhar 1984, p. 6 Chandrasekhar, Subrahmanyan (1984), "The general theory of relativity – Why 'It is probably the most beautiful of all existing theories'", Journal of Astrophysics and Astronomy, 5 (1): 3–11, Bibcode:1984JApA....5....3C, doi:10.1007/BF02714967, S2CID 120910934
Engler 2002 Engler, Gideon (2002), "Einstein and the most beautiful theories in physics", International Studies in the Philosophy of Science, 16 (1): 27–37, doi:10.1080/02698590120118800, S2CID 120160056
Will 1993, sec. 2.4, Will 2006, sec. 2 Will, Clifford M. (1993), Theory and experiment in gravitational physics, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0-521-43973-2 Will, Clifford M. (2006), "The Confrontation between General Relativity and Experiment", Living Reviews in Relativity, 9 (1): 3, arXiv:gr-qc/0510072, Bibcode:2006LRR.....9....3W, doi:10.12942/lrr-2006-3, PMC 5256066, PMID 28179873
Ehlers 1973, sec. 1.2, Havas 1964, Künzle 1972. The simple thought experiment in question was first described in Heckmann & Schücking 1959 Ehlers, Jürgen (1973), "Survey of general relativity theory", in Israel, Werner (ed.), Relativity, Astrophysics and Cosmology, D. Reidel, pp. 1–125, ISBN 978-90-277-0369-9 Havas, P. (1964), "Four-Dimensional Formulation of Newtonian Mechanics and Their Relation to the Special and the General Theory of Relativity", Rev. Mod. Phys., 36 (4): 938–965, Bibcode:1964RvMP...36..938H, doi:10.1103/RevModPhys.36.938 Künzle, H. P. (1972), "Galilei and Lorentz Structures on spacetime: comparison of the corresponding geometry and physics", Annales de l'Institut Henri Poincaré A, 17: 337–362 Heckmann, O. H. L.; Schücking, E. (1959), "Newtonsche und Einsteinsche Kosmologie", in Flügge, S. (ed.), Encyclopedia of Physics, vol. 53, p. 489
An in-depth comparison between the two symmetry groups can be found in Giulini 2006 Giulini, Domenico (2006), "Algebraic and Geometric Structures in Special Relativity", in Ehlers, Jürgen; Lämmerzahl, Claus (eds.), Special Relativity—Will it Survive the Next 101 Years?, Lecture Notes in Physics, vol. 702, pp. 45–111, arXiv:math-ph/0602018, Bibcode:2006math.ph...2018G, doi:10.1007/3-540-34523-X_4, ISBN 978-3-540-34522-0, S2CID 15948765
Rindler 2001, sec. 1.13; for an elementary account, see Wheeler 1990, ch. 2; there are, however, some differences between the modern version and Einstein's original concept used in the historical derivation of general relativity, cf. Norton 1985 Rindler, Wolfgang (2001), Relativity. Special, General and Cosmological, Oxford University Press, Bibcode:2001rsgc.book.....R, ISBN 978-0-19-850836-6 Wheeler, John A. (1990), A Journey Into Gravity and Spacetime, Scientific American Library, San Francisco: W. H. Freeman, ISBN 978-0-7167-6034-4 Norton, John D. (1985), "What was Einstein's principle of equivalence?" (PDF), Studies in History and Philosophy of Science, 16 (3): 203–246, Bibcode:1985SHPSA..16..203N, doi:10.1016/0039-3681(85)90002-0, archived (PDF) from the original on 22 September 2006, retrieved 11 June 2007
Ehlers 1973, pp. 19–22; for similar derivations, see sections 1 and 2 of ch. 7 in Weinberg 1972. The Einstein tensor is the only divergence-free tensor that is a function of the metric coefficients, their first and second derivatives at most, and allows the spacetime of special relativity as a solution in the absence of sources of gravity, cf. Lovelock 1972. The tensors on both side are of second rank, that is, they can each be thought of as 4×4 matrices, each of which contains ten independent terms; hence, the above represents ten coupled equations. The fact that, as a consequence of geometric relations known as Bianchi identities, the Einstein tensor satisfies a further four identities reduces these to six independent equations, e.g. Schutz 1985, sec. 8.3 Ehlers, Jürgen (1973), "Survey of general relativity theory", in Israel, Werner (ed.), Relativity, Astrophysics and Cosmology, D. Reidel, pp. 1–125, ISBN 978-90-277-0369-9 Weinberg, Steven (1972), Gravitation and Cosmology: Principles and Applications of the General Theory of Relativity, John Wiley, Bibcode:1972gcpa.book.....W, ISBN 978-0-471-92567-5 Lovelock, David (1972), "The Four-Dimensionality of Space and the Einstein Tensor", J. Math. Phys., 13 (6): 874–876, Bibcode:1972JMP....13..874L, doi:10.1063/1.1666069 Schutz, Bernard F. (1985), A first course in general relativity, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0-521-27703-7
Brans & Dicke 1961, Weinberg 1972, sec. 3 in ch. 7, Goenner 2004, sec. 7.2, and Trautman 2006, respectively Brans, C. H.; Dicke, R. H. (1961), "Mach's Principle and a Relativistic Theory of Gravitation", Physical Review, 124 (3): 925–935, Bibcode:1961PhRv..124..925B, doi:10.1103/PhysRev.124.925 Weinberg, Steven (1972), Gravitation and Cosmology: Principles and Applications of the General Theory of Relativity, John Wiley, Bibcode:1972gcpa.book.....W, ISBN 978-0-471-92567-5 Goenner, Hubert F. M. (2004), "On the History of Unified Field Theories", Living Reviews in Relativity, 7 (1): 2, Bibcode:2004LRR.....7....2G, doi:10.12942/lrr-2004-2, PMC 5256024, PMID 28179864 Trautman, Andrzej (2006), "Einstein–Cartan theory", in Françoise, J.-P.; Naber, G. L.; Tsou, S. T. (eds.), Encyclopedia of Mathematical Physics, Vol. 2, Elsevier, pp. 189–195, arXiv:gr-qc/0606062, Bibcode:2006gr.qc.....6062T
At least approximately, cf. Poisson 2004a Poisson, Eric (27 May 2004a). "The Motion of Point Particles in Curved Spacetime". Living Reviews in Relativity. 7 (1). 6. arXiv:gr-qc/0306052. Bibcode:2004LRR.....7....6P. doi:10.12942/lrr-2004-6. PMC 5256043. PMID 28179866.
For the (conceptual and historical) difficulties in defining a general principle of relativity and separating it from the notion of general covariance, see Giulini 2007 Giulini, Domenico (2007), "Remarks on the Notions of General Covariance and Background Independence", in Stamatescu, I. O. (ed.), Approaches to Fundamental Physics, Lecture Notes in Physics, vol. 721, pp. 105–120, arXiv:gr-qc/0603087, Bibcode:2007LNP...721..105G, doi:10.1007/978-3-540-71117-9_6, ISBN 978-3-540-71115-5, S2CID 14772226
For background information and a list of solutions, cf. Stephani et al. 2003; a more recent review can be found in MacCallum 2006 Stephani, H.; Kramer, D.; MacCallum, M.; Hoenselaers, C.; Herlt, E. (2003), Exact Solutions of Einstein's Field Equations (2 ed.), Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0-521-46136-8 MacCallum, M. (2006), "Finding and using exact solutions of the Einstein equations", in Mornas, L.; Alonso, J. D. (eds.), AIP Conference Proceedings (A Century of Relativity Physics: ERE05, the XXVIII Spanish Relativity Meeting), vol. 841, pp. 129–143, arXiv:gr-qc/0601102, Bibcode:2006AIPC..841..129M, doi:10.1063/1.2218172, S2CID 13096531
Lehner 2002 Lehner, Luis (2002). "Numerical Relativity: Status and Prospects". In Nigel T. Bishop; Sunil D. Maharaj (eds.). General Relativity and Gravitation. General Relativity and Gravitation: Proceedings of the 16th International Conference, Durban, South Africa, 15–21 July 2001. p. 210. arXiv:gr-qc/0202055. Bibcode:2002grg..conf..210L. doi:10.1142/9789812776556_0010. ISBN 978-981-238-171-2. S2CID 9145148.
Will 2006, sec. 3.2, Will 1993, ch. 4 Will, Clifford M. (2006), "The Confrontation between General Relativity and Experiment", Living Reviews in Relativity, 9 (1): 3, arXiv:gr-qc/0510072, Bibcode:2006LRR.....9....3W, doi:10.12942/lrr-2006-3, PMC 5256066, PMID 28179873 Will, Clifford M. (1993), Theory and experiment in gravitational physics, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0-521-43973-2
Pound–Rebka experiment, see Pound & Rebka 1959, Pound & Rebka 1960; Pound & Snider 1964; a list of further experiments is given in Ohanian & Ruffini 1994, table 4.1 on p. 186 Pound, R. V.; Rebka, G. A. (1959), "Gravitational Red-Shift in Nuclear Resonance", Physical Review Letters, 3 (9): 439–441, Bibcode:1959PhRvL...3..439P, doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.3.439 Pound, R. V.; Rebka, G. A. (1960), "Apparent weight of photons", Phys. Rev. Lett., 4 (7): 337–341, Bibcode:1960PhRvL...4..337P, doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.4.337 Pound, R. V.; Snider, J. L. (1964), "Effect of Gravity on Nuclear Resonance", Phys. Rev. Lett., 13 (18): 539–540, Bibcode:1964PhRvL..13..539P, doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.13.539 Ohanian, Hans C.; Ruffini, Remo (1994), Gravitation and Spacetime, W. W. Norton & Company, ISBN 978-0-393-96501-8
Greenstein, Oke & Shipman 1971; the most recent and most accurate Sirius B measurements are published in Barstow, Bond et al. 2005. Greenstein, J. L.; Oke, J. B.; Shipman, H. L. (1971), "Effective Temperature, Radius, and Gravitational Redshift of Sirius B", Astrophysical Journal, 169: 563, Bibcode:1971ApJ...169..563G, doi:10.1086/151174 Barstow, M.; Bond, Howard E.; Holberg, J. B.; Burleigh, M. R.; Hubeny, I.; Koester, D. (2005), "Hubble Space Telescope Spectroscopy of the Balmer lines in Sirius B", Mon. Not. R. Astron. Soc., 362 (4): 1134–1142, arXiv:astro-ph/0506600, Bibcode:2005MNRAS.362.1134B, doi:10.1111/j.1365-2966.2005.09359.x, S2CID 4607496
Starting with the Hafele–Keating experiment, Hafele & Keating 1972a and Hafele & Keating 1972b, and culminating in the Gravity Probe A experiment; an overview of experiments can be found in Ohanian & Ruffini 1994, table 4.1 on p. 186 Hafele, J. C.; Keating, R. E. (14 July 1972). "Around-the-World Atomic Clocks: Predicted Relativistic Time Gains". Science. 177 (4044): 166–168. Bibcode:1972Sci...177..166H. doi:10.1126/science.177.4044.166. PMID 17779917. S2CID 10067969. Hafele, J. C.; Keating, R. E. (14 July 1972). "Around-the-World Atomic Clocks: Observed Relativistic Time Gains". Science. 177 (4044): 168–170. Bibcode:1972Sci...177..168H. doi:10.1126/science.177.4044.168. PMID 17779918. S2CID 37376002. Ohanian, Hans C.; Ruffini, Remo (1994), Gravitation and Spacetime, W. W. Norton & Company, ISBN 978-0-393-96501-8
GPS is continually tested by comparing atomic clocks on the ground and aboard orbiting satellites; for an account of relativistic effects, see Ashby 2002 and Ashby 2003 Ashby, Neil (2002), "Relativity and the Global Positioning System" (PDF), Physics Today, 55 (5): 41–47, Bibcode:2002PhT....55e..41A, doi:10.1063/1.1485583 Ashby, Neil (2003), "Relativity in the Global Positioning System", Living Reviews in Relativity, 6 (1): 1, Bibcode:2003LRR.....6....1A, doi:10.12942/lrr-2003-1, PMC 5253894, PMID 28163638
Stairs 2003 and Kramer 2004 Stairs, Ingrid H. (2003), "Testing General Relativity with Pulsar Timing", Living Reviews in Relativity, 6 (1): 5, arXiv:astro-ph/0307536, Bibcode:2003LRR.....6....5S, doi:10.12942/lrr-2003-5, PMC 5253800, PMID 28163640 Kramer, Michael (2004). "Millisecond Pulsarsas Tools of Fundamental Physics". In Karshenboim, S. G.; Peik, E. (eds.). Astrophysics, Clocks and Fundamental Constants. Lecture Notes in Physics. Vol. 648. pp. 33–54. arXiv:astro-ph/0405178. Bibcode:2004LNP...648...33K. doi:10.1007/978-3-540-40991-5_3. ISBN 978-3-540-21967-5.
Cf. Kennefick 2005 for the classic early measurements by Arthur Eddington's expeditions. For an overview of more recent measurements, see Ohanian & Ruffini 1994, ch. 4.3. For the most precise direct modern observations using quasars, cf. Shapiro et al. 2004 Kennefick, Daniel (2005), "Astronomers Test General Relativity: Light-bending and the Solar Redshift", in Renn, Jürgen (ed.), One hundred authors for Einstein, Wiley-VCH, pp. 178–181, ISBN 978-3-527-40574-9 Ohanian, Hans C.; Ruffini, Remo (1994), Gravitation and Spacetime, W. W. Norton & Company, ISBN 978-0-393-96501-8 Shapiro, S. S.; Davis, J. L.; Lebach, D. E.; Gregory, J. S. (2004), "Measurement of the solar gravitational deflection of radio waves using geodetic very-long-baseline interferometry data, 1979–1999", Phys. Rev. Lett., 92 (12): 121101, Bibcode:2004PhRvL..92l1101S, doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.92.121101, PMID 15089661
Blanchet 2006, sec. 1.3 Blanchet, Luc (2006), "Gravitational Radiation from Post-Newtonian Sources and Inspiralling Compact Binaries", Living Reviews in Relativity, 9 (1): 4, Bibcode:2006LRR.....9....4B, doi:10.12942/lrr-2006-4, PMC 5255899, PMID 28179874
Rindler 2001, sec. 1.16; for the historical examples, Israel 1987, pp. 202–204; in fact, Einstein published one such derivation as Einstein 1907. Such calculations tacitly assume that the geometry of space is Euclidean, cf. Ehlers & Rindler 1997 Rindler, Wolfgang (2001), Relativity. Special, General and Cosmological, Oxford University Press, Bibcode:2001rsgc.book.....R, ISBN 978-0-19-850836-6 Israel, Werner (1987), "Dark stars: the evolution of an idea", in Hawking, Stephen W.; Israel, Werner (eds.), 300 Years of Gravitation, Cambridge University Press, pp. 199–276, ISBN 978-0-521-37976-2 Einstein, Albert (1907), "Über das Relativitätsprinzip und die aus demselben gezogene Folgerungen", Jahrbuch der Radioaktivität und Elektronik, 4: 411 See also English translation at Einstein Papers Project Ehlers, Jürgen; Rindler, Wolfgang (1997), "Local and Global Light Bending in Einstein's and other Gravitational Theories", General Relativity and Gravitation, 29 (4): 519–529, Bibcode:1997GReGr..29..519E, doi:10.1023/A:1018843001842, hdl:11858/00-001M-0000-0013-5AB5-4, S2CID 118162303
For the Sun's gravitational field using radar signals reflected from planets such as Venus and Mercury, cf. Shapiro 1964, Weinberg 1972, ch. 8, sec. 7; for signals actively sent back by space probes (transponder measurements), cf. Bertotti, Iess & Tortora 2003; for an overview, see Ohanian & Ruffini 1994, table 4.4 on p. 200; for more recent measurements using signals received from a pulsar that is part of a binary system, the gravitational field causing the time delay being that of the other pulsar, cf. Stairs 2003, sec. 4.4 Shapiro, Irwin I. (1964), "Fourth test of general relativity", Phys. Rev. Lett., 13 (26): 789–791, Bibcode:1964PhRvL..13..789S, doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.13.789 Weinberg, Steven (1972), Gravitation and Cosmology: Principles and Applications of the General Theory of Relativity, John Wiley, Bibcode:1972gcpa.book.....W, ISBN 978-0-471-92567-5 Bertotti, Bruno; Iess, L.; Tortora, P. (2003), "A test of general relativity using radio links with the Cassini spacecraft", Nature, 425 (6956): 374–376, Bibcode:2003Natur.425..374B, doi:10.1038/nature01997, PMID 14508481, S2CID 4337125 Ohanian, Hans C.; Ruffini, Remo (1994), Gravitation and Spacetime, W. W. Norton & Company, ISBN 978-0-393-96501-8 Stairs, Ingrid H. (2003), "Testing General Relativity with Pulsar Timing", Living Reviews in Relativity, 6 (1): 5, arXiv:astro-ph/0307536, Bibcode:2003LRR.....6....5S, doi:10.12942/lrr-2003-5, PMC 5253800, PMID 28163640
Castelvecchi, Davide; Witze, Witze (11 February 2016). "Einstein's gravitational waves found at last". Nature News. doi:10.1038/nature.2016.19361. S2CID 182916902. Retrieved 11 February 2016.
B. P. Abbott; et al. (LIGO Scientific Collaboration and Virgo Collaboration) (2016). "Observation of Gravitational Waves from a Binary Black Hole Merger". Physical Review Letters. 116 (6): 061102. arXiv:1602.03837. Bibcode:2016PhRvL.116f1102A. doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.116.061102. PMID 26918975. S2CID 124959784.
For example Jaranowski & Królak 2005 Jaranowski, Piotr; Królak, Andrzej (2005), "Gravitational-Wave Data Analysis. Formalism and Sample Applications: The Gaussian Case", Living Reviews in Relativity, 8 (1): 3, Bibcode:2005LRR.....8....3J, doi:10.12942/lrr-2005-3, PMC 5253919, PMID 28163647
Gowdy 1971, Gowdy 1974 Gowdy, Robert H. (1971), "Gravitational Waves in Closed Universes", Phys. Rev. Lett., 27 (12): 826–829, Bibcode:1971PhRvL..27..826G, doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.27.826 Gowdy, Robert H. (1974), "Vacuum spacetimes with two-parameter spacelike isometry groups and compact invariant hypersurfaces: Topologies and boundary conditions", Annals of Physics, 83 (1): 203–241, Bibcode:1974AnPhy..83..203G, doi:10.1016/0003-4916(74)90384-4
See Lehner 2002 for a brief introduction to the methods of numerical relativity, and Seidel 1998 for the connection with gravitational wave astronomy Lehner, Luis (2002). "Numerical Relativity: Status and Prospects". In Nigel T. Bishop; Sunil D. Maharaj (eds.). General Relativity and Gravitation. General Relativity and Gravitation: Proceedings of the 16th International Conference, Durban, South Africa, 15–21 July 2001. p. 210. arXiv:gr-qc/0202055. Bibcode:2002grg..conf..210L. doi:10.1142/9789812776556_0010. ISBN 978-981-238-171-2. S2CID 9145148. Seidel, Edward (1998), "Numerical Relativity: Towards Simulations of 3D Black Hole Coalescence", in Narlikar, J. V.; Dadhich, N. (eds.), Gravitation and Relativity: At the turn of the millennium (Proceedings of the GR-15 Conference, held at IUCAA, Pune, India, December 16–21, 1997), IUCAA, p. 6088, arXiv:gr-qc/9806088, Bibcode:1998gr.qc.....6088S, ISBN 978-81-900378-3-9
In consequence, in the parameterized post-Newtonian formalism (PPN), measurements of this effect determine a linear combination of the terms β and γ, cf. Will 2006, sec. 3.5 and Will 1993, sec. 7.3 Will, Clifford M. (2006), "The Confrontation between General Relativity and Experiment", Living Reviews in Relativity, 9 (1): 3, arXiv:gr-qc/0510072, Bibcode:2006LRR.....9....3W, doi:10.12942/lrr-2006-3, PMC 5256066, PMID 28179873 Will, Clifford M. (1993), Theory and experiment in gravitational physics, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0-521-43973-2
The most precise measurements are VLBI measurements of planetary positions; see Will 1993, ch. 5, Will 2006, sec. 3.5, Anderson et al. 1992; for an overview, Ohanian & Ruffini 1994, pp. 406–407 Will, Clifford M. (1993), Theory and experiment in gravitational physics, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0-521-43973-2 Will, Clifford M. (2006), "The Confrontation between General Relativity and Experiment", Living Reviews in Relativity, 9 (1): 3, arXiv:gr-qc/0510072, Bibcode:2006LRR.....9....3W, doi:10.12942/lrr-2006-3, PMC 5256066, PMID 28179873 Anderson, J. D.; Campbell, J. K.; Jurgens, R. F.; Lau, E. L. (1992), "Recent developments in solar-system tests of general relativity", in Sato, H.; Nakamura, T. (eds.), Proceedings of the Sixth Marcel Grossmann Meeting on General Relativity, World Scientific, pp. 353–355, ISBN 978-981-02-0950-6 Ohanian, Hans C.; Ruffini, Remo (1994), Gravitation and Spacetime, W. W. Norton & Company, ISBN 978-0-393-96501-8
Kramer et al. 2006 Kramer, M.; Stairs, I. H.; Manchester, R. N.; McLaughlin, M. A.; Lyne, A. G.; Ferdman, R. D.; Burgay, M.; Lorimer, D. R.; et al. (2006), "Tests of general relativity from timing the double pulsar", Science, 314 (5796): 97–102, arXiv:astro-ph/0609417, Bibcode:2006Sci...314...97K, doi:10.1126/science.1132305, PMID 16973838, S2CID 6674714
Kramer, M.; Stairs, I. H.; Manchester, R. N.; Wex, N.; Deller, A. T.; Coles, W. A.; Ali, M.; Burgay, M.; Camilo, F.; Cognard, I.; Damour, T. (13 December 2021). "Strong-Field Gravity Tests with the Double Pulsar". Physical Review X. 11 (4): 041050. arXiv:2112.06795. Bibcode:2021PhRvX..11d1050K. doi:10.1103/PhysRevX.11.041050. ISSN 2160-3308. S2CID 245124502.
Stairs 2003, Schutz 2003, pp. 317–321, Bartusiak 2000, pp. 70–86 Stairs, Ingrid H. (2003), "Testing General Relativity with Pulsar Timing", Living Reviews in Relativity, 6 (1): 5, arXiv:astro-ph/0307536, Bibcode:2003LRR.....6....5S, doi:10.12942/lrr-2003-5, PMC 5253800, PMID 28163640 Schutz, Bernard F. (2003), Gravity from the ground up, Cambridge University Press, Bibcode:2003ggu..book.....S, ISBN 978-0-521-45506-0 Bartusiak, Marcia (2000), Einstein's Unfinished Symphony: Listening to the Sounds of Space-Time, Berkley, ISBN 978-0-425-18620-6
Weisberg & Taylor 2003; for the pulsar discovery, see Hulse & Taylor 1975; for the initial evidence for gravitational radiation, see Taylor 1994 Weisberg, Joel M.; Taylor, Joseph H. (2003), "The Relativistic Binary Pulsar B1913+16"", in Bailes, M.; Nice, D. J.; Thorsett, S. E. (eds.), Proceedings of "Radio Pulsars," Chania, Crete, August, 2002, ASP Conference Series Hulse, Russell A.; Taylor, Joseph H. (1975), "Discovery of a pulsar in a binary system", Astrophys. J., 195: L51 – L55, Bibcode:1975ApJ...195L..51H, doi:10.1086/181708 Taylor, Joseph H. (1994), "Binary pulsars and relativistic gravity", Rev. Mod. Phys., 66 (3): 711–719, Bibcode:1994RvMP...66..711T, doi:10.1103/RevModPhys.66.711, S2CID 120534048
Kramer 2004 Kramer, Michael (2004). "Millisecond Pulsarsas Tools of Fundamental Physics". In Karshenboim, S. G.; Peik, E. (eds.). Astrophysics, Clocks and Fundamental Constants. Lecture Notes in Physics. Vol. 648. pp. 33–54. arXiv:astro-ph/0405178. Bibcode:2004LNP...648...33K. doi:10.1007/978-3-540-40991-5_3. ISBN 978-3-540-21967-5.
Bertotti, Ciufolini & Bender 1987, Nordtvedt 2003 Bertotti, Bruno; Ciufolini, Ignazio; Bender, Peter L. (1987), "New test of general relativity: Measurement of de Sitter geodetic precession rate for lunar perigee", Physical Review Letters, 58 (11): 1062–1065, Bibcode:1987PhRvL..58.1062B, doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.58.1062, PMID 10034329 Nordtvedt, Kenneth (2003). "Lunar Laser Ranging—a comprehensive probe of post-Newtonian gravity". arXiv:gr-qc/0301024.
Ohanian & Ruffini 1994, sec. 4.7, Weinberg 1972, sec. 9.7; for a more recent review, see Schäfer 2004 Ohanian, Hans C.; Ruffini, Remo (1994), Gravitation and Spacetime, W. W. Norton & Company, ISBN 978-0-393-96501-8 Weinberg, Steven (1972), Gravitation and Cosmology: Principles and Applications of the General Theory of Relativity, John Wiley, Bibcode:1972gcpa.book.....W, ISBN 978-0-471-92567-5 Schäfer, Gerhard (2004), "Gravitomagnetic Effects", General Relativity and Gravitation, 36 (10): 2223–2235, arXiv:gr-qc/0407116, Bibcode:2004GReGr..36.2223S, doi:10.1023/B:GERG.0000046180.97877.32, S2CID 14255129
Ciufolini & Pavlis 2004, Ciufolini, Pavlis & Peron 2006, Iorio 2009 Ciufolini, Ignazio; Pavlis, Erricos C. (2004), "A confirmation of the general relativistic prediction of the Lense–Thirring effect", Nature, 431 (7011): 958–960, Bibcode:2004Natur.431..958C, doi:10.1038/nature03007, PMID 15496915, S2CID 4423434 Ciufolini, Ignazio; Pavlis, Erricos C.; Peron, R. (2006), "Determination of frame-dragging using Earth gravity models from CHAMP and GRACE", New Astron., 11 (8): 527–550, Bibcode:2006NewA...11..527C, doi:10.1016/j.newast.2006.02.001 Iorio, L. (2009), "An Assessment of the Systematic Uncertainty in Present and Future Tests of the Lense–Thirring Effect with Satellite Laser Ranging", Space Sci. Rev., 148 (1–4): 363–381, arXiv:0809.1373, Bibcode:2009SSRv..148..363I, doi:10.1007/s11214-008-9478-1, S2CID 15698399
Iorio 2006, Iorio 2010 Iorio, L. (2006), "A note on the evidence of the gravitomagnetic field of Mars", Classical and Quantum Gravity, 23 (17): 5451–5454, arXiv:gr-qc/0606092, Bibcode:2006CQGra..23.5451I, doi:10.1088/0264-9381/23/17/N01, S2CID 118233440 Iorio, L. (2010), "On the Lense–Thirring test with the Mars Global Surveyor in the gravitational field of Mars", Central European Journal of Physics, 8 (3): 509–513, arXiv:gr-qc/0701146, Bibcode:2010CEJPh...8..509I, doi:10.2478/s11534-009-0117-6, S2CID 16052420
For overviews of gravitational lensing and its applications, see Ehlers, Falco & Schneider 1992 and Wambsganss 1998 Ehlers, Jürgen; Falco, Emilio E.; Schneider, Peter (1992), Gravitational lenses, Springer, ISBN 978-3-540-66506-9 Wambsganss, Joachim (1998), "Gravitational Lensing in Astronomy", Living Reviews in Relativity, 1 (1): 12, arXiv:astro-ph/9812021, Bibcode:1998LRR.....1...12W, doi:10.12942/lrr-1998-12, PMC 5567250, PMID 28937183
Walsh, Carswell & Weymann 1979 Walsh, D.; Carswell, R. F.; Weymann, R. J. (1979), "0957 + 561 A, B: twin quasistellar objects or gravitational lens?", Nature, 279 (5712): 381–4, Bibcode:1979Natur.279..381W, doi:10.1038/279381a0, PMID 16068158, S2CID 2142707
Roulet & Mollerach 1997 Roulet, E.; Mollerach, S. (1997), "Microlensing", Physics Reports, 279 (2): 67–118, arXiv:astro-ph/9603119, Bibcode:1997PhR...279...67R, doi:10.1016/S0370-1573(96)00020-8, S2CID 262685723
Hough & Rowan 2000 Hough, Jim; Rowan, Sheila (2000), "Gravitational Wave Detection by Interferometry (Ground and Space)", Living Reviews in Relativity, 3 (1): 3, Bibcode:2000LRR.....3....3R, doi:10.12942/lrr-2000-3, PMC 5255574, PMID 28179855
Hobbs, George; Archibald, A.; Arzoumanian, Z.; Backer, D.; Bailes, M.; Bhat, N. D. R.; Burgay, M.; Burke-Spolaor, S.; et al. (2010), "The international pulsar timing array project: using pulsars as a gravitational wave detector", Classical and Quantum Gravity, 27 (8): 084013, arXiv:0911.5206, Bibcode:2010CQGra..27h4013H, doi:10.1088/0264-9381/27/8/084013, S2CID 56073764
Danzmann & Rüdiger 2003 Danzmann, Karsten; Rüdiger, Albrecht (2003), "LISA Technology—Concepts, Status, Prospects" (PDF), Class. Quantum Grav., 20 (10): S1 – S9, Bibcode:2003CQGra..20S...1D, doi:10.1088/0264-9381/20/10/301, hdl:11858/00-001M-0000-0013-5233-E, S2CID 250836327, archived from the original (PDF) on 26 September 2007
Celotti, Miller & Sciama 1999, sec. 3 Celotti, Annalisa; Miller, John C.; Sciama, Dennis W. (1999), "Astrophysical evidence for the existence of black holes", Class. Quantum Grav., 16 (12A): A3 – A21, arXiv:astro-ph/9912186, Bibcode:1999CQGra..16A...3C, doi:10.1088/0264-9381/16/12A/301, S2CID 17677758
Springel et al. 2005 and the accompanying summary Gnedin 2005 Springel, Volker; White, Simon D. M.; Jenkins, Adrian; Frenk, Carlos S.; Yoshida, Naoki; Gao, Liang; Navarro, Julio; Thacker, Robert; et al. (2005), "Simulations of the formation, evolution and clustering of galaxies and quasars", Nature, 435 (7042): 629–636, arXiv:astro-ph/0504097, Bibcode:2005Natur.435..629S, doi:10.1038/nature03597, PMID 15931216, S2CID 4383030 Gnedin, Nickolay Y. (2005), "Digitizing the Universe", Nature, 435 (7042): 572–573, Bibcode:2005Natur.435..572G, doi:10.1038/435572a, PMID 15931201, S2CID 3023436
For a review, see Begelman, Blandford & Rees 1984. To a distant observer, some of these jets even appear to move faster than light; this, however, can be explained as an optical illusion that does not violate the tenets of relativity, see Rees 1966 Begelman, Mitchell C.; Blandford, Roger D.; Rees, Martin J. (1984), "Theory of extragalactic radio sources", Rev. Mod. Phys., 56 (2): 255–351, Bibcode:1984RvMP...56..255B, doi:10.1103/RevModPhys.56.255 Rees, Martin (1966), "Appearance of Relativistically Expanding Radio Sources", Nature, 211 (5048): 468–470, Bibcode:1966Natur.211..468R, doi:10.1038/211468a0, S2CID 41065207
For stellar end states, cf. Oppenheimer & Snyder 1939 or, for more recent numerical work, Font 2003, sec. 4.1; for supernovae, there are still major problems to be solved, cf. Buras et al. 2003; for simulating accretion and the formation of jets, cf. Font 2003, sec. 4.2. Also, relativistic lensing effects are thought to play a role for the signals received from X-ray pulsars, cf. Kraus 1998 Oppenheimer, J. Robert; Snyder, H. (1939), "On continued gravitational contraction", Physical Review, 56 (5): 455–459, Bibcode:1939PhRv...56..455O, doi:10.1103/PhysRev.56.455 Font, José A. (2003), "Numerical Hydrodynamics in General Relativity", Living Reviews in Relativity, 6 (1): 4, Bibcode:2003LRR.....6....4F, doi:10.12942/lrr-2003-4, PMC 5660627, PMID 29104452 Buras, R.; Rampp, M.; Janka, H.-Th.; Kifonidis, K. (2003), "Improved Models of Stellar Core Collapse and Still no Explosions: What is Missing?", Phys. Rev. Lett., 90 (24): 241101, arXiv:astro-ph/0303171, Bibcode:2003PhRvL..90x1101B, doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.90.241101, PMID 12857181, S2CID 27632148 Font, José A. (2003), "Numerical Hydrodynamics in General Relativity", Living Reviews in Relativity, 6 (1): 4, Bibcode:2003LRR.....6....4F, doi:10.12942/lrr-2003-4, PMC 5660627, PMID 29104452 Kraus, Ute (1998), "Light Deflection Near Neutron Stars", Relativistic Astrophysics, Vieweg, pp. 66–81, ISBN 978-3-528-06909-4
The evidence includes limits on compactness from the observation of accretion-driven phenomena ("Eddington luminosity"), see Celotti, Miller & Sciama 1999, observations of stellar dynamics in the center of our own Milky Way galaxy, cf. Schödel et al. 2003, and indications that at least some of the compact objects in question appear to have no solid surface, which can be deduced from the examination of X-ray bursts for which the central compact object is either a neutron star or a black hole; cf. Remillard et al. 2006 for an overview, Narayan 2006, sec. 5. Observations of the "shadow" of the Milky Way galaxy's central black hole horizon are eagerly sought for, cf. Falcke, Melia & Agol 2000 Celotti, Annalisa; Miller, John C.; Sciama, Dennis W. (1999), "Astrophysical evidence for the existence of black holes", Class. Quantum Grav., 16 (12A): A3 – A21, arXiv:astro-ph/9912186, Bibcode:1999CQGra..16A...3C, doi:10.1088/0264-9381/16/12A/301, S2CID 17677758 Schödel, R.; Ott, T.; Genzel, R.; Eckart, A.; Mouawad, N.; Alexander, T. (2003), "Stellar Dynamics in the Central Arcsecond of Our Galaxy", Astrophysical Journal, 596 (2): 1015–1034, arXiv:astro-ph/0306214, Bibcode:2003ApJ...596.1015S, doi:10.1086/378122, S2CID 17719367 Remillard, Ronald A.; Lin, Dacheng; Cooper, Randall L.; Narayan, Ramesh (2006), "The Rates of Type I X-Ray Bursts from Transients Observed with RXTE: Evidence for Black Hole Event Horizons", Astrophysical Journal, 646 (1): 407–419, arXiv:astro-ph/0509758, Bibcode:2006ApJ...646..407R, doi:10.1086/504862, S2CID 14949527 Narayan, Ramesh (2006), "Black holes in astrophysics", New Journal of Physics, 7 (1): 199, arXiv:gr-qc/0506078, Bibcode:2005NJPh....7..199N, doi:10.1088/1367-2630/7/1/199, S2CID 17986323 Falcke, Heino; Melia, Fulvio; Agol, Eric (2000), "Viewing the Shadow of the Black Hole at the Galactic Center", Astrophysical Journal, 528 (1): L13 – L16, arXiv:astro-ph/9912263, Bibcode:2000ApJ...528L..13F, doi:10.1086/312423, PMID 10587484, S2CID 119433133
Dalal et al. 2006 Dalal, Neal; Holz, Daniel E.; Hughes, Scott A.; Jain, Bhuvnesh (2006), "Short GRB and binary black hole standard sirens as a probe of dark energy", Phys. Rev. D, 74 (6): 063006, arXiv:astro-ph/0601275, Bibcode:2006PhRvD..74f3006D, doi:10.1103/PhysRevD.74.063006, S2CID 10008243
Barack & Cutler 2004 Barack, Leor; Cutler, Curt (2004), "LISA Capture Sources: Approximate Waveforms, Signal-to-Noise Ratios, and Parameter Estimation Accuracy", Phys. Rev. D, 69 (8): 082005, arXiv:gr-qc/0310125, Bibcode:2004PhRvD..69h2005B, doi:10.1103/PhysRevD.69.082005, S2CID 21565397
Carroll 2001, ch. 2 Carroll, Sean M. (2001), "The Cosmological Constant", Living Reviews in Relativity, 4 (1): 1, arXiv:astro-ph/0004075, Bibcode:2001LRR.....4....1C, doi:10.12942/lrr-2001-1, PMC 5256042, PMID 28179856
Bergström & Goobar 2003, ch. 9–11; use of these models is justified by the fact that, at large scales of around hundred million light-years and more, our own universe indeed appears to be isotropic and homogeneous, cf. Peebles et al. 1991 Bergström, Lars; Goobar, Ariel (2003), Cosmology and Particle Astrophysics (2nd ed.), Wiley & Sons, ISBN 978-3-540-43128-2 Peebles, P.J.E.; Schramm, D.N.; Turner, E.L.; Kron, R.G. (1991), "The case for the relativistic hot Big Bang cosmology", Nature, 352 (6338): 769–776, Bibcode:1991Natur.352..769P, doi:10.1038/352769a0, S2CID 4337502
E.g. with WMAP data, see Spergel et al. 2003 Spergel, D. N.; Verde, L.; Peiris, H. V.; Komatsu, E.; Nolta, M. R.; Bennett, C. L.; Halpern, M.; Hinshaw, G.; et al. (2003), "First Year Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe (WMAP) Observations: Determination of Cosmological Parameters", Astrophys. J. Suppl. Ser., 148 (1): 175–194, arXiv:astro-ph/0302209, Bibcode:2003ApJS..148..175S, doi:10.1086/377226, S2CID 10794058
These tests involve the separate observations detailed further on, see, e.g., fig. 2 in Bridle et al. 2003 Bridle, Sarah L.; Lahav, Ofer; Ostriker, Jeremiah P.; Steinhardt, Paul J. (2003), "Precision Cosmology? Not Just Yet", Science, 299 (5612): 1532–1533, arXiv:astro-ph/0303180, Bibcode:2003Sci...299.1532B, doi:10.1126/science.1082158, PMID 12624255, S2CID 119368762
Peebles 1966; for a recent account of predictions, see Coc, Vangioni‐Flam et al. 2004; an accessible account can be found in Weiss 2006; compare with the observations in Olive & Skillman 2004, Bania, Rood & Balser 2002, O'Meara et al. 2001, and Charbonnel & Primas 2005 Peebles, P. J. E. (1966), "Primordial Helium abundance and primordial fireball II", Astrophysical Journal, 146: 542–552, Bibcode:1966ApJ...146..542P, doi:10.1086/148918 Coc, A.; Vangioni-Flam, Elisabeth; Descouvemont, Pierre; Adahchour, Abderrahim; Angulo, Carmen (2004), "Updated Big Bang Nucleosynthesis confronted to WMAP observations and to the Abundance of Light Elements", Astrophysical Journal, 600 (2): 544–552, arXiv:astro-ph/0309480, Bibcode:2004ApJ...600..544C, doi:10.1086/380121, S2CID 16276658 Weiss, Achim (2006), "Elements of the past: Big Bang Nucleosynthesis and observation", Einstein Online, Max Planck Institute for Gravitational Physics, archived from the original on 8 February 2007, retrieved 24 February 2007 Olive, K. A.; Skillman, E. A. (2004), "A Realistic Determination of the Error on the Primordial Helium Abundance", Astrophysical Journal, 617 (1): 29–49, arXiv:astro-ph/0405588, Bibcode:2004ApJ...617...29O, doi:10.1086/425170, S2CID 15187664 Bania, T. M.; Rood, R. T.; Balser, D. S. (2002), "The cosmological density of baryons from observations of 3He+ in the Milky Way", Nature, 415 (6867): 54–57, Bibcode:2002Natur.415...54B, doi:10.1038/415054a, PMID 11780112, S2CID 4303625 O'Meara, John M.; Tytler, David; Kirkman, David; Suzuki, Nao; Prochaska, Jason X.; Lubin, Dan; Wolfe, Arthur M. (2001), "The Deuterium to Hydrogen Abundance Ratio Towards a Fourth QSO: HS0105+1619", Astrophysical Journal, 552 (2): 718–730, arXiv:astro-ph/0011179, Bibcode:2001ApJ...552..718O, doi:10.1086/320579, S2CID 14164537 Charbonnel, C.; Primas, F. (2005), "The Lithium Content of the Galactic Halo Stars", Astronomy & Astrophysics, 442 (3): 961–992, arXiv:astro-ph/0505247, Bibcode:2005A&A...442..961C, doi:10.1051/0004-6361:20042491, S2CID 119340132
Lahav & Suto 2004, Bertschinger 1998, Springel et al. 2005 Lahav, Ofer; Suto, Yasushi (2004), "Measuring our Universe from Galaxy Redshift Surveys", Living Reviews in Relativity, 7 (1): 8, arXiv:astro-ph/0310642, Bibcode:2004LRR.....7....8L, doi:10.12942/lrr-2004-8, PMC 5253994, PMID 28163643 Bertschinger, Edmund (1998), "Simulations of structure formation in the universe", Annu. Rev. Astron. Astrophys., 36 (1): 599–654, Bibcode:1998ARA&A..36..599B, doi:10.1146/annurev.astro.36.1.599 Springel, Volker; White, Simon D. M.; Jenkins, Adrian; Frenk, Carlos S.; Yoshida, Naoki; Gao, Liang; Navarro, Julio; Thacker, Robert; et al. (2005), "Simulations of the formation, evolution and clustering of galaxies and quasars", Nature, 435 (7042): 629–636, arXiv:astro-ph/0504097, Bibcode:2005Natur.435..629S, doi:10.1038/nature03597, PMID 15931216, S2CID 4383030
Alpher & Herman 1948, for a pedagogical introduction, see Bergström & Goobar 2003, ch. 11; for the initial detection, see Penzias & Wilson 1965 and, for precision measurements by satellite observatories, Mather et al. 1994 (COBE) and Bennett et al. 2003 (WMAP). Future measurements could also reveal evidence about gravitational waves in the early universe; this additional information is contained in the background radiation's polarization, cf. Kamionkowski, Kosowsky & Stebbins 1997 and Seljak & Zaldarriaga 1997 Alpher, R. A.; Herman, R. C. (1948), "Evolution of the universe", Nature, 162 (4124): 774–775, Bibcode:1948Natur.162..774A, doi:10.1038/162774b0, S2CID 4113488 Bergström, Lars; Goobar, Ariel (2003), Cosmology and Particle Astrophysics (2nd ed.), Wiley & Sons, ISBN 978-3-540-43128-2 Penzias, A. A.; Wilson, R. W. (1965), "A measurement of excess antenna temperature at 4080 Mc/s", Astrophysical Journal, 142: 419–421, Bibcode:1965ApJ...142..419P, doi:10.1086/148307 Mather, J. C.; Cheng, E. S.; Cottingham, D. A.; Eplee, R. E.; Fixsen, D. J.; Hewagama, T.; Isaacman, R. B.; Jensen, K. A.; et al. (1994), "Measurement of the cosmic microwave spectrum by the COBE FIRAS instrument", Astrophysical Journal, 420: 439–444, Bibcode:1994ApJ...420..439M, doi:10.1086/173574 Bennett, C. L.; Halpern, M.; Hinshaw, G.; Jarosik, N.; Kogut, A.; Limon, M.; Meyer, S. S.; Page, L.; et al. (2003), "First Year Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe (WMAP) Observations: Preliminary Maps and Basic Results", Astrophys. J. Suppl. Ser., 148 (1): 1–27, arXiv:astro-ph/0302207, Bibcode:2003ApJS..148....1B, doi:10.1086/377253, S2CID 115601 Kamionkowski, Marc; Kosowsky, Arthur; Stebbins, Albert (1997), "Statistics of Cosmic Microwave Background Polarization", Phys. Rev. D, 55 (12): 7368–7388, arXiv:astro-ph/9611125, Bibcode:1997PhRvD..55.7368K, doi:10.1103/PhysRevD.55.7368, S2CID 14018215 Seljak, Uros̆; Zaldarriaga, Matias (1997), "Signature of Gravity Waves in the Polarization of the Microwave Background", Phys. Rev. Lett., 78 (11): 2054–2057, arXiv:astro-ph/9609169, Bibcode:1997PhRvL..78.2054S, doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.78.2054, S2CID 30795875
Evidence for this comes from the determination of cosmological parameters and additional observations involving the dynamics of galaxies and galaxy clusters cf. Peebles 1993, ch. 18, evidence from gravitational lensing, cf. Peacock 1999, sec. 4.6, and simulations of large-scale structure formation, see Springel et al. 2005 Peebles, P. J. E. (1993), Principles of physical cosmology, Princeton University Press, ISBN 978-0-691-01933-8 Peacock, John A. (1999), Cosmological Physics, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0-521-41072-4 Springel, Volker; White, Simon D. M.; Jenkins, Adrian; Frenk, Carlos S.; Yoshida, Naoki; Gao, Liang; Navarro, Julio; Thacker, Robert; et al. (2005), "Simulations of the formation, evolution and clustering of galaxies and quasars", Nature, 435 (7042): 629–636, arXiv:astro-ph/0504097, Bibcode:2005Natur.435..629S, doi:10.1038/nature03597, PMID 15931216, S2CID 4383030
Peacock 1999, ch. 12, Peskin 2007; in particular, observations indicate that all but a negligible portion of that matter is not in the form of the usual elementary particles ("non-baryonic matter"), cf. Peacock 1999, ch. 12 Peacock, John A. (1999), Cosmological Physics, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0-521-41072-4 Peskin, Michael E. (2007), "Dark Matter and Particle Physics", Journal of the Physical Society of Japan, 76 (11): 111017, arXiv:0707.1536, Bibcode:2007JPSJ...76k1017P, doi:10.1143/JPSJ.76.111017, S2CID 16276112 Peacock, John A. (1999), Cosmological Physics, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0-521-41072-4
Namely, some physicists have questioned whether or not the evidence for dark matter is, in fact, evidence for deviations from the Einsteinian (and the Newtonian) description of gravity cf. the overview in Mannheim 2006, sec. 9 Mannheim, Philip D. (2006), "Alternatives to Dark Matter and Dark Energy", Prog. Part. Nucl. Phys., 56 (2): 340–445, arXiv:astro-ph/0505266, Bibcode:2006PrPNP..56..340M, doi:10.1016/j.ppnp.2005.08.001, S2CID 14024934
Carroll 2001; an accessible overview is given in Caldwell 2004. Here, too, scientists have argued that the evidence indicates not a new form of energy, but the need for modifications in our cosmological models, cf. Mannheim 2006, sec. 10; aforementioned modifications need not be modifications of general relativity, they could, for example, be modifications in the way we treat the inhomogeneities in the universe, cf. Buchert 2008 Carroll, Sean M. (2001), "The Cosmological Constant", Living Reviews in Relativity, 4 (1): 1, arXiv:astro-ph/0004075, Bibcode:2001LRR.....4....1C, doi:10.12942/lrr-2001-1, PMC 5256042, PMID 28179856 Caldwell, Robert R. (2004), "Dark Energy", Physics World, 17 (5): 37–42, doi:10.1088/2058-7058/17/5/36 Mannheim, Philip D. (2006), "Alternatives to Dark Matter and Dark Energy", Prog. Part. Nucl. Phys., 56 (2): 340–445, arXiv:astro-ph/0505266, Bibcode:2006PrPNP..56..340M, doi:10.1016/j.ppnp.2005.08.001, S2CID 14024934 Buchert, Thomas (2008), "Dark Energy from Structure—A Status Report", General Relativity and Gravitation, 40 (2–3): 467–527, arXiv:0707.2153, Bibcode:2008GReGr..40..467B, doi:10.1007/s10714-007-0554-8, S2CID 17281664
A good introduction is Linde 2005; for a more recent review, see Linde 2006 Linde, Andrei (2005), Particle Physics and Inflationary Cosmology, Contemporary Concepts in Physics, vol. 5, pp. 1–362, arXiv:hep-th/0503203, Bibcode:2005hep.th....3203L, ISBN 978-3-7186-0489-0 Linde, Andrei (2006), "Towards inflation in string theory", J. Phys. Conf. Ser., 24 (1): 151–160, arXiv:hep-th/0503195, Bibcode:2005JPhCS..24..151L, doi:10.1088/1742-6596/24/1/018, S2CID 250677699
Spergel et al. 2007, sec. 5,6 Spergel, D. N.; Bean, R.; Doré, O.; Nolta, M. R.; Bennett, C. L.; Dunkley, J.; Hinshaw, G.; Jarosik, N.; et al. (2007), "Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe (WMAP) Three Year Results: Implications for Cosmology", Astrophysical Journal Supplement, 170 (2): 377–408, arXiv:astro-ph/0603449, Bibcode:2007ApJS..170..377S, doi:10.1086/513700, S2CID 1386346
Brandenberger 2008, sec. 2 Brandenberger, Robert H. (2008), "Conceptual problems of inflationary cosmology and a new approach to cosmological structure formation", in Lemoine, Martin; Martin, Jerome; Peter, Patrick (eds.), Inflationary Cosmology, Lecture Notes in Physics, vol. 738, pp. 393–424, arXiv:hep-th/0701111, Bibcode:2007LNP...738..393B, doi:10.1007/978-3-540-74353-8_11, ISBN 978-3-540-74352-1, S2CID 18752698
Gödel 1949 Gödel, Kurt (1949). "An Example of a New Type of Cosmological Solution of Einstein's Field Equations of Gravitation". Rev. Mod. Phys. 21 (3): 447–450. Bibcode:1949RvMP...21..447G. doi:10.1103/RevModPhys.21.447.
Finazzi, Stefano; Liberati, Stefano; Barceló, Carlos (15 June 2009). "Semiclassical instability of dynamical warp drives". Physical Review D. 79 (12): 124017. arXiv:0904.0141. Bibcode:2009PhRvD..79l4017F. doi:10.1103/PhysRevD.79.124017. S2CID 59575856.
Bondi, H.; Van der Burg, M.G.J.; Metzner, A. (1962). "Gravitational waves in general relativity: VII. Waves from axisymmetric isolated systems". Proceedings of the Royal Society of London. Series A. Mathematical and Physical Sciences. 269 (1336): 21–52. Bibcode:1962RSPSA.269...21B. doi:10.1098/rspa.1962.0161. S2CID 120125096.
Sachs, R. (1962). "Asymptotic symmetries in gravitational theory". Physical Review. 128 (6): 2851–2864. Bibcode:1962PhRv..128.2851S. doi:10.1103/PhysRev.128.2851.
Frauendiener 2004, Wald 1984, sec. 11.1, Hawking & Ellis 1973, sec. 6.8, 6.9 Frauendiener, Jörg (2004), "Conformal Infinity", Living Reviews in Relativity, 7 (1): 1, Bibcode:2004LRR.....7....1F, doi:10.12942/lrr-2004-1, PMC 5256109, PMID 28179863 Wald, Robert M. (1984), General Relativity, University of Chicago Press, ISBN 978-0-226-87033-5 Hawking, Stephen W.; Ellis, George F. R. (1973), The large scale structure of space-time, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0-521-09906-6
Thorne 1972; for more recent numerical studies, see Berger 2002, sec. 2.1 Thorne, Kip S. (1972), "Nonspherical Gravitational Collapse—A Short Review", in Klauder, J. (ed.), Magic without Magic, W. H. Freeman, pp. 231–258 Berger, Beverly K. (2002), "Numerical Approaches to Spacetime Singularities", Living Reviews in Relativity, 5 (1): 1, arXiv:gr-qc/0201056, Bibcode:2002LRR.....5....1B, doi:10.12942/lrr-2002-1, PMC 5256073, PMID 28179859
Israel 1987. A more exact mathematical description distinguishes several kinds of horizon, notably event horizons and apparent horizons cf. Hawking & Ellis 1973, pp. 312–320 or Wald 1984, sec. 12.2; there are also more intuitive definitions for isolated systems that do not require knowledge of spacetime properties at infinity, cf. Ashtekar & Krishnan 2004 Israel, Werner (1987), "Dark stars: the evolution of an idea", in Hawking, Stephen W.; Israel, Werner (eds.), 300 Years of Gravitation, Cambridge University Press, pp. 199–276, ISBN 978-0-521-37976-2 Hawking, Stephen W.; Ellis, George F. R. (1973), The large scale structure of space-time, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0-521-09906-6 Wald, Robert M. (1984), General Relativity, University of Chicago Press, ISBN 978-0-226-87033-5 Ashtekar, Abhay; Krishnan, Badri (2004), "Isolated and Dynamical Horizons and Their Applications", Living Reviews in Relativity, 7 (1): 10, arXiv:gr-qc/0407042, Bibcode:2004LRR.....7...10A, doi:10.12942/lrr-2004-10, PMC 5253930, PMID 28163644
For first steps, cf. Israel 1971; see Hawking & Ellis 1973, sec. 9.3 or Heusler 1996, ch. 9 and 10 for a derivation, and Heusler 1998 as well as Beig & Chruściel 2006 as overviews of more recent results Israel, Werner (1971), "Event Horizons and Gravitational Collapse", General Relativity and Gravitation, 2 (1): 53–59, Bibcode:1971GReGr...2...53I, doi:10.1007/BF02450518, S2CID 119645546 Hawking, Stephen W.; Ellis, George F. R. (1973), The large scale structure of space-time, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0-521-09906-6 Heusler, Markus (1996), "Black Hole Uniqueness Theorems", Cambridge Lecture Notes in Physics, 6, Cambridge University Press, Bibcode:1996CLNP....6.....H, ISBN 978-0-521-56735-0 Heusler, Markus (1998), "Stationary Black Holes: Uniqueness and Beyond", Living Reviews in Relativity, 1 (1): 6, Bibcode:1998LRR.....1....6H, doi:10.12942/lrr-1998-6, PMC 5567259, PMID 28937184 Beig, Robert; Chruściel, Piotr T. (2006), "Stationary black holes", in Françoise, J.-P.; Naber, G.; Tsou, T.S. (eds.), Encyclopedia of Mathematical Physics, Volume 2, Elsevier, p. 2041, arXiv:gr-qc/0502041, Bibcode:2005gr.qc.....2041B, ISBN 978-0-12-512660-1
The laws of black hole mechanics were first described in Bardeen, Carter & Hawking 1973; a more pedagogical presentation can be found in Carter 1979; for a more recent review, see Wald 2001, ch. 2. A thorough, book-length introduction including an introduction to the necessary mathematics Poisson 2004. For the Penrose process, see Penrose 1969 Bardeen, J. M.; Carter, B.; Hawking, S. W. (1973), "The Four Laws of Black Hole Mechanics", Comm. Math. Phys., 31 (2): 161–170, Bibcode:1973CMaPh..31..161B, doi:10.1007/BF01645742, S2CID 54690354 Carter, Brandon (1979), "The general theory of the mechanical, electromagnetic and thermodynamic properties of black holes", in Hawking, S. W.; Israel, W. (eds.), General Relativity, an Einstein Centenary Survey, Cambridge University Press, pp. 294–369 and 860–863, ISBN 978-0-521-29928-2 Wald, Robert M. (2001), "The Thermodynamics of Black Holes", Living Reviews in Relativity, 4 (1): 6, arXiv:gr-qc/9912119, Bibcode:2001LRR.....4....6W, doi:10.12942/lrr-2001-6, PMC 5253844, PMID 28163633 Poisson, Eric (2004), A Relativist's Toolkit. The Mathematics of Black-Hole Mechanics, Cambridge University Press, Bibcode:2004rtmb.book.....P, ISBN 978-0-521-83091-1 Penrose, Roger (1969), "Gravitational collapse: the role of general relativity", Rivista del Nuovo Cimento, 1: 252–276, Bibcode:1969NCimR...1..252P
Bekenstein 1973, Bekenstein 1974 Bekenstein, Jacob D. (1973), "Black Holes and Entropy", Phys. Rev. D, 7 (8): 2333–2346, Bibcode:1973PhRvD...7.2333B, doi:10.1103/PhysRevD.7.2333, S2CID 122636624 Bekenstein, Jacob D. (1974), "Generalized Second Law of Thermodynamics in Black-Hole Physics", Phys. Rev. D, 9 (12): 3292–3300, Bibcode:1974PhRvD...9.3292B, doi:10.1103/PhysRevD.9.3292, S2CID 123043135
The fact that black holes radiate, quantum mechanically, was first derived in Hawking 1975; a more thorough derivation can be found in Wald 1975. A review is given in Wald 2001, ch. 3 Hawking, S. W. (1975), "Particle Creation by Black Holes", Communications in Mathematical Physics, 43 (3): 199–220, Bibcode:1975CMaPh..43..199H, doi:10.1007/BF02345020, S2CID 55539246 Wald, Robert M. (1975), "On Particle Creation by Black Holes", Commun. Math. Phys., 45 (3): 9–34, Bibcode:1975CMaPh..45....9W, doi:10.1007/BF01609863, S2CID 120950657 Wald, Robert M. (2001), "The Thermodynamics of Black Holes", Living Reviews in Relativity, 4 (1): 6, arXiv:gr-qc/9912119, Bibcode:2001LRR.....4....6W, doi:10.12942/lrr-2001-6, PMC 5253844, PMID 28163633
Horizons: cf. Rindler 2001, sec. 12.4. Unruh effect: Unruh 1976, cf. Wald 2001, ch. 3 Rindler, Wolfgang (2001), Relativity. Special, General and Cosmological, Oxford University Press, Bibcode:2001rsgc.book.....R, ISBN 978-0-19-850836-6 Unruh, W. G. (1976), "Notes on Black Hole Evaporation", Phys. Rev. D, 14 (4): 870–892, Bibcode:1976PhRvD..14..870U, doi:10.1103/PhysRevD.14.870 Wald, Robert M. (2001), "The Thermodynamics of Black Holes", Living Reviews in Relativity, 4 (1): 6, arXiv:gr-qc/9912119, Bibcode:2001LRR.....4....6W, doi:10.12942/lrr-2001-6, PMC 5253844, PMID 28163633
Ellis & Van Elst 1999; a closer look at the singularity itself is taken in Börner 1993, sec. 1.2 Ellis, George F R; Van Elst, Henk (1999), "Cosmological Models", in Lachièze-Rey, Marc (ed.), Theoretical and Observational Cosmology, vol. 541, pp. 1–116, arXiv:gr-qc/9812046, Bibcode:1999ASIC..541....1E, doi:10.1007/978-94-011-4455-1_1, ISBN 978-0-7923-5946-3, S2CID 122994560 Börner, Gerhard (1993), The Early Universe. Facts and Fiction, Springer, Bibcode:1993euff.book.....B, ISBN 978-0-387-56729-7
Namely when there are trapped null surfaces, cf. Penrose 1965 Penrose, Roger (1965), "Gravitational collapse and spacetime singularities", Physical Review Letters, 14 (3): 57–59, Bibcode:1965PhRvL..14...57P, doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.14.57
Hawking 1966 Hawking, Stephen W. (1966), "The occurrence of singularities in cosmology", Proceedings of the Royal Society of London. Series A. Mathematical and Physical Sciences, 294 (1439): 511–521, Bibcode:1966RSPSA.294..511H, doi:10.1098/rspa.1966.0221, JSTOR 2415489, S2CID 120730123
The conjecture was made in Belinskii, Khalatnikov & Lifschitz 1971; for a more recent review, see Berger 2002. An accessible exposition is given by Garfinkle 2007 Belinskii, V. A.; Khalatnikov, I. M.; Lifschitz, E. M. (1971), "Oscillatory approach to the singular point in relativistic cosmology", Advances in Physics, 19 (80): 525–573, Bibcode:1970AdPhy..19..525B, doi:10.1080/00018737000101171; original paper in Russian: Belinsky, V. A.; Lifshits, I. M.; Khalatnikov, E. M. (1970), "Колебательный Режим Приближения К Особой Точке В Релятивистской Космологии", Uspekhi Fizicheskikh Nauk, 102 (11): 463–500, Bibcode:1970UsFiN.102..463B, doi:10.3367/ufnr.0102.197011d.0463 Berger, Beverly K. (2002), "Numerical Approaches to Spacetime Singularities", Living Reviews in Relativity, 5 (1): 1, arXiv:gr-qc/0201056, Bibcode:2002LRR.....5....1B, doi:10.12942/lrr-2002-1, PMC 5256073, PMID 28179859 Garfinkle, David (2007), "Of singularities and breadmaking", Einstein Online, Max Planck Institute for Gravitational Physics, archived from the original on 10 August 2007, retrieved 3 August 2007
The restriction to future singularities naturally excludes initial singularities such as the big bang singularity, which in principle be visible to observers at later cosmic time. The cosmic censorship conjecture was first presented in Penrose 1969; a textbook-level account is given in Wald 1984, pp. 302–305. For numerical results, see the review Berger 2002, sec. 2.1 Penrose, Roger (1969), "Gravitational collapse: the role of general relativity", Rivista del Nuovo Cimento, 1: 252–276, Bibcode:1969NCimR...1..252P Wald, Robert M. (1984), General Relativity, University of Chicago Press, ISBN 978-0-226-87033-5 Berger, Beverly K. (2002), "Numerical Approaches to Spacetime Singularities", Living Reviews in Relativity, 5 (1): 1, arXiv:gr-qc/0201056, Bibcode:2002LRR.....5....1B, doi:10.12942/lrr-2002-1, PMC 5256073, PMID 28179859
Fourès-Bruhat 1952 and Bruhat 1962; for a pedagogical introduction, see Wald 1984, ch. 10; an online review can be found in Reula 1998 Fourès-Bruhat, Yvonne (1952), "Théoréme d'existence pour certains systémes d'équations aux derivées partielles non linéaires", Acta Mathematica, 88 (1): 141–225, Bibcode:1952AcMa...88..141F, doi:10.1007/BF02392131 Bruhat, Yvonne (1962), "The Cauchy Problem", in Witten, Louis (ed.), Gravitation: An Introduction to Current Research, Wiley, p. 130, ISBN 978-1-114-29166-9 {{citation}}: ISBN / Date incompatibility (help) Wald, Robert M. (1984), General Relativity, University of Chicago Press, ISBN 978-0-226-87033-5 Reula, Oscar A. (1998), "Hyperbolic Methods for Einstein's Equations", Living Reviews in Relativity, 1 (1): 3, Bibcode:1998LRR.....1....3R, doi:10.12942/lrr-1998-3, PMC 5253804, PMID 28191833
Gourgoulhon 2007; for a review of the basics of numerical relativity, including the problems arising from the peculiarities of Einstein's equations, see Lehner 2001 Gourgoulhon, Eric (2007). "3+1 Formalism and Bases of Numerical Relativity". arXiv:gr-qc/0703035. Lehner, Luis (2001), "Numerical Relativity: A review", Class. Quantum Grav., 18 (17): R25 – R86, arXiv:gr-qc/0106072, Bibcode:2001CQGra..18R..25L, doi:10.1088/0264-9381/18/17/202, S2CID 9715975
Komar 1959; for a pedagogical introduction, see Wald 1984, sec. 11.2; although defined in a totally different way, it can be shown to be equivalent to the ADM mass for stationary spacetimes, cf. Ashtekar & Magnon-Ashtekar 1979 Komar, Arthur (1959), "Covariant Conservation Laws in General Relativity", Phys. Rev., 113 (3): 934–936, Bibcode:1959PhRv..113..934K, doi:10.1103/PhysRev.113.934 Wald, Robert M. (1984), General Relativity, University of Chicago Press, ISBN 978-0-226-87033-5 Ashtekar, Abhay; Magnon-Ashtekar, Anne (1979), "On conserved quantities in general relativity", Journal of Mathematical Physics, 20 (5): 793–800, Bibcode:1979JMP....20..793A, doi:10.1063/1.524151
Such quasi-local mass–energy definitions are the Hawking energy, Geroch energy, or Penrose's quasi-local energy–momentum based on twistor methods; cf. the review article Szabados 2004 Szabados, László B. (2004), "Quasi-Local Energy–Momentum and Angular Momentum in GR", Living Reviews in Relativity, 7 (1): 4, Bibcode:2004LRR.....7....4S, doi:10.12942/lrr-2004-4, PMC 5255888, PMID 28179865
For Hawking radiation Hawking 1975, Wald 1975; an accessible introduction to black hole evaporation can be found in Traschen 2000 Hawking, S. W. (1975), "Particle Creation by Black Holes", Communications in Mathematical Physics, 43 (3): 199–220, Bibcode:1975CMaPh..43..199H, doi:10.1007/BF02345020, S2CID 55539246 Wald, Robert M. (1975), "On Particle Creation by Black Holes", Commun. Math. Phys., 45 (3): 9–34, Bibcode:1975CMaPh..45....9W, doi:10.1007/BF01609863, S2CID 120950657 Traschen, Jennie (2000), Bytsenko, A.; Williams, F. (eds.), "An Introduction to Black Hole Evaporation", Mathematical Methods of Physics (Proceedings of the 1999 Londrina Winter School), World Scientific: 180, arXiv:gr-qc/0010055, Bibcode:2000mmp..conf..180T
Wald 2001, ch. 3 Wald, Robert M. (2001), "The Thermodynamics of Black Holes", Living Reviews in Relativity, 4 (1): 6, arXiv:gr-qc/9912119, Bibcode:2001LRR.....4....6W, doi:10.12942/lrr-2001-6, PMC 5253844, PMID 28163633
Put simply, matter is the source of spacetime curvature, and once matter has quantum properties, we can expect spacetime to have them as well. Cf. Carlip 2001, sec. 2 Carlip, Steven (2001), "Quantum Gravity: a Progress Report", Rep. Prog. Phys., 64 (8): 885–942, arXiv:gr-qc/0108040, Bibcode:2001RPPh...64..885C, doi:10.1088/0034-4885/64/8/301, S2CID 118923209
Hamber 2009 Hamber, Herbert W. (2009), Hamber, Herbert W (ed.), Quantum Gravitation – The Feynman Path Integral Approach, Springer Publishing, doi:10.1007/978-3-540-85293-3, hdl:11858/00-001M-0000-0013-471D-A, ISBN 978-3-540-85292-6
In particular, a perturbative technique known as renormalization, an integral part of deriving predictions which take into account higher-energy contributions, cf. Weinberg 1996, ch. 17, 18, fails in this case; cf. Veltman 1975, Goroff & Sagnotti 1985; for a recent comprehensive review of the failure of perturbative renormalizability for quantum gravity see Hamber 2009 Weinberg, Steven (1996), The Quantum Theory of Fields II: Modern Applications, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0-521-55002-4 Veltman, Martinus (1975), "Quantum Theory of Gravitation", in Balian, Roger; Zinn-Justin, Jean (eds.), Methods in Field Theory – Les Houches Summer School in Theoretical Physics., vol. 77, North Holland Goroff, Marc H.; Sagnotti, Augusto (1985), "Quantum gravity at two loops", Phys. Lett., 160B (1–3): 81–86, Bibcode:1985PhLB..160...81G, doi:10.1016/0370-2693(85)91470-4 Hamber, Herbert W. (2009), Hamber, Herbert W (ed.), Quantum Gravitation – The Feynman Path Integral Approach, Springer Publishing, doi:10.1007/978-3-540-85293-3, hdl:11858/00-001M-0000-0013-471D-A, ISBN 978-3-540-85292-6
At the energies reached in current experiments, these strings are indistinguishable from point-like particles, but, crucially, different modes of oscillation of one and the same type of fundamental string appear as particles with different (electric and other) charges, e.g. Ibanez 2000. The theory is successful in that one mode will always correspond to a graviton, the messenger particle of gravity, e.g. Green, Schwarz & Witten 1987, sec. 2.3, 5.3 Ibanez, L. E. (2000), "The second string (phenomenology) revolution", Class. Quantum Grav., 17 (5): 1117–1128, arXiv:hep-ph/9911499, Bibcode:2000CQGra..17.1117I, doi:10.1088/0264-9381/17/5/321, S2CID 15707877 Green, M. B.; Schwarz, J. H.; Witten, E. (1987), Superstring theory. Volume 1: Introduction, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0-521-35752-4
Townsend 1996, Duff 1996 Townsend, Paul K. (1996). "Four Lectures on M-Theory". High Energy Physics and Cosmology. 13: 385. arXiv:hep-th/9612121. Bibcode:1997hepcbconf..385T. Duff, Michael (1996), "M-Theory (the Theory Formerly Known as Strings)", Int. J. Mod. Phys. A, 11 (32): 5623–5641, arXiv:hep-th/9608117, Bibcode:1996IJMPA..11.5623D, doi:10.1142/S0217751X96002583, S2CID 17432791
These variables represent geometric gravity using mathematical analogues of electric and magnetic fields; cf. Ashtekar 1986, Ashtekar 1987 Ashtekar, Abhay (1986), "New variables for classical and quantum gravity", Phys. Rev. Lett., 57 (18): 2244–2247, Bibcode:1986PhRvL..57.2244A, doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.57.2244, PMID 10033673 Ashtekar, Abhay (1987), "New Hamiltonian formulation of general relativity", Phys. Rev. D, 36 (6): 1587–1602, Bibcode:1987PhRvD..36.1587A, doi:10.1103/PhysRevD.36.1587, PMID 9958340
For a review, see Thiemann 2007; more extensive accounts can be found in Rovelli 1998, Ashtekar & Lewandowski 2004 as well as in the lecture notes Thiemann 2003 Thiemann, Thomas (2007), "Loop Quantum Gravity: An Inside View", Approaches to Fundamental Physics, Lecture Notes in Physics, vol. 721, pp. 185–263, arXiv:hep-th/0608210, Bibcode:2007LNP...721..185T, doi:10.1007/978-3-540-71117-9_10, ISBN 978-3-540-71115-5, S2CID 119572847 Rovelli, Carlo (1998), "Loop Quantum Gravity", Living Reviews in Relativity, 1 (1): 1, arXiv:gr-qc/9710008, Bibcode:1998LRR.....1....1R, CiteSeerX 10.1.1.90.7036, doi:10.12942/lrr-1998-1, PMC 5567241, PMID 28937180 Ashtekar, Abhay; Lewandowski, Jerzy (2004), "Background Independent Quantum Gravity: A Status Report", Class. Quantum Grav., 21 (15): R53 – R152, arXiv:gr-qc/0404018, Bibcode:2004CQGra..21R..53A, doi:10.1088/0264-9381/21/15/R01, S2CID 119175535 Thiemann, Thomas (2003). "Lectures on Loop Quantum Gravity". In Domenico J.W. Giulini; Claus Kiefer; Claus Lämmerzahl (eds.). Quantum Gravity: From Theory to Experimental Search. Lecture Notes in Physics. Vol. 631. pp. 41–135. arXiv:gr-qc/0210094. Bibcode:2003LNP...631...41T. doi:10.1007/978-3-540-45230-0_3. ISBN 978-3-540-40810-9. S2CID 119151491.
Isham 1994, Sorkin 1997 Isham, Christopher J. (1994), "Prima facie questions in quantum gravity", in Ehlers, Jürgen; Friedrich, Helmut (eds.), Canonical Gravity: From Classical to Quantum, Lecture Notes in Physics, vol. 434, Springer, Bibcode:1994LNP...434.....E, doi:10.1007/3540583394, ISBN 978-3-540-58339-4 Sorkin, Rafael D. (1997), "Forks in the Road, on the Way to Quantum Gravity", Int. J. Theor. Phys., 36 (12): 2759–2781, arXiv:gr-qc/9706002, Bibcode:1997IJTP...36.2759S, doi:10.1007/BF02435709, S2CID 4803804
Loll 1998 Loll, Renate (1998), "Discrete Approaches to Quantum Gravity in Four Dimensions", Living Reviews in Relativity, 1 (1): 13, arXiv:gr-qc/9805049, Bibcode:1998LRR.....1...13L, doi:10.12942/lrr-1998-13, PMC 5253799, PMID 28191826
Ashtekar 2007, Schwarz 2007 Ashtekar, Abhay (2007), "Loop Quantum Gravity: Four Recent Advances and a Dozen Frequently Asked Questions", Proceedings of the Eleventh Marcel Grossmann Meeting Meeting on General Relativity, The Eleventh Marcel Grossmann Meeting on Recent Developments in Theoretical and Experimental General Relativity, p. 126, arXiv:0705.2222, Bibcode:2008mgm..conf..126A, doi:10.1142/9789812834300_0008, ISBN 978-981-283-426-3, S2CID 119663169 Schwarz, John H. (2007), "String Theory: Progress and Problems", Progress of Theoretical Physics Supplement, 170: 214–226, arXiv:hep-th/0702219, Bibcode:2007PThPS.170..214S, doi:10.1143/PTPS.170.214, S2CID 16762545
Friedrich 2005 Friedrich, Helmut (2005), "Is general relativity 'essentially understood'?", Annalen der Physik, 15 (1–2): 84–108, arXiv:gr-qc/0508016, Bibcode:2006AnP...518...84F, doi:10.1002/andp.200510173, S2CID 37236624
A review of the various problems and the techniques being developed to overcome them, see Lehner 2002 Lehner, Luis (2002). "Numerical Relativity: Status and Prospects". In Nigel T. Bishop; Sunil D. Maharaj (eds.). General Relativity and Gravitation. General Relativity and Gravitation: Proceedings of the 16th International Conference, Durban, South Africa, 15–21 July 2001. p. 210. arXiv:gr-qc/0202055. Bibcode:2002grg..conf..210L. doi:10.1142/9789812776556_0010. ISBN 978-981-238-171-2. S2CID 9145148.
For the most recent papers on gravitational wave polarizations of inspiralling compact binaries, see Blanchet et al. 2008, and Arun et al. 2008; for a review of work on compact binaries, see Blanchet 2006 and Futamase & Itoh 2006; for a general review of experimental tests of general relativity, see Will 2006 Blanchet, L.; Faye, G.; Iyer, B. R.; Sinha, S. (2008), "The third post-Newtonian gravitational wave polarisations and associated spherical harmonic modes for inspiralling compact binaries in quasi-circular orbits", Classical and Quantum Gravity, 25 (16): 165003, arXiv:0802.1249, Bibcode:2008CQGra..25p5003B, doi:10.1088/0264-9381/25/16/165003, S2CID 54608927 Arun, K.G.; Blanchet, L.; Iyer, B. R.; Qusailah, M. S. S. (2008), "Inspiralling compact binaries in quasi-elliptical orbits: The complete 3PN energy flux", Physical Review D, 77 (6): 064035, arXiv:0711.0302, Bibcode:2008PhRvD..77f4035A, doi:10.1103/PhysRevD.77.064035, S2CID 55825202 Blanchet, Luc (2006), "Gravitational Radiation from Post-Newtonian Sources and Inspiralling Compact Binaries", Living Reviews in Relativity, 9 (1): 4, Bibcode:2006LRR.....9....4B, doi:10.12942/lrr-2006-4, PMC 5255899, PMID 28179874 Futamase, T.; Itoh, Y. (2006), "The Post-Newtonian Approximation for Relativistic Compact Binaries", Living Reviews in Relativity, 10 (1): 2, Bibcode:2007LRR....10....2F, doi:10.12942/lrr-2007-2, PMC 5255906, PMID 28179819 Will, Clifford M. (2006), "The Confrontation between General Relativity and Experiment", Living Reviews in Relativity, 9 (1): 3, arXiv:gr-qc/0510072, Bibcode:2006LRR.....9....3W, doi:10.12942/lrr-2006-3, PMC 5256066, PMID 28179873

einstein-online.info

Peebles 1966; for a recent account of predictions, see Coc, Vangioni‐Flam et al. 2004; an accessible account can be found in Weiss 2006; compare with the observations in Olive & Skillman 2004, Bania, Rood & Balser 2002, O'Meara et al. 2001, and Charbonnel & Primas 2005 Peebles, P. J. E. (1966), "Primordial Helium abundance and primordial fireball II", Astrophysical Journal, 146: 542–552, Bibcode:1966ApJ...146..542P, doi:10.1086/148918 Coc, A.; Vangioni-Flam, Elisabeth; Descouvemont, Pierre; Adahchour, Abderrahim; Angulo, Carmen (2004), "Updated Big Bang Nucleosynthesis confronted to WMAP observations and to the Abundance of Light Elements", Astrophysical Journal, 600 (2): 544–552, arXiv:astro-ph/0309480, Bibcode:2004ApJ...600..544C, doi:10.1086/380121, S2CID 16276658 Weiss, Achim (2006), "Elements of the past: Big Bang Nucleosynthesis and observation", Einstein Online, Max Planck Institute for Gravitational Physics, archived from the original on 8 February 2007, retrieved 24 February 2007 Olive, K. A.; Skillman, E. A. (2004), "A Realistic Determination of the Error on the Primordial Helium Abundance", Astrophysical Journal, 617 (1): 29–49, arXiv:astro-ph/0405588, Bibcode:2004ApJ...617...29O, doi:10.1086/425170, S2CID 15187664 Bania, T. M.; Rood, R. T.; Balser, D. S. (2002), "The cosmological density of baryons from observations of 3He+ in the Milky Way", Nature, 415 (6867): 54–57, Bibcode:2002Natur.415...54B, doi:10.1038/415054a, PMID 11780112, S2CID 4303625 O'Meara, John M.; Tytler, David; Kirkman, David; Suzuki, Nao; Prochaska, Jason X.; Lubin, Dan; Wolfe, Arthur M. (2001), "The Deuterium to Hydrogen Abundance Ratio Towards a Fourth QSO: HS0105+1619", Astrophysical Journal, 552 (2): 718–730, arXiv:astro-ph/0011179, Bibcode:2001ApJ...552..718O, doi:10.1086/320579, S2CID 14164537 Charbonnel, C.; Primas, F. (2005), "The Lithium Content of the Galactic Halo Stars", Astronomy & Astrophysics, 442 (3): 961–992, arXiv:astro-ph/0505247, Bibcode:2005A&A...442..961C, doi:10.1051/0004-6361:20042491, S2CID 119340132
The conjecture was made in Belinskii, Khalatnikov & Lifschitz 1971; for a more recent review, see Berger 2002. An accessible exposition is given by Garfinkle 2007 Belinskii, V. A.; Khalatnikov, I. M.; Lifschitz, E. M. (1971), "Oscillatory approach to the singular point in relativistic cosmology", Advances in Physics, 19 (80): 525–573, Bibcode:1970AdPhy..19..525B, doi:10.1080/00018737000101171; original paper in Russian: Belinsky, V. A.; Lifshits, I. M.; Khalatnikov, E. M. (1970), "Колебательный Режим Приближения К Особой Точке В Релятивистской Космологии", Uspekhi Fizicheskikh Nauk, 102 (11): 463–500, Bibcode:1970UsFiN.102..463B, doi:10.3367/ufnr.0102.197011d.0463 Berger, Beverly K. (2002), "Numerical Approaches to Spacetime Singularities", Living Reviews in Relativity, 5 (1): 1, arXiv:gr-qc/0201056, Bibcode:2002LRR.....5....1B, doi:10.12942/lrr-2002-1, PMC 5256073, PMID 28179859 Garfinkle, David (2007), "Of singularities and breadmaking", Einstein Online, Max Planck Institute for Gravitational Physics, archived from the original on 10 August 2007, retrieved 3 August 2007

esa.int

"LISA pathfinder overview". ESA. Retrieved 23 April 2012.

handle.net

hdl.handle.net

Rindler 2001, sec. 1.16; for the historical examples, Israel 1987, pp. 202–204; in fact, Einstein published one such derivation as Einstein 1907. Such calculations tacitly assume that the geometry of space is Euclidean, cf. Ehlers & Rindler 1997 Rindler, Wolfgang (2001), Relativity. Special, General and Cosmological, Oxford University Press, Bibcode:2001rsgc.book.....R, ISBN 978-0-19-850836-6 Israel, Werner (1987), "Dark stars: the evolution of an idea", in Hawking, Stephen W.; Israel, Werner (eds.), 300 Years of Gravitation, Cambridge University Press, pp. 199–276, ISBN 978-0-521-37976-2 Einstein, Albert (1907), "Über das Relativitätsprinzip und die aus demselben gezogene Folgerungen", Jahrbuch der Radioaktivität und Elektronik, 4: 411 See also English translation at Einstein Papers Project Ehlers, Jürgen; Rindler, Wolfgang (1997), "Local and Global Light Bending in Einstein's and other Gravitational Theories", General Relativity and Gravitation, 29 (4): 519–529, Bibcode:1997GReGr..29..519E, doi:10.1023/A:1018843001842, hdl:11858/00-001M-0000-0013-5AB5-4, S2CID 118162303
Danzmann & Rüdiger 2003 Danzmann, Karsten; Rüdiger, Albrecht (2003), "LISA Technology—Concepts, Status, Prospects" (PDF), Class. Quantum Grav., 20 (10): S1 – S9, Bibcode:2003CQGra..20S...1D, doi:10.1088/0264-9381/20/10/301, hdl:11858/00-001M-0000-0013-5233-E, S2CID 250836327, archived from the original (PDF) on 26 September 2007
Hamber 2009 Hamber, Herbert W. (2009), Hamber, Herbert W (ed.), Quantum Gravitation – The Feynman Path Integral Approach, Springer Publishing, doi:10.1007/978-3-540-85293-3, hdl:11858/00-001M-0000-0013-471D-A, ISBN 978-3-540-85292-6
In particular, a perturbative technique known as renormalization, an integral part of deriving predictions which take into account higher-energy contributions, cf. Weinberg 1996, ch. 17, 18, fails in this case; cf. Veltman 1975, Goroff & Sagnotti 1985; for a recent comprehensive review of the failure of perturbative renormalizability for quantum gravity see Hamber 2009 Weinberg, Steven (1996), The Quantum Theory of Fields II: Modern Applications, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0-521-55002-4 Veltman, Martinus (1975), "Quantum Theory of Gravitation", in Balian, Roger; Zinn-Justin, Jean (eds.), Methods in Field Theory – Les Houches Summer School in Theoretical Physics., vol. 77, North Holland Goroff, Marc H.; Sagnotti, Augusto (1985), "Quantum gravity at two loops", Phys. Lett., 160B (1–3): 81–86, Bibcode:1985PhLB..160...81G, doi:10.1016/0370-2693(85)91470-4 Hamber, Herbert W. (2009), Hamber, Herbert W (ed.), Quantum Gravitation – The Feynman Path Integral Approach, Springer Publishing, doi:10.1007/978-3-540-85293-3, hdl:11858/00-001M-0000-0013-471D-A, ISBN 978-3-540-85292-6

harvard.edu

ui.adsabs.harvard.edu

Pais 1982, ch. 9 to 15, Janssen 2005; an up-to-date collection of current research, including reprints of many of the original articles, is Renn 2007; an accessible overview can be found in Renn 2005, pp. 110ff. Einstein's original papers are found in Digital Einstein, volumes 4 and 6. An early key article is Einstein 1907, cf. Pais 1982, ch. 9. The publication featuring the field equations is Einstein 1915, cf. Pais 1982, ch. 11–15 Pais, Abraham (1982), 'Subtle is the Lord ...' The Science and life of Albert Einstein, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0-19-853907-0 Janssen, Michel (2005), "Of pots and holes: Einstein's bumpy road to general relativity", Annalen der Physik, 14 (S1): 58–85, Bibcode:2005AnP...517S..58J, doi:10.1002/andp.200410130, S2CID 10641693, archived from the original (PDF) on 25 August 2020, retrieved 28 August 2010 Renn, Jürgen, ed. (2007), The Genesis of General Relativity (4 Volumes), Dordrecht: Springer, ISBN 978-1-4020-3999-7 Renn, Jürgen, ed. (2005), Albert Einstein—Chief Engineer of the Universe: Einstein's Life and Work in Context, Berlin: Wiley-VCH, ISBN 978-3-527-40571-8 Einstein, Albert (1907), "Über das Relativitätsprinzip und die aus demselben gezogene Folgerungen", Jahrbuch der Radioaktivität und Elektronik, 4: 411 See also English translation at Einstein Papers Project Pais, Abraham (1982), 'Subtle is the Lord ...' The Science and life of Albert Einstein, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0-19-853907-0 Einstein, Albert (1915), "Die Feldgleichungen der Gravitation", Sitzungsberichte der Preussischen Akademie der Wissenschaften zu Berlin: 844–847, Bibcode:1915SPAW.......844E See also English translation at Einstein Papers Project Pais, Abraham (1982), 'Subtle is the Lord ...' The Science and life of Albert Einstein, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0-19-853907-0
Schwarzschild 1916a, Schwarzschild 1916b and Reissner 1916 (later complemented in Nordström 1918) Schwarzschild, Karl (1916a), "Über das Gravitationsfeld eines Massenpunktes nach der Einsteinschen Theorie", Sitzungsber. Preuss. Akad. D. Wiss.: 189–196, Bibcode:1916SPAW.......189S Schwarzschild, Karl (1916b), "Über das Gravitationsfeld einer Kugel aus inkompressibler Flüssigkeit nach der Einsteinschen Theorie", Sitzungsber. Preuss. Akad. D. Wiss.: 424–434, Bibcode:1916skpa.conf..424S Reissner, H. (1916), "Über die Eigengravitation des elektrischen Feldes nach der Einsteinschen Theorie", Annalen der Physik, 355 (9): 106–120, Bibcode:1916AnP...355..106R, doi:10.1002/andp.19163550905 Nordström, Gunnar (1918), "On the Energy of the Gravitational Field in Einstein's Theory", Verhandl. Koninkl. Ned. Akad. Wetenschap., 26: 1238–1245, Bibcode:1918KNAB...20.1238N
Einstein 1917, cf. Pais 1982, ch. 15e Einstein, Albert (1917), "Kosmologische Betrachtungen zur allgemeinen Relativitätstheorie", Sitzungsberichte der Preußischen Akademie der Wissenschaften: 142, Bibcode:1917SPAW.......142E See also English translation at Einstein Papers Project Pais, Abraham (1982), 'Subtle is the Lord ...' The Science and life of Albert Einstein, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0-19-853907-0
Hubble's original article is Hubble 1929; an accessible overview is given in Singh 2004, ch. 2–4 Hubble, Edwin (1929), "A Relation between Distance and Radial Velocity among Extra-Galactic Nebulae", Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci., 15 (3): 168–173, Bibcode:1929PNAS...15..168H, doi:10.1073/pnas.15.3.168, PMC 522427, PMID 16577160 Singh, Simon (2004), Big Bang: The Origin of the Universe, Fourth Estate, Bibcode:2004biba.book.....S, ISBN 978-0-00-715251-3
Kennefick 2005, Kennefick 2007 Kennefick, Daniel (2005), "Astronomers Test General Relativity: Light-bending and the Solar Redshift", in Renn, Jürgen (ed.), One hundred authors for Einstein, Wiley-VCH, pp. 178–181, ISBN 978-3-527-40574-9 Kennefick, Daniel (2007), "Not Only Because of Theory: Dyson, Eddington and the Competing Myths of the 1919 Eclipse Expedition", Proceedings of the 7th Conference on the History of General Relativity, Tenerife, 2005, vol. 0709, p. 685, arXiv:0709.0685, Bibcode:2007arXiv0709.0685K, doi:10.1016/j.shpsa.2012.07.010, S2CID 119203172
Chandrasekhar 1984, p. 6 Chandrasekhar, Subrahmanyan (1984), "The general theory of relativity – Why 'It is probably the most beautiful of all existing theories'", Journal of Astrophysics and Astronomy, 5 (1): 3–11, Bibcode:1984JApA....5....3C, doi:10.1007/BF02714967, S2CID 120910934
Will 1993, sec. 2.4, Will 2006, sec. 2 Will, Clifford M. (1993), Theory and experiment in gravitational physics, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0-521-43973-2 Will, Clifford M. (2006), "The Confrontation between General Relativity and Experiment", Living Reviews in Relativity, 9 (1): 3, arXiv:gr-qc/0510072, Bibcode:2006LRR.....9....3W, doi:10.12942/lrr-2006-3, PMC 5256066, PMID 28179873
Ehlers 1973, sec. 1.2, Havas 1964, Künzle 1972. The simple thought experiment in question was first described in Heckmann & Schücking 1959 Ehlers, Jürgen (1973), "Survey of general relativity theory", in Israel, Werner (ed.), Relativity, Astrophysics and Cosmology, D. Reidel, pp. 1–125, ISBN 978-90-277-0369-9 Havas, P. (1964), "Four-Dimensional Formulation of Newtonian Mechanics and Their Relation to the Special and the General Theory of Relativity", Rev. Mod. Phys., 36 (4): 938–965, Bibcode:1964RvMP...36..938H, doi:10.1103/RevModPhys.36.938 Künzle, H. P. (1972), "Galilei and Lorentz Structures on spacetime: comparison of the corresponding geometry and physics", Annales de l'Institut Henri Poincaré A, 17: 337–362 Heckmann, O. H. L.; Schücking, E. (1959), "Newtonsche und Einsteinsche Kosmologie", in Flügge, S. (ed.), Encyclopedia of Physics, vol. 53, p. 489
Good introductions are, in order of increasing presupposed knowledge of mathematics, Giulini 2005, Mermin 2005, and Rindler 1991; for accounts of precision experiments, cf. part IV of Ehlers & Lämmerzahl 2006 Giulini, Domenico (2005), Special Relativity: A First Encounter, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0-19-856746-2 Mermin, N. David (2005), It's About Time. Understanding Einstein's Relativity, Princeton University Press, Bibcode:2005iatu.book.....M, ISBN 978-0-691-12201-4 Rindler, Wolfgang (1991), Introduction to Special Relativity, Clarendon Press, Oxford, ISBN 978-0-19-853952-0 Ehlers, Jürgen; Lämmerzahl, Claus, eds. (2006), Special Relativity—Will it Survive the Next 101 Years?, Springer, ISBN 978-3-540-34522-0
An in-depth comparison between the two symmetry groups can be found in Giulini 2006 Giulini, Domenico (2006), "Algebraic and Geometric Structures in Special Relativity", in Ehlers, Jürgen; Lämmerzahl, Claus (eds.), Special Relativity—Will it Survive the Next 101 Years?, Lecture Notes in Physics, vol. 702, pp. 45–111, arXiv:math-ph/0602018, Bibcode:2006math.ph...2018G, doi:10.1007/3-540-34523-X_4, ISBN 978-3-540-34522-0, S2CID 15948765
Ehlers 1973, pp. 17ff; a derivation can be found in Mermin 2005, ch. 12. For the experimental evidence, cf. the section Gravitational time dilation and frequency shift, below Ehlers, Jürgen (1973), "Survey of general relativity theory", in Israel, Werner (ed.), Relativity, Astrophysics and Cosmology, D. Reidel, pp. 1–125, ISBN 978-90-277-0369-9 Mermin, N. David (2005), It's About Time. Understanding Einstein's Relativity, Princeton University Press, Bibcode:2005iatu.book.....M, ISBN 978-0-691-12201-4
Rindler 2001, sec. 1.13; for an elementary account, see Wheeler 1990, ch. 2; there are, however, some differences between the modern version and Einstein's original concept used in the historical derivation of general relativity, cf. Norton 1985 Rindler, Wolfgang (2001), Relativity. Special, General and Cosmological, Oxford University Press, Bibcode:2001rsgc.book.....R, ISBN 978-0-19-850836-6 Wheeler, John A. (1990), A Journey Into Gravity and Spacetime, Scientific American Library, San Francisco: W. H. Freeman, ISBN 978-0-7167-6034-4 Norton, John D. (1985), "What was Einstein's principle of equivalence?" (PDF), Studies in History and Philosophy of Science, 16 (3): 203–246, Bibcode:1985SHPSA..16..203N, doi:10.1016/0039-3681(85)90002-0, archived (PDF) from the original on 22 September 2006, retrieved 11 June 2007
Ehlers 1973, p. 16, Kenyon 1990, sec. 7.2, Weinberg 1972, sec. 2.8 Ehlers, Jürgen (1973), "Survey of general relativity theory", in Israel, Werner (ed.), Relativity, Astrophysics and Cosmology, D. Reidel, pp. 1–125, ISBN 978-90-277-0369-9 Kenyon, I. R. (1990), General Relativity, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0-19-851996-6 Weinberg, Steven (1972), Gravitation and Cosmology: Principles and Applications of the General Theory of Relativity, John Wiley, Bibcode:1972gcpa.book.....W, ISBN 978-0-471-92567-5
Ehlers 1973, pp. 19–22; for similar derivations, see sections 1 and 2 of ch. 7 in Weinberg 1972. The Einstein tensor is the only divergence-free tensor that is a function of the metric coefficients, their first and second derivatives at most, and allows the spacetime of special relativity as a solution in the absence of sources of gravity, cf. Lovelock 1972. The tensors on both side are of second rank, that is, they can each be thought of as 4×4 matrices, each of which contains ten independent terms; hence, the above represents ten coupled equations. The fact that, as a consequence of geometric relations known as Bianchi identities, the Einstein tensor satisfies a further four identities reduces these to six independent equations, e.g. Schutz 1985, sec. 8.3 Ehlers, Jürgen (1973), "Survey of general relativity theory", in Israel, Werner (ed.), Relativity, Astrophysics and Cosmology, D. Reidel, pp. 1–125, ISBN 978-90-277-0369-9 Weinberg, Steven (1972), Gravitation and Cosmology: Principles and Applications of the General Theory of Relativity, John Wiley, Bibcode:1972gcpa.book.....W, ISBN 978-0-471-92567-5 Lovelock, David (1972), "The Four-Dimensionality of Space and the Einstein Tensor", J. Math. Phys., 13 (6): 874–876, Bibcode:1972JMP....13..874L, doi:10.1063/1.1666069 Schutz, Bernard F. (1985), A first course in general relativity, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0-521-27703-7
Brans & Dicke 1961, Weinberg 1972, sec. 3 in ch. 7, Goenner 2004, sec. 7.2, and Trautman 2006, respectively Brans, C. H.; Dicke, R. H. (1961), "Mach's Principle and a Relativistic Theory of Gravitation", Physical Review, 124 (3): 925–935, Bibcode:1961PhRv..124..925B, doi:10.1103/PhysRev.124.925 Weinberg, Steven (1972), Gravitation and Cosmology: Principles and Applications of the General Theory of Relativity, John Wiley, Bibcode:1972gcpa.book.....W, ISBN 978-0-471-92567-5 Goenner, Hubert F. M. (2004), "On the History of Unified Field Theories", Living Reviews in Relativity, 7 (1): 2, Bibcode:2004LRR.....7....2G, doi:10.12942/lrr-2004-2, PMC 5256024, PMID 28179864 Trautman, Andrzej (2006), "Einstein–Cartan theory", in Françoise, J.-P.; Naber, G. L.; Tsou, S. T. (eds.), Encyclopedia of Mathematical Physics, Vol. 2, Elsevier, pp. 189–195, arXiv:gr-qc/0606062, Bibcode:2006gr.qc.....6062T
Wald 1984, ch. 4, Weinberg 1972, ch. 7 or, in fact, any other textbook on general relativity Wald, Robert M. (1984), General Relativity, University of Chicago Press, ISBN 978-0-226-87033-5 Weinberg, Steven (1972), Gravitation and Cosmology: Principles and Applications of the General Theory of Relativity, John Wiley, Bibcode:1972gcpa.book.....W, ISBN 978-0-471-92567-5
At least approximately, cf. Poisson 2004a Poisson, Eric (27 May 2004a). "The Motion of Point Particles in Curved Spacetime". Living Reviews in Relativity. 7 (1). 6. arXiv:gr-qc/0306052. Bibcode:2004LRR.....7....6P. doi:10.12942/lrr-2004-6. PMC 5256043. PMID 28179866.
For the (conceptual and historical) difficulties in defining a general principle of relativity and separating it from the notion of general covariance, see Giulini 2007 Giulini, Domenico (2007), "Remarks on the Notions of General Covariance and Background Independence", in Stamatescu, I. O. (ed.), Approaches to Fundamental Physics, Lecture Notes in Physics, vol. 721, pp. 105–120, arXiv:gr-qc/0603087, Bibcode:2007LNP...721..105G, doi:10.1007/978-3-540-71117-9_6, ISBN 978-3-540-71115-5, S2CID 14772226
section 5 in ch. 12 of Weinberg 1972 Weinberg, Steven (1972), Gravitation and Cosmology: Principles and Applications of the General Theory of Relativity, John Wiley, Bibcode:1972gcpa.book.....W, ISBN 978-0-471-92567-5
A review showing Einstein's equation in the broader context of other PDEs with physical significance is Geroch 1996 Geroch, Robert (1996). "Partial Differential Equations of Physics". General Relativity: 19. arXiv:gr-qc/9602055. Bibcode:1996gere.conf...19G.
For background information and a list of solutions, cf. Stephani et al. 2003; a more recent review can be found in MacCallum 2006 Stephani, H.; Kramer, D.; MacCallum, M.; Hoenselaers, C.; Herlt, E. (2003), Exact Solutions of Einstein's Field Equations (2 ed.), Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0-521-46136-8 MacCallum, M. (2006), "Finding and using exact solutions of the Einstein equations", in Mornas, L.; Alonso, J. D. (eds.), AIP Conference Proceedings (A Century of Relativity Physics: ERE05, the XXVIII Spanish Relativity Meeting), vol. 841, pp. 129–143, arXiv:gr-qc/0601102, Bibcode:2006AIPC..841..129M, doi:10.1063/1.2218172, S2CID 13096531
Lehner 2002 Lehner, Luis (2002). "Numerical Relativity: Status and Prospects". In Nigel T. Bishop; Sunil D. Maharaj (eds.). General Relativity and Gravitation. General Relativity and Gravitation: Proceedings of the 16th International Conference, Durban, South Africa, 15–21 July 2001. p. 210. arXiv:gr-qc/0202055. Bibcode:2002grg..conf..210L. doi:10.1142/9789812776556_0010. ISBN 978-981-238-171-2. S2CID 9145148.
Will 2006, sec. 3.2, Will 1993, ch. 4 Will, Clifford M. (2006), "The Confrontation between General Relativity and Experiment", Living Reviews in Relativity, 9 (1): 3, arXiv:gr-qc/0510072, Bibcode:2006LRR.....9....3W, doi:10.12942/lrr-2006-3, PMC 5256066, PMID 28179873 Will, Clifford M. (1993), Theory and experiment in gravitational physics, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0-521-43973-2
Rindler 2001, pp. 24–26 vs. pp. 236–237 and Ohanian & Ruffini 1994, pp. 164–172. Einstein derived these effects using the equivalence principle as early as 1907, cf. Einstein 1907 and the description in Pais 1982, pp. 196–198 Rindler, Wolfgang (2001), Relativity. Special, General and Cosmological, Oxford University Press, Bibcode:2001rsgc.book.....R, ISBN 978-0-19-850836-6 Ohanian, Hans C.; Ruffini, Remo (1994), Gravitation and Spacetime, W. W. Norton & Company, ISBN 978-0-393-96501-8 Einstein, Albert (1907), "Über das Relativitätsprinzip und die aus demselben gezogene Folgerungen", Jahrbuch der Radioaktivität und Elektronik, 4: 411 See also English translation at Einstein Papers Project Pais, Abraham (1982), 'Subtle is the Lord ...' The Science and life of Albert Einstein, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0-19-853907-0
Rindler 2001, pp. 24–26; Misner, Thorne & Wheeler 1973, § 38.5 Rindler, Wolfgang (2001), Relativity. Special, General and Cosmological, Oxford University Press, Bibcode:2001rsgc.book.....R, ISBN 978-0-19-850836-6 Misner, Charles W.; Thorne, Kip. S.; Wheeler, John A. (1973), Gravitation, W. H. Freeman, ISBN 978-0-7167-0344-0
Pound–Rebka experiment, see Pound & Rebka 1959, Pound & Rebka 1960; Pound & Snider 1964; a list of further experiments is given in Ohanian & Ruffini 1994, table 4.1 on p. 186 Pound, R. V.; Rebka, G. A. (1959), "Gravitational Red-Shift in Nuclear Resonance", Physical Review Letters, 3 (9): 439–441, Bibcode:1959PhRvL...3..439P, doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.3.439 Pound, R. V.; Rebka, G. A. (1960), "Apparent weight of photons", Phys. Rev. Lett., 4 (7): 337–341, Bibcode:1960PhRvL...4..337P, doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.4.337 Pound, R. V.; Snider, J. L. (1964), "Effect of Gravity on Nuclear Resonance", Phys. Rev. Lett., 13 (18): 539–540, Bibcode:1964PhRvL..13..539P, doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.13.539 Ohanian, Hans C.; Ruffini, Remo (1994), Gravitation and Spacetime, W. W. Norton & Company, ISBN 978-0-393-96501-8
Greenstein, Oke & Shipman 1971; the most recent and most accurate Sirius B measurements are published in Barstow, Bond et al. 2005. Greenstein, J. L.; Oke, J. B.; Shipman, H. L. (1971), "Effective Temperature, Radius, and Gravitational Redshift of Sirius B", Astrophysical Journal, 169: 563, Bibcode:1971ApJ...169..563G, doi:10.1086/151174 Barstow, M.; Bond, Howard E.; Holberg, J. B.; Burleigh, M. R.; Hubeny, I.; Koester, D. (2005), "Hubble Space Telescope Spectroscopy of the Balmer lines in Sirius B", Mon. Not. R. Astron. Soc., 362 (4): 1134–1142, arXiv:astro-ph/0506600, Bibcode:2005MNRAS.362.1134B, doi:10.1111/j.1365-2966.2005.09359.x, S2CID 4607496
Starting with the Hafele–Keating experiment, Hafele & Keating 1972a and Hafele & Keating 1972b, and culminating in the Gravity Probe A experiment; an overview of experiments can be found in Ohanian & Ruffini 1994, table 4.1 on p. 186 Hafele, J. C.; Keating, R. E. (14 July 1972). "Around-the-World Atomic Clocks: Predicted Relativistic Time Gains". Science. 177 (4044): 166–168. Bibcode:1972Sci...177..166H. doi:10.1126/science.177.4044.166. PMID 17779917. S2CID 10067969. Hafele, J. C.; Keating, R. E. (14 July 1972). "Around-the-World Atomic Clocks: Observed Relativistic Time Gains". Science. 177 (4044): 168–170. Bibcode:1972Sci...177..168H. doi:10.1126/science.177.4044.168. PMID 17779918. S2CID 37376002. Ohanian, Hans C.; Ruffini, Remo (1994), Gravitation and Spacetime, W. W. Norton & Company, ISBN 978-0-393-96501-8
GPS is continually tested by comparing atomic clocks on the ground and aboard orbiting satellites; for an account of relativistic effects, see Ashby 2002 and Ashby 2003 Ashby, Neil (2002), "Relativity and the Global Positioning System" (PDF), Physics Today, 55 (5): 41–47, Bibcode:2002PhT....55e..41A, doi:10.1063/1.1485583 Ashby, Neil (2003), "Relativity in the Global Positioning System", Living Reviews in Relativity, 6 (1): 1, Bibcode:2003LRR.....6....1A, doi:10.12942/lrr-2003-1, PMC 5253894, PMID 28163638
Stairs 2003 and Kramer 2004 Stairs, Ingrid H. (2003), "Testing General Relativity with Pulsar Timing", Living Reviews in Relativity, 6 (1): 5, arXiv:astro-ph/0307536, Bibcode:2003LRR.....6....5S, doi:10.12942/lrr-2003-5, PMC 5253800, PMID 28163640 Kramer, Michael (2004). "Millisecond Pulsarsas Tools of Fundamental Physics". In Karshenboim, S. G.; Peik, E. (eds.). Astrophysics, Clocks and Fundamental Constants. Lecture Notes in Physics. Vol. 648. pp. 33–54. arXiv:astro-ph/0405178. Bibcode:2004LNP...648...33K. doi:10.1007/978-3-540-40991-5_3. ISBN 978-3-540-21967-5.
Cf. Kennefick 2005 for the classic early measurements by Arthur Eddington's expeditions. For an overview of more recent measurements, see Ohanian & Ruffini 1994, ch. 4.3. For the most precise direct modern observations using quasars, cf. Shapiro et al. 2004 Kennefick, Daniel (2005), "Astronomers Test General Relativity: Light-bending and the Solar Redshift", in Renn, Jürgen (ed.), One hundred authors for Einstein, Wiley-VCH, pp. 178–181, ISBN 978-3-527-40574-9 Ohanian, Hans C.; Ruffini, Remo (1994), Gravitation and Spacetime, W. W. Norton & Company, ISBN 978-0-393-96501-8 Shapiro, S. S.; Davis, J. L.; Lebach, D. E.; Gregory, J. S. (2004), "Measurement of the solar gravitational deflection of radio waves using geodetic very-long-baseline interferometry data, 1979–1999", Phys. Rev. Lett., 92 (12): 121101, Bibcode:2004PhRvL..92l1101S, doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.92.121101, PMID 15089661
Blanchet 2006, sec. 1.3 Blanchet, Luc (2006), "Gravitational Radiation from Post-Newtonian Sources and Inspiralling Compact Binaries", Living Reviews in Relativity, 9 (1): 4, Bibcode:2006LRR.....9....4B, doi:10.12942/lrr-2006-4, PMC 5255899, PMID 28179874
Rindler 2001, sec. 1.16; for the historical examples, Israel 1987, pp. 202–204; in fact, Einstein published one such derivation as Einstein 1907. Such calculations tacitly assume that the geometry of space is Euclidean, cf. Ehlers & Rindler 1997 Rindler, Wolfgang (2001), Relativity. Special, General and Cosmological, Oxford University Press, Bibcode:2001rsgc.book.....R, ISBN 978-0-19-850836-6 Israel, Werner (1987), "Dark stars: the evolution of an idea", in Hawking, Stephen W.; Israel, Werner (eds.), 300 Years of Gravitation, Cambridge University Press, pp. 199–276, ISBN 978-0-521-37976-2 Einstein, Albert (1907), "Über das Relativitätsprinzip und die aus demselben gezogene Folgerungen", Jahrbuch der Radioaktivität und Elektronik, 4: 411 See also English translation at Einstein Papers Project Ehlers, Jürgen; Rindler, Wolfgang (1997), "Local and Global Light Bending in Einstein's and other Gravitational Theories", General Relativity and Gravitation, 29 (4): 519–529, Bibcode:1997GReGr..29..519E, doi:10.1023/A:1018843001842, hdl:11858/00-001M-0000-0013-5AB5-4, S2CID 118162303
From the standpoint of Einstein's theory, these derivations take into account the effect of gravity on time, but not its consequences for the warping of space, cf. Rindler 2001, sec. 11.11 Rindler, Wolfgang (2001), Relativity. Special, General and Cosmological, Oxford University Press, Bibcode:2001rsgc.book.....R, ISBN 978-0-19-850836-6
For the Sun's gravitational field using radar signals reflected from planets such as Venus and Mercury, cf. Shapiro 1964, Weinberg 1972, ch. 8, sec. 7; for signals actively sent back by space probes (transponder measurements), cf. Bertotti, Iess & Tortora 2003; for an overview, see Ohanian & Ruffini 1994, table 4.4 on p. 200; for more recent measurements using signals received from a pulsar that is part of a binary system, the gravitational field causing the time delay being that of the other pulsar, cf. Stairs 2003, sec. 4.4 Shapiro, Irwin I. (1964), "Fourth test of general relativity", Phys. Rev. Lett., 13 (26): 789–791, Bibcode:1964PhRvL..13..789S, doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.13.789 Weinberg, Steven (1972), Gravitation and Cosmology: Principles and Applications of the General Theory of Relativity, John Wiley, Bibcode:1972gcpa.book.....W, ISBN 978-0-471-92567-5 Bertotti, Bruno; Iess, L.; Tortora, P. (2003), "A test of general relativity using radio links with the Cassini spacecraft", Nature, 425 (6956): 374–376, Bibcode:2003Natur.425..374B, doi:10.1038/nature01997, PMID 14508481, S2CID 4337125 Ohanian, Hans C.; Ruffini, Remo (1994), Gravitation and Spacetime, W. W. Norton & Company, ISBN 978-0-393-96501-8 Stairs, Ingrid H. (2003), "Testing General Relativity with Pulsar Timing", Living Reviews in Relativity, 6 (1): 5, arXiv:astro-ph/0307536, Bibcode:2003LRR.....6....5S, doi:10.12942/lrr-2003-5, PMC 5253800, PMID 28163640
Einstein, A (22 June 1916). "Näherungsweise Integration der Feldgleichungen der Gravitation". Sitzungsberichte der Königlich Preussischen Akademie der Wissenschaften Berlin (part 1): 688–696. Bibcode:1916SPAW.......688E. Archived from the original on 21 March 2019. Retrieved 12 February 2016.
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B. P. Abbott; et al. (LIGO Scientific Collaboration and Virgo Collaboration) (2016). "Observation of Gravitational Waves from a Binary Black Hole Merger". Physical Review Letters. 116 (6): 061102. arXiv:1602.03837. Bibcode:2016PhRvL.116f1102A. doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.116.061102. PMID 26918975. S2CID 124959784.
For example Jaranowski & Królak 2005 Jaranowski, Piotr; Królak, Andrzej (2005), "Gravitational-Wave Data Analysis. Formalism and Sample Applications: The Gaussian Case", Living Reviews in Relativity, 8 (1): 3, Bibcode:2005LRR.....8....3J, doi:10.12942/lrr-2005-3, PMC 5253919, PMID 28163647
Rindler 2001, ch. 13 Rindler, Wolfgang (2001), Relativity. Special, General and Cosmological, Oxford University Press, Bibcode:2001rsgc.book.....R, ISBN 978-0-19-850836-6
Gowdy 1971, Gowdy 1974 Gowdy, Robert H. (1971), "Gravitational Waves in Closed Universes", Phys. Rev. Lett., 27 (12): 826–829, Bibcode:1971PhRvL..27..826G, doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.27.826 Gowdy, Robert H. (1974), "Vacuum spacetimes with two-parameter spacelike isometry groups and compact invariant hypersurfaces: Topologies and boundary conditions", Annals of Physics, 83 (1): 203–241, Bibcode:1974AnPhy..83..203G, doi:10.1016/0003-4916(74)90384-4
See Lehner 2002 for a brief introduction to the methods of numerical relativity, and Seidel 1998 for the connection with gravitational wave astronomy Lehner, Luis (2002). "Numerical Relativity: Status and Prospects". In Nigel T. Bishop; Sunil D. Maharaj (eds.). General Relativity and Gravitation. General Relativity and Gravitation: Proceedings of the 16th International Conference, Durban, South Africa, 15–21 July 2001. p. 210. arXiv:gr-qc/0202055. Bibcode:2002grg..conf..210L. doi:10.1142/9789812776556_0010. ISBN 978-981-238-171-2. S2CID 9145148. Seidel, Edward (1998), "Numerical Relativity: Towards Simulations of 3D Black Hole Coalescence", in Narlikar, J. V.; Dadhich, N. (eds.), Gravitation and Relativity: At the turn of the millennium (Proceedings of the GR-15 Conference, held at IUCAA, Pune, India, December 16–21, 1997), IUCAA, p. 6088, arXiv:gr-qc/9806088, Bibcode:1998gr.qc.....6088S, ISBN 978-81-900378-3-9
Schutz 2003, pp. 48–49, Pais 1982, pp. 253–254 Schutz, Bernard F. (2003), Gravity from the ground up, Cambridge University Press, Bibcode:2003ggu..book.....S, ISBN 978-0-521-45506-0 Pais, Abraham (1982), 'Subtle is the Lord ...' The Science and life of Albert Einstein, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0-19-853907-0
Rindler 2001, sec. 11.9 Rindler, Wolfgang (2001), Relativity. Special, General and Cosmological, Oxford University Press, Bibcode:2001rsgc.book.....R, ISBN 978-0-19-850836-6
In consequence, in the parameterized post-Newtonian formalism (PPN), measurements of this effect determine a linear combination of the terms β and γ, cf. Will 2006, sec. 3.5 and Will 1993, sec. 7.3 Will, Clifford M. (2006), "The Confrontation between General Relativity and Experiment", Living Reviews in Relativity, 9 (1): 3, arXiv:gr-qc/0510072, Bibcode:2006LRR.....9....3W, doi:10.12942/lrr-2006-3, PMC 5256066, PMID 28179873 Will, Clifford M. (1993), Theory and experiment in gravitational physics, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0-521-43973-2
The most precise measurements are VLBI measurements of planetary positions; see Will 1993, ch. 5, Will 2006, sec. 3.5, Anderson et al. 1992; for an overview, Ohanian & Ruffini 1994, pp. 406–407 Will, Clifford M. (1993), Theory and experiment in gravitational physics, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0-521-43973-2 Will, Clifford M. (2006), "The Confrontation between General Relativity and Experiment", Living Reviews in Relativity, 9 (1): 3, arXiv:gr-qc/0510072, Bibcode:2006LRR.....9....3W, doi:10.12942/lrr-2006-3, PMC 5256066, PMID 28179873 Anderson, J. D.; Campbell, J. K.; Jurgens, R. F.; Lau, E. L. (1992), "Recent developments in solar-system tests of general relativity", in Sato, H.; Nakamura, T. (eds.), Proceedings of the Sixth Marcel Grossmann Meeting on General Relativity, World Scientific, pp. 353–355, ISBN 978-981-02-0950-6 Ohanian, Hans C.; Ruffini, Remo (1994), Gravitation and Spacetime, W. W. Norton & Company, ISBN 978-0-393-96501-8
Kramer et al. 2006 Kramer, M.; Stairs, I. H.; Manchester, R. N.; McLaughlin, M. A.; Lyne, A. G.; Ferdman, R. D.; Burgay, M.; Lorimer, D. R.; et al. (2006), "Tests of general relativity from timing the double pulsar", Science, 314 (5796): 97–102, arXiv:astro-ph/0609417, Bibcode:2006Sci...314...97K, doi:10.1126/science.1132305, PMID 16973838, S2CID 6674714
Kramer, M.; Stairs, I. H.; Manchester, R. N.; Wex, N.; Deller, A. T.; Coles, W. A.; Ali, M.; Burgay, M.; Camilo, F.; Cognard, I.; Damour, T. (13 December 2021). "Strong-Field Gravity Tests with the Double Pulsar". Physical Review X. 11 (4): 041050. arXiv:2112.06795. Bibcode:2021PhRvX..11d1050K. doi:10.1103/PhysRevX.11.041050. ISSN 2160-3308. S2CID 245124502.
Stairs 2003, Schutz 2003, pp. 317–321, Bartusiak 2000, pp. 70–86 Stairs, Ingrid H. (2003), "Testing General Relativity with Pulsar Timing", Living Reviews in Relativity, 6 (1): 5, arXiv:astro-ph/0307536, Bibcode:2003LRR.....6....5S, doi:10.12942/lrr-2003-5, PMC 5253800, PMID 28163640 Schutz, Bernard F. (2003), Gravity from the ground up, Cambridge University Press, Bibcode:2003ggu..book.....S, ISBN 978-0-521-45506-0 Bartusiak, Marcia (2000), Einstein's Unfinished Symphony: Listening to the Sounds of Space-Time, Berkley, ISBN 978-0-425-18620-6
Weisberg & Taylor 2003; for the pulsar discovery, see Hulse & Taylor 1975; for the initial evidence for gravitational radiation, see Taylor 1994 Weisberg, Joel M.; Taylor, Joseph H. (2003), "The Relativistic Binary Pulsar B1913+16"", in Bailes, M.; Nice, D. J.; Thorsett, S. E. (eds.), Proceedings of "Radio Pulsars," Chania, Crete, August, 2002, ASP Conference Series Hulse, Russell A.; Taylor, Joseph H. (1975), "Discovery of a pulsar in a binary system", Astrophys. J., 195: L51 – L55, Bibcode:1975ApJ...195L..51H, doi:10.1086/181708 Taylor, Joseph H. (1994), "Binary pulsars and relativistic gravity", Rev. Mod. Phys., 66 (3): 711–719, Bibcode:1994RvMP...66..711T, doi:10.1103/RevModPhys.66.711, S2CID 120534048
Kramer 2004 Kramer, Michael (2004). "Millisecond Pulsarsas Tools of Fundamental Physics". In Karshenboim, S. G.; Peik, E. (eds.). Astrophysics, Clocks and Fundamental Constants. Lecture Notes in Physics. Vol. 648. pp. 33–54. arXiv:astro-ph/0405178. Bibcode:2004LNP...648...33K. doi:10.1007/978-3-540-40991-5_3. ISBN 978-3-540-21967-5.
Weinberg 1972, sec. 9.6, Ohanian & Ruffini 1994, sec. 7.8 Weinberg, Steven (1972), Gravitation and Cosmology: Principles and Applications of the General Theory of Relativity, John Wiley, Bibcode:1972gcpa.book.....W, ISBN 978-0-471-92567-5 Ohanian, Hans C.; Ruffini, Remo (1994), Gravitation and Spacetime, W. W. Norton & Company, ISBN 978-0-393-96501-8
Bertotti, Ciufolini & Bender 1987, Nordtvedt 2003 Bertotti, Bruno; Ciufolini, Ignazio; Bender, Peter L. (1987), "New test of general relativity: Measurement of de Sitter geodetic precession rate for lunar perigee", Physical Review Letters, 58 (11): 1062–1065, Bibcode:1987PhRvL..58.1062B, doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.58.1062, PMID 10034329 Nordtvedt, Kenneth (2003). "Lunar Laser Ranging—a comprehensive probe of post-Newtonian gravity". arXiv:gr-qc/0301024.
Ohanian & Ruffini 1994, sec. 4.7, Weinberg 1972, sec. 9.7; for a more recent review, see Schäfer 2004 Ohanian, Hans C.; Ruffini, Remo (1994), Gravitation and Spacetime, W. W. Norton & Company, ISBN 978-0-393-96501-8 Weinberg, Steven (1972), Gravitation and Cosmology: Principles and Applications of the General Theory of Relativity, John Wiley, Bibcode:1972gcpa.book.....W, ISBN 978-0-471-92567-5 Schäfer, Gerhard (2004), "Gravitomagnetic Effects", General Relativity and Gravitation, 36 (10): 2223–2235, arXiv:gr-qc/0407116, Bibcode:2004GReGr..36.2223S, doi:10.1023/B:GERG.0000046180.97877.32, S2CID 14255129
Ciufolini & Pavlis 2004, Ciufolini, Pavlis & Peron 2006, Iorio 2009 Ciufolini, Ignazio; Pavlis, Erricos C. (2004), "A confirmation of the general relativistic prediction of the Lense–Thirring effect", Nature, 431 (7011): 958–960, Bibcode:2004Natur.431..958C, doi:10.1038/nature03007, PMID 15496915, S2CID 4423434 Ciufolini, Ignazio; Pavlis, Erricos C.; Peron, R. (2006), "Determination of frame-dragging using Earth gravity models from CHAMP and GRACE", New Astron., 11 (8): 527–550, Bibcode:2006NewA...11..527C, doi:10.1016/j.newast.2006.02.001 Iorio, L. (2009), "An Assessment of the Systematic Uncertainty in Present and Future Tests of the Lense–Thirring Effect with Satellite Laser Ranging", Space Sci. Rev., 148 (1–4): 363–381, arXiv:0809.1373, Bibcode:2009SSRv..148..363I, doi:10.1007/s11214-008-9478-1, S2CID 15698399
Iorio 2006, Iorio 2010 Iorio, L. (2006), "A note on the evidence of the gravitomagnetic field of Mars", Classical and Quantum Gravity, 23 (17): 5451–5454, arXiv:gr-qc/0606092, Bibcode:2006CQGra..23.5451I, doi:10.1088/0264-9381/23/17/N01, S2CID 118233440 Iorio, L. (2010), "On the Lense–Thirring test with the Mars Global Surveyor in the gravitational field of Mars", Central European Journal of Physics, 8 (3): 509–513, arXiv:gr-qc/0701146, Bibcode:2010CEJPh...8..509I, doi:10.2478/s11534-009-0117-6, S2CID 16052420
For overviews of gravitational lensing and its applications, see Ehlers, Falco & Schneider 1992 and Wambsganss 1998 Ehlers, Jürgen; Falco, Emilio E.; Schneider, Peter (1992), Gravitational lenses, Springer, ISBN 978-3-540-66506-9 Wambsganss, Joachim (1998), "Gravitational Lensing in Astronomy", Living Reviews in Relativity, 1 (1): 12, arXiv:astro-ph/9812021, Bibcode:1998LRR.....1...12W, doi:10.12942/lrr-1998-12, PMC 5567250, PMID 28937183
For a simple derivation, see Schutz 2003, ch. 23; cf. Narayan & Bartelmann 1997, sec. 3 Schutz, Bernard F. (2003), Gravity from the ground up, Cambridge University Press, Bibcode:2003ggu..book.....S, ISBN 978-0-521-45506-0 Narayan, Ramesh; Bartelmann, Matthias (1997). "Lectures on Gravitational Lensing". arXiv:astro-ph/9606001.
Walsh, Carswell & Weymann 1979 Walsh, D.; Carswell, R. F.; Weymann, R. J. (1979), "0957 + 561 A, B: twin quasistellar objects or gravitational lens?", Nature, 279 (5712): 381–4, Bibcode:1979Natur.279..381W, doi:10.1038/279381a0, PMID 16068158, S2CID 2142707
Roulet & Mollerach 1997 Roulet, E.; Mollerach, S. (1997), "Microlensing", Physics Reports, 279 (2): 67–118, arXiv:astro-ph/9603119, Bibcode:1997PhR...279...67R, doi:10.1016/S0370-1573(96)00020-8, S2CID 262685723
Barish 2005, Bartusiak 2000, Blair & McNamara 1997 Barish, Barry (2005), "Towards detection of gravitational waves", in Florides, P.; Nolan, B.; Ottewil, A. (eds.), General Relativity and Gravitation. Proceedings of the 17th International Conference, World Scientific, pp. 24–34, Bibcode:2005grg..conf.....F, ISBN 978-981-256-424-5 Bartusiak, Marcia (2000), Einstein's Unfinished Symphony: Listening to the Sounds of Space-Time, Berkley, ISBN 978-0-425-18620-6 Blair, David; McNamara, Geoff (1997), Ripples on a Cosmic Sea. The Search for Gravitational Waves, Perseus, ISBN 978-0-7382-0137-5
Hough & Rowan 2000 Hough, Jim; Rowan, Sheila (2000), "Gravitational Wave Detection by Interferometry (Ground and Space)", Living Reviews in Relativity, 3 (1): 3, Bibcode:2000LRR.....3....3R, doi:10.12942/lrr-2000-3, PMC 5255574, PMID 28179855
Hobbs, George; Archibald, A.; Arzoumanian, Z.; Backer, D.; Bailes, M.; Bhat, N. D. R.; Burgay, M.; Burke-Spolaor, S.; et al. (2010), "The international pulsar timing array project: using pulsars as a gravitational wave detector", Classical and Quantum Gravity, 27 (8): 084013, arXiv:0911.5206, Bibcode:2010CQGra..27h4013H, doi:10.1088/0264-9381/27/8/084013, S2CID 56073764
Danzmann & Rüdiger 2003 Danzmann, Karsten; Rüdiger, Albrecht (2003), "LISA Technology—Concepts, Status, Prospects" (PDF), Class. Quantum Grav., 20 (10): S1 – S9, Bibcode:2003CQGra..20S...1D, doi:10.1088/0264-9381/20/10/301, hdl:11858/00-001M-0000-0013-5233-E, S2CID 250836327, archived from the original (PDF) on 26 September 2007
Thorne 1995 Thorne, Kip S. (1995), "Gravitational radiation", Particle and Nuclear Astrophysics and Cosmology in the Next Millennium: 160, arXiv:gr-qc/9506086, Bibcode:1995pnac.conf..160T, ISBN 978-0-521-36853-7
Cutler & Thorne 2002 Cutler, Curt; Thorne, Kip S. (2002), "An overview of gravitational wave sources", in Bishop, Nigel; Maharaj, Sunil D. (eds.), Proceedings of 16th International Conference on General Relativity and Gravitation (GR16), World Scientific, p. 4090, arXiv:gr-qc/0204090, Bibcode:2002gr.qc.....4090C, ISBN 978-981-238-171-2
Celotti, Miller & Sciama 1999, sec. 3 Celotti, Annalisa; Miller, John C.; Sciama, Dennis W. (1999), "Astrophysical evidence for the existence of black holes", Class. Quantum Grav., 16 (12A): A3 – A21, arXiv:astro-ph/9912186, Bibcode:1999CQGra..16A...3C, doi:10.1088/0264-9381/16/12A/301, S2CID 17677758
Springel et al. 2005 and the accompanying summary Gnedin 2005 Springel, Volker; White, Simon D. M.; Jenkins, Adrian; Frenk, Carlos S.; Yoshida, Naoki; Gao, Liang; Navarro, Julio; Thacker, Robert; et al. (2005), "Simulations of the formation, evolution and clustering of galaxies and quasars", Nature, 435 (7042): 629–636, arXiv:astro-ph/0504097, Bibcode:2005Natur.435..629S, doi:10.1038/nature03597, PMID 15931216, S2CID 4383030 Gnedin, Nickolay Y. (2005), "Digitizing the Universe", Nature, 435 (7042): 572–573, Bibcode:2005Natur.435..572G, doi:10.1038/435572a, PMID 15931201, S2CID 3023436
For the basic mechanism, see Carroll & Ostlie 1996, sec. 17.2; for more about the different types of astronomical objects associated with this, cf. Robson 1996 Carroll, Bradley W.; Ostlie, Dale A. (1996), An Introduction to Modern Astrophysics, Addison-Wesley, Bibcode:1996ima..book.....C, ISBN 978-0-201-54730-6 Robson, Ian (1996), Active galactic nuclei, John Wiley, ISBN 978-0-471-95853-6
For a review, see Begelman, Blandford & Rees 1984. To a distant observer, some of these jets even appear to move faster than light; this, however, can be explained as an optical illusion that does not violate the tenets of relativity, see Rees 1966 Begelman, Mitchell C.; Blandford, Roger D.; Rees, Martin J. (1984), "Theory of extragalactic radio sources", Rev. Mod. Phys., 56 (2): 255–351, Bibcode:1984RvMP...56..255B, doi:10.1103/RevModPhys.56.255 Rees, Martin (1966), "Appearance of Relativistically Expanding Radio Sources", Nature, 211 (5048): 468–470, Bibcode:1966Natur.211..468R, doi:10.1038/211468a0, S2CID 41065207
For stellar end states, cf. Oppenheimer & Snyder 1939 or, for more recent numerical work, Font 2003, sec. 4.1; for supernovae, there are still major problems to be solved, cf. Buras et al. 2003; for simulating accretion and the formation of jets, cf. Font 2003, sec. 4.2. Also, relativistic lensing effects are thought to play a role for the signals received from X-ray pulsars, cf. Kraus 1998 Oppenheimer, J. Robert; Snyder, H. (1939), "On continued gravitational contraction", Physical Review, 56 (5): 455–459, Bibcode:1939PhRv...56..455O, doi:10.1103/PhysRev.56.455 Font, José A. (2003), "Numerical Hydrodynamics in General Relativity", Living Reviews in Relativity, 6 (1): 4, Bibcode:2003LRR.....6....4F, doi:10.12942/lrr-2003-4, PMC 5660627, PMID 29104452 Buras, R.; Rampp, M.; Janka, H.-Th.; Kifonidis, K. (2003), "Improved Models of Stellar Core Collapse and Still no Explosions: What is Missing?", Phys. Rev. Lett., 90 (24): 241101, arXiv:astro-ph/0303171, Bibcode:2003PhRvL..90x1101B, doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.90.241101, PMID 12857181, S2CID 27632148 Font, José A. (2003), "Numerical Hydrodynamics in General Relativity", Living Reviews in Relativity, 6 (1): 4, Bibcode:2003LRR.....6....4F, doi:10.12942/lrr-2003-4, PMC 5660627, PMID 29104452 Kraus, Ute (1998), "Light Deflection Near Neutron Stars", Relativistic Astrophysics, Vieweg, pp. 66–81, ISBN 978-3-528-06909-4
The evidence includes limits on compactness from the observation of accretion-driven phenomena ("Eddington luminosity"), see Celotti, Miller & Sciama 1999, observations of stellar dynamics in the center of our own Milky Way galaxy, cf. Schödel et al. 2003, and indications that at least some of the compact objects in question appear to have no solid surface, which can be deduced from the examination of X-ray bursts for which the central compact object is either a neutron star or a black hole; cf. Remillard et al. 2006 for an overview, Narayan 2006, sec. 5. Observations of the "shadow" of the Milky Way galaxy's central black hole horizon are eagerly sought for, cf. Falcke, Melia & Agol 2000 Celotti, Annalisa; Miller, John C.; Sciama, Dennis W. (1999), "Astrophysical evidence for the existence of black holes", Class. Quantum Grav., 16 (12A): A3 – A21, arXiv:astro-ph/9912186, Bibcode:1999CQGra..16A...3C, doi:10.1088/0264-9381/16/12A/301, S2CID 17677758 Schödel, R.; Ott, T.; Genzel, R.; Eckart, A.; Mouawad, N.; Alexander, T. (2003), "Stellar Dynamics in the Central Arcsecond of Our Galaxy", Astrophysical Journal, 596 (2): 1015–1034, arXiv:astro-ph/0306214, Bibcode:2003ApJ...596.1015S, doi:10.1086/378122, S2CID 17719367 Remillard, Ronald A.; Lin, Dacheng; Cooper, Randall L.; Narayan, Ramesh (2006), "The Rates of Type I X-Ray Bursts from Transients Observed with RXTE: Evidence for Black Hole Event Horizons", Astrophysical Journal, 646 (1): 407–419, arXiv:astro-ph/0509758, Bibcode:2006ApJ...646..407R, doi:10.1086/504862, S2CID 14949527 Narayan, Ramesh (2006), "Black holes in astrophysics", New Journal of Physics, 7 (1): 199, arXiv:gr-qc/0506078, Bibcode:2005NJPh....7..199N, doi:10.1088/1367-2630/7/1/199, S2CID 17986323 Falcke, Heino; Melia, Fulvio; Agol, Eric (2000), "Viewing the Shadow of the Black Hole at the Galactic Center", Astrophysical Journal, 528 (1): L13 – L16, arXiv:astro-ph/9912263, Bibcode:2000ApJ...528L..13F, doi:10.1086/312423, PMID 10587484, S2CID 119433133
Dalal et al. 2006 Dalal, Neal; Holz, Daniel E.; Hughes, Scott A.; Jain, Bhuvnesh (2006), "Short GRB and binary black hole standard sirens as a probe of dark energy", Phys. Rev. D, 74 (6): 063006, arXiv:astro-ph/0601275, Bibcode:2006PhRvD..74f3006D, doi:10.1103/PhysRevD.74.063006, S2CID 10008243
Barack & Cutler 2004 Barack, Leor; Cutler, Curt (2004), "LISA Capture Sources: Approximate Waveforms, Signal-to-Noise Ratios, and Parameter Estimation Accuracy", Phys. Rev. D, 69 (8): 082005, arXiv:gr-qc/0310125, Bibcode:2004PhRvD..69h2005B, doi:10.1103/PhysRevD.69.082005, S2CID 21565397
Einstein 1917; cf. Pais 1982, pp. 285–288 Einstein, Albert (1917), "Kosmologische Betrachtungen zur allgemeinen Relativitätstheorie", Sitzungsberichte der Preußischen Akademie der Wissenschaften: 142, Bibcode:1917SPAW.......142E See also English translation at Einstein Papers Project Pais, Abraham (1982), 'Subtle is the Lord ...' The Science and life of Albert Einstein, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0-19-853907-0
Carroll 2001, ch. 2 Carroll, Sean M. (2001), "The Cosmological Constant", Living Reviews in Relativity, 4 (1): 1, arXiv:astro-ph/0004075, Bibcode:2001LRR.....4....1C, doi:10.12942/lrr-2001-1, PMC 5256042, PMID 28179856
Bergström & Goobar 2003, ch. 9–11; use of these models is justified by the fact that, at large scales of around hundred million light-years and more, our own universe indeed appears to be isotropic and homogeneous, cf. Peebles et al. 1991 Bergström, Lars; Goobar, Ariel (2003), Cosmology and Particle Astrophysics (2nd ed.), Wiley & Sons, ISBN 978-3-540-43128-2 Peebles, P.J.E.; Schramm, D.N.; Turner, E.L.; Kron, R.G. (1991), "The case for the relativistic hot Big Bang cosmology", Nature, 352 (6338): 769–776, Bibcode:1991Natur.352..769P, doi:10.1038/352769a0, S2CID 4337502
E.g. with WMAP data, see Spergel et al. 2003 Spergel, D. N.; Verde, L.; Peiris, H. V.; Komatsu, E.; Nolta, M. R.; Bennett, C. L.; Halpern, M.; Hinshaw, G.; et al. (2003), "First Year Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe (WMAP) Observations: Determination of Cosmological Parameters", Astrophys. J. Suppl. Ser., 148 (1): 175–194, arXiv:astro-ph/0302209, Bibcode:2003ApJS..148..175S, doi:10.1086/377226, S2CID 10794058
These tests involve the separate observations detailed further on, see, e.g., fig. 2 in Bridle et al. 2003 Bridle, Sarah L.; Lahav, Ofer; Ostriker, Jeremiah P.; Steinhardt, Paul J. (2003), "Precision Cosmology? Not Just Yet", Science, 299 (5612): 1532–1533, arXiv:astro-ph/0303180, Bibcode:2003Sci...299.1532B, doi:10.1126/science.1082158, PMID 12624255, S2CID 119368762
Peebles 1966; for a recent account of predictions, see Coc, Vangioni‐Flam et al. 2004; an accessible account can be found in Weiss 2006; compare with the observations in Olive & Skillman 2004, Bania, Rood & Balser 2002, O'Meara et al. 2001, and Charbonnel & Primas 2005 Peebles, P. J. E. (1966), "Primordial Helium abundance and primordial fireball II", Astrophysical Journal, 146: 542–552, Bibcode:1966ApJ...146..542P, doi:10.1086/148918 Coc, A.; Vangioni-Flam, Elisabeth; Descouvemont, Pierre; Adahchour, Abderrahim; Angulo, Carmen (2004), "Updated Big Bang Nucleosynthesis confronted to WMAP observations and to the Abundance of Light Elements", Astrophysical Journal, 600 (2): 544–552, arXiv:astro-ph/0309480, Bibcode:2004ApJ...600..544C, doi:10.1086/380121, S2CID 16276658 Weiss, Achim (2006), "Elements of the past: Big Bang Nucleosynthesis and observation", Einstein Online, Max Planck Institute for Gravitational Physics, archived from the original on 8 February 2007, retrieved 24 February 2007 Olive, K. A.; Skillman, E. A. (2004), "A Realistic Determination of the Error on the Primordial Helium Abundance", Astrophysical Journal, 617 (1): 29–49, arXiv:astro-ph/0405588, Bibcode:2004ApJ...617...29O, doi:10.1086/425170, S2CID 15187664 Bania, T. M.; Rood, R. T.; Balser, D. S. (2002), "The cosmological density of baryons from observations of 3He+ in the Milky Way", Nature, 415 (6867): 54–57, Bibcode:2002Natur.415...54B, doi:10.1038/415054a, PMID 11780112, S2CID 4303625 O'Meara, John M.; Tytler, David; Kirkman, David; Suzuki, Nao; Prochaska, Jason X.; Lubin, Dan; Wolfe, Arthur M. (2001), "The Deuterium to Hydrogen Abundance Ratio Towards a Fourth QSO: HS0105+1619", Astrophysical Journal, 552 (2): 718–730, arXiv:astro-ph/0011179, Bibcode:2001ApJ...552..718O, doi:10.1086/320579, S2CID 14164537 Charbonnel, C.; Primas, F. (2005), "The Lithium Content of the Galactic Halo Stars", Astronomy & Astrophysics, 442 (3): 961–992, arXiv:astro-ph/0505247, Bibcode:2005A&A...442..961C, doi:10.1051/0004-6361:20042491, S2CID 119340132
Lahav & Suto 2004, Bertschinger 1998, Springel et al. 2005 Lahav, Ofer; Suto, Yasushi (2004), "Measuring our Universe from Galaxy Redshift Surveys", Living Reviews in Relativity, 7 (1): 8, arXiv:astro-ph/0310642, Bibcode:2004LRR.....7....8L, doi:10.12942/lrr-2004-8, PMC 5253994, PMID 28163643 Bertschinger, Edmund (1998), "Simulations of structure formation in the universe", Annu. Rev. Astron. Astrophys., 36 (1): 599–654, Bibcode:1998ARA&A..36..599B, doi:10.1146/annurev.astro.36.1.599 Springel, Volker; White, Simon D. M.; Jenkins, Adrian; Frenk, Carlos S.; Yoshida, Naoki; Gao, Liang; Navarro, Julio; Thacker, Robert; et al. (2005), "Simulations of the formation, evolution and clustering of galaxies and quasars", Nature, 435 (7042): 629–636, arXiv:astro-ph/0504097, Bibcode:2005Natur.435..629S, doi:10.1038/nature03597, PMID 15931216, S2CID 4383030
Alpher & Herman 1948, for a pedagogical introduction, see Bergström & Goobar 2003, ch. 11; for the initial detection, see Penzias & Wilson 1965 and, for precision measurements by satellite observatories, Mather et al. 1994 (COBE) and Bennett et al. 2003 (WMAP). Future measurements could also reveal evidence about gravitational waves in the early universe; this additional information is contained in the background radiation's polarization, cf. Kamionkowski, Kosowsky & Stebbins 1997 and Seljak & Zaldarriaga 1997 Alpher, R. A.; Herman, R. C. (1948), "Evolution of the universe", Nature, 162 (4124): 774–775, Bibcode:1948Natur.162..774A, doi:10.1038/162774b0, S2CID 4113488 Bergström, Lars; Goobar, Ariel (2003), Cosmology and Particle Astrophysics (2nd ed.), Wiley & Sons, ISBN 978-3-540-43128-2 Penzias, A. A.; Wilson, R. W. (1965), "A measurement of excess antenna temperature at 4080 Mc/s", Astrophysical Journal, 142: 419–421, Bibcode:1965ApJ...142..419P, doi:10.1086/148307 Mather, J. C.; Cheng, E. S.; Cottingham, D. A.; Eplee, R. E.; Fixsen, D. J.; Hewagama, T.; Isaacman, R. B.; Jensen, K. A.; et al. (1994), "Measurement of the cosmic microwave spectrum by the COBE FIRAS instrument", Astrophysical Journal, 420: 439–444, Bibcode:1994ApJ...420..439M, doi:10.1086/173574 Bennett, C. L.; Halpern, M.; Hinshaw, G.; Jarosik, N.; Kogut, A.; Limon, M.; Meyer, S. S.; Page, L.; et al. (2003), "First Year Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe (WMAP) Observations: Preliminary Maps and Basic Results", Astrophys. J. Suppl. Ser., 148 (1): 1–27, arXiv:astro-ph/0302207, Bibcode:2003ApJS..148....1B, doi:10.1086/377253, S2CID 115601 Kamionkowski, Marc; Kosowsky, Arthur; Stebbins, Albert (1997), "Statistics of Cosmic Microwave Background Polarization", Phys. Rev. D, 55 (12): 7368–7388, arXiv:astro-ph/9611125, Bibcode:1997PhRvD..55.7368K, doi:10.1103/PhysRevD.55.7368, S2CID 14018215 Seljak, Uros̆; Zaldarriaga, Matias (1997), "Signature of Gravity Waves in the Polarization of the Microwave Background", Phys. Rev. Lett., 78 (11): 2054–2057, arXiv:astro-ph/9609169, Bibcode:1997PhRvL..78.2054S, doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.78.2054, S2CID 30795875
Evidence for this comes from the determination of cosmological parameters and additional observations involving the dynamics of galaxies and galaxy clusters cf. Peebles 1993, ch. 18, evidence from gravitational lensing, cf. Peacock 1999, sec. 4.6, and simulations of large-scale structure formation, see Springel et al. 2005 Peebles, P. J. E. (1993), Principles of physical cosmology, Princeton University Press, ISBN 978-0-691-01933-8 Peacock, John A. (1999), Cosmological Physics, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0-521-41072-4 Springel, Volker; White, Simon D. M.; Jenkins, Adrian; Frenk, Carlos S.; Yoshida, Naoki; Gao, Liang; Navarro, Julio; Thacker, Robert; et al. (2005), "Simulations of the formation, evolution and clustering of galaxies and quasars", Nature, 435 (7042): 629–636, arXiv:astro-ph/0504097, Bibcode:2005Natur.435..629S, doi:10.1038/nature03597, PMID 15931216, S2CID 4383030
Peacock 1999, ch. 12, Peskin 2007; in particular, observations indicate that all but a negligible portion of that matter is not in the form of the usual elementary particles ("non-baryonic matter"), cf. Peacock 1999, ch. 12 Peacock, John A. (1999), Cosmological Physics, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0-521-41072-4 Peskin, Michael E. (2007), "Dark Matter and Particle Physics", Journal of the Physical Society of Japan, 76 (11): 111017, arXiv:0707.1536, Bibcode:2007JPSJ...76k1017P, doi:10.1143/JPSJ.76.111017, S2CID 16276112 Peacock, John A. (1999), Cosmological Physics, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0-521-41072-4
Namely, some physicists have questioned whether or not the evidence for dark matter is, in fact, evidence for deviations from the Einsteinian (and the Newtonian) description of gravity cf. the overview in Mannheim 2006, sec. 9 Mannheim, Philip D. (2006), "Alternatives to Dark Matter and Dark Energy", Prog. Part. Nucl. Phys., 56 (2): 340–445, arXiv:astro-ph/0505266, Bibcode:2006PrPNP..56..340M, doi:10.1016/j.ppnp.2005.08.001, S2CID 14024934
Carroll 2001; an accessible overview is given in Caldwell 2004. Here, too, scientists have argued that the evidence indicates not a new form of energy, but the need for modifications in our cosmological models, cf. Mannheim 2006, sec. 10; aforementioned modifications need not be modifications of general relativity, they could, for example, be modifications in the way we treat the inhomogeneities in the universe, cf. Buchert 2008 Carroll, Sean M. (2001), "The Cosmological Constant", Living Reviews in Relativity, 4 (1): 1, arXiv:astro-ph/0004075, Bibcode:2001LRR.....4....1C, doi:10.12942/lrr-2001-1, PMC 5256042, PMID 28179856 Caldwell, Robert R. (2004), "Dark Energy", Physics World, 17 (5): 37–42, doi:10.1088/2058-7058/17/5/36 Mannheim, Philip D. (2006), "Alternatives to Dark Matter and Dark Energy", Prog. Part. Nucl. Phys., 56 (2): 340–445, arXiv:astro-ph/0505266, Bibcode:2006PrPNP..56..340M, doi:10.1016/j.ppnp.2005.08.001, S2CID 14024934 Buchert, Thomas (2008), "Dark Energy from Structure—A Status Report", General Relativity and Gravitation, 40 (2–3): 467–527, arXiv:0707.2153, Bibcode:2008GReGr..40..467B, doi:10.1007/s10714-007-0554-8, S2CID 17281664
A good introduction is Linde 2005; for a more recent review, see Linde 2006 Linde, Andrei (2005), Particle Physics and Inflationary Cosmology, Contemporary Concepts in Physics, vol. 5, pp. 1–362, arXiv:hep-th/0503203, Bibcode:2005hep.th....3203L, ISBN 978-3-7186-0489-0 Linde, Andrei (2006), "Towards inflation in string theory", J. Phys. Conf. Ser., 24 (1): 151–160, arXiv:hep-th/0503195, Bibcode:2005JPhCS..24..151L, doi:10.1088/1742-6596/24/1/018, S2CID 250677699
More precisely, these are the flatness problem, the horizon problem, and the monopole problem; a pedagogical introduction can be found in Narlikar 1993, sec. 6.4, see also Börner 1993, sec. 9.1 Narlikar, Jayant V. (1993), Introduction to Cosmology, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0-521-41250-6 Börner, Gerhard (1993), The Early Universe. Facts and Fiction, Springer, Bibcode:1993euff.book.....B, ISBN 978-0-387-56729-7
Spergel et al. 2007, sec. 5,6 Spergel, D. N.; Bean, R.; Doré, O.; Nolta, M. R.; Bennett, C. L.; Dunkley, J.; Hinshaw, G.; Jarosik, N.; et al. (2007), "Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe (WMAP) Three Year Results: Implications for Cosmology", Astrophysical Journal Supplement, 170 (2): 377–408, arXiv:astro-ph/0603449, Bibcode:2007ApJS..170..377S, doi:10.1086/513700, S2CID 1386346
Brandenberger 2008, sec. 2 Brandenberger, Robert H. (2008), "Conceptual problems of inflationary cosmology and a new approach to cosmological structure formation", in Lemoine, Martin; Martin, Jerome; Peter, Patrick (eds.), Inflationary Cosmology, Lecture Notes in Physics, vol. 738, pp. 393–424, arXiv:hep-th/0701111, Bibcode:2007LNP...738..393B, doi:10.1007/978-3-540-74353-8_11, ISBN 978-3-540-74352-1, S2CID 18752698
Gödel 1949 Gödel, Kurt (1949). "An Example of a New Type of Cosmological Solution of Einstein's Field Equations of Gravitation". Rev. Mod. Phys. 21 (3): 447–450. Bibcode:1949RvMP...21..447G. doi:10.1103/RevModPhys.21.447.
Finazzi, Stefano; Liberati, Stefano; Barceló, Carlos (15 June 2009). "Semiclassical instability of dynamical warp drives". Physical Review D. 79 (12): 124017. arXiv:0904.0141. Bibcode:2009PhRvD..79l4017F. doi:10.1103/PhysRevD.79.124017. S2CID 59575856.
Bondi, H.; Van der Burg, M.G.J.; Metzner, A. (1962). "Gravitational waves in general relativity: VII. Waves from axisymmetric isolated systems". Proceedings of the Royal Society of London. Series A. Mathematical and Physical Sciences. 269 (1336): 21–52. Bibcode:1962RSPSA.269...21B. doi:10.1098/rspa.1962.0161. S2CID 120125096.
Sachs, R. (1962). "Asymptotic symmetries in gravitational theory". Physical Review. 128 (6): 2851–2864. Bibcode:1962PhRv..128.2851S. doi:10.1103/PhysRev.128.2851.
Frauendiener 2004, Wald 1984, sec. 11.1, Hawking & Ellis 1973, sec. 6.8, 6.9 Frauendiener, Jörg (2004), "Conformal Infinity", Living Reviews in Relativity, 7 (1): 1, Bibcode:2004LRR.....7....1F, doi:10.12942/lrr-2004-1, PMC 5256109, PMID 28179863 Wald, Robert M. (1984), General Relativity, University of Chicago Press, ISBN 978-0-226-87033-5 Hawking, Stephen W.; Ellis, George F. R. (1973), The large scale structure of space-time, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0-521-09906-6
Thorne 1972; for more recent numerical studies, see Berger 2002, sec. 2.1 Thorne, Kip S. (1972), "Nonspherical Gravitational Collapse—A Short Review", in Klauder, J. (ed.), Magic without Magic, W. H. Freeman, pp. 231–258 Berger, Beverly K. (2002), "Numerical Approaches to Spacetime Singularities", Living Reviews in Relativity, 5 (1): 1, arXiv:gr-qc/0201056, Bibcode:2002LRR.....5....1B, doi:10.12942/lrr-2002-1, PMC 5256073, PMID 28179859
Israel 1987. A more exact mathematical description distinguishes several kinds of horizon, notably event horizons and apparent horizons cf. Hawking & Ellis 1973, pp. 312–320 or Wald 1984, sec. 12.2; there are also more intuitive definitions for isolated systems that do not require knowledge of spacetime properties at infinity, cf. Ashtekar & Krishnan 2004 Israel, Werner (1987), "Dark stars: the evolution of an idea", in Hawking, Stephen W.; Israel, Werner (eds.), 300 Years of Gravitation, Cambridge University Press, pp. 199–276, ISBN 978-0-521-37976-2 Hawking, Stephen W.; Ellis, George F. R. (1973), The large scale structure of space-time, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0-521-09906-6 Wald, Robert M. (1984), General Relativity, University of Chicago Press, ISBN 978-0-226-87033-5 Ashtekar, Abhay; Krishnan, Badri (2004), "Isolated and Dynamical Horizons and Their Applications", Living Reviews in Relativity, 7 (1): 10, arXiv:gr-qc/0407042, Bibcode:2004LRR.....7...10A, doi:10.12942/lrr-2004-10, PMC 5253930, PMID 28163644
For first steps, cf. Israel 1971; see Hawking & Ellis 1973, sec. 9.3 or Heusler 1996, ch. 9 and 10 for a derivation, and Heusler 1998 as well as Beig & Chruściel 2006 as overviews of more recent results Israel, Werner (1971), "Event Horizons and Gravitational Collapse", General Relativity and Gravitation, 2 (1): 53–59, Bibcode:1971GReGr...2...53I, doi:10.1007/BF02450518, S2CID 119645546 Hawking, Stephen W.; Ellis, George F. R. (1973), The large scale structure of space-time, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0-521-09906-6 Heusler, Markus (1996), "Black Hole Uniqueness Theorems", Cambridge Lecture Notes in Physics, 6, Cambridge University Press, Bibcode:1996CLNP....6.....H, ISBN 978-0-521-56735-0 Heusler, Markus (1998), "Stationary Black Holes: Uniqueness and Beyond", Living Reviews in Relativity, 1 (1): 6, Bibcode:1998LRR.....1....6H, doi:10.12942/lrr-1998-6, PMC 5567259, PMID 28937184 Beig, Robert; Chruściel, Piotr T. (2006), "Stationary black holes", in Françoise, J.-P.; Naber, G.; Tsou, T.S. (eds.), Encyclopedia of Mathematical Physics, Volume 2, Elsevier, p. 2041, arXiv:gr-qc/0502041, Bibcode:2005gr.qc.....2041B, ISBN 978-0-12-512660-1
The laws of black hole mechanics were first described in Bardeen, Carter & Hawking 1973; a more pedagogical presentation can be found in Carter 1979; for a more recent review, see Wald 2001, ch. 2. A thorough, book-length introduction including an introduction to the necessary mathematics Poisson 2004. For the Penrose process, see Penrose 1969 Bardeen, J. M.; Carter, B.; Hawking, S. W. (1973), "The Four Laws of Black Hole Mechanics", Comm. Math. Phys., 31 (2): 161–170, Bibcode:1973CMaPh..31..161B, doi:10.1007/BF01645742, S2CID 54690354 Carter, Brandon (1979), "The general theory of the mechanical, electromagnetic and thermodynamic properties of black holes", in Hawking, S. W.; Israel, W. (eds.), General Relativity, an Einstein Centenary Survey, Cambridge University Press, pp. 294–369 and 860–863, ISBN 978-0-521-29928-2 Wald, Robert M. (2001), "The Thermodynamics of Black Holes", Living Reviews in Relativity, 4 (1): 6, arXiv:gr-qc/9912119, Bibcode:2001LRR.....4....6W, doi:10.12942/lrr-2001-6, PMC 5253844, PMID 28163633 Poisson, Eric (2004), A Relativist's Toolkit. The Mathematics of Black-Hole Mechanics, Cambridge University Press, Bibcode:2004rtmb.book.....P, ISBN 978-0-521-83091-1 Penrose, Roger (1969), "Gravitational collapse: the role of general relativity", Rivista del Nuovo Cimento, 1: 252–276, Bibcode:1969NCimR...1..252P
Bekenstein 1973, Bekenstein 1974 Bekenstein, Jacob D. (1973), "Black Holes and Entropy", Phys. Rev. D, 7 (8): 2333–2346, Bibcode:1973PhRvD...7.2333B, doi:10.1103/PhysRevD.7.2333, S2CID 122636624 Bekenstein, Jacob D. (1974), "Generalized Second Law of Thermodynamics in Black-Hole Physics", Phys. Rev. D, 9 (12): 3292–3300, Bibcode:1974PhRvD...9.3292B, doi:10.1103/PhysRevD.9.3292, S2CID 123043135
The fact that black holes radiate, quantum mechanically, was first derived in Hawking 1975; a more thorough derivation can be found in Wald 1975. A review is given in Wald 2001, ch. 3 Hawking, S. W. (1975), "Particle Creation by Black Holes", Communications in Mathematical Physics, 43 (3): 199–220, Bibcode:1975CMaPh..43..199H, doi:10.1007/BF02345020, S2CID 55539246 Wald, Robert M. (1975), "On Particle Creation by Black Holes", Commun. Math. Phys., 45 (3): 9–34, Bibcode:1975CMaPh..45....9W, doi:10.1007/BF01609863, S2CID 120950657 Wald, Robert M. (2001), "The Thermodynamics of Black Holes", Living Reviews in Relativity, 4 (1): 6, arXiv:gr-qc/9912119, Bibcode:2001LRR.....4....6W, doi:10.12942/lrr-2001-6, PMC 5253844, PMID 28163633
Horizons: cf. Rindler 2001, sec. 12.4. Unruh effect: Unruh 1976, cf. Wald 2001, ch. 3 Rindler, Wolfgang (2001), Relativity. Special, General and Cosmological, Oxford University Press, Bibcode:2001rsgc.book.....R, ISBN 978-0-19-850836-6 Unruh, W. G. (1976), "Notes on Black Hole Evaporation", Phys. Rev. D, 14 (4): 870–892, Bibcode:1976PhRvD..14..870U, doi:10.1103/PhysRevD.14.870 Wald, Robert M. (2001), "The Thermodynamics of Black Holes", Living Reviews in Relativity, 4 (1): 6, arXiv:gr-qc/9912119, Bibcode:2001LRR.....4....6W, doi:10.12942/lrr-2001-6, PMC 5253844, PMID 28163633
Ellis & Van Elst 1999; a closer look at the singularity itself is taken in Börner 1993, sec. 1.2 Ellis, George F R; Van Elst, Henk (1999), "Cosmological Models", in Lachièze-Rey, Marc (ed.), Theoretical and Observational Cosmology, vol. 541, pp. 1–116, arXiv:gr-qc/9812046, Bibcode:1999ASIC..541....1E, doi:10.1007/978-94-011-4455-1_1, ISBN 978-0-7923-5946-3, S2CID 122994560 Börner, Gerhard (1993), The Early Universe. Facts and Fiction, Springer, Bibcode:1993euff.book.....B, ISBN 978-0-387-56729-7
Namely when there are trapped null surfaces, cf. Penrose 1965 Penrose, Roger (1965), "Gravitational collapse and spacetime singularities", Physical Review Letters, 14 (3): 57–59, Bibcode:1965PhRvL..14...57P, doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.14.57
Hawking 1966 Hawking, Stephen W. (1966), "The occurrence of singularities in cosmology", Proceedings of the Royal Society of London. Series A. Mathematical and Physical Sciences, 294 (1439): 511–521, Bibcode:1966RSPSA.294..511H, doi:10.1098/rspa.1966.0221, JSTOR 2415489, S2CID 120730123
The conjecture was made in Belinskii, Khalatnikov & Lifschitz 1971; for a more recent review, see Berger 2002. An accessible exposition is given by Garfinkle 2007 Belinskii, V. A.; Khalatnikov, I. M.; Lifschitz, E. M. (1971), "Oscillatory approach to the singular point in relativistic cosmology", Advances in Physics, 19 (80): 525–573, Bibcode:1970AdPhy..19..525B, doi:10.1080/00018737000101171; original paper in Russian: Belinsky, V. A.; Lifshits, I. M.; Khalatnikov, E. M. (1970), "Колебательный Режим Приближения К Особой Точке В Релятивистской Космологии", Uspekhi Fizicheskikh Nauk, 102 (11): 463–500, Bibcode:1970UsFiN.102..463B, doi:10.3367/ufnr.0102.197011d.0463 Berger, Beverly K. (2002), "Numerical Approaches to Spacetime Singularities", Living Reviews in Relativity, 5 (1): 1, arXiv:gr-qc/0201056, Bibcode:2002LRR.....5....1B, doi:10.12942/lrr-2002-1, PMC 5256073, PMID 28179859 Garfinkle, David (2007), "Of singularities and breadmaking", Einstein Online, Max Planck Institute for Gravitational Physics, archived from the original on 10 August 2007, retrieved 3 August 2007
The restriction to future singularities naturally excludes initial singularities such as the big bang singularity, which in principle be visible to observers at later cosmic time. The cosmic censorship conjecture was first presented in Penrose 1969; a textbook-level account is given in Wald 1984, pp. 302–305. For numerical results, see the review Berger 2002, sec. 2.1 Penrose, Roger (1969), "Gravitational collapse: the role of general relativity", Rivista del Nuovo Cimento, 1: 252–276, Bibcode:1969NCimR...1..252P Wald, Robert M. (1984), General Relativity, University of Chicago Press, ISBN 978-0-226-87033-5 Berger, Beverly K. (2002), "Numerical Approaches to Spacetime Singularities", Living Reviews in Relativity, 5 (1): 1, arXiv:gr-qc/0201056, Bibcode:2002LRR.....5....1B, doi:10.12942/lrr-2002-1, PMC 5256073, PMID 28179859
Fourès-Bruhat 1952 and Bruhat 1962; for a pedagogical introduction, see Wald 1984, ch. 10; an online review can be found in Reula 1998 Fourès-Bruhat, Yvonne (1952), "Théoréme d'existence pour certains systémes d'équations aux derivées partielles non linéaires", Acta Mathematica, 88 (1): 141–225, Bibcode:1952AcMa...88..141F, doi:10.1007/BF02392131 Bruhat, Yvonne (1962), "The Cauchy Problem", in Witten, Louis (ed.), Gravitation: An Introduction to Current Research, Wiley, p. 130, ISBN 978-1-114-29166-9 {{citation}}: ISBN / Date incompatibility (help) Wald, Robert M. (1984), General Relativity, University of Chicago Press, ISBN 978-0-226-87033-5 Reula, Oscar A. (1998), "Hyperbolic Methods for Einstein's Equations", Living Reviews in Relativity, 1 (1): 3, Bibcode:1998LRR.....1....3R, doi:10.12942/lrr-1998-3, PMC 5253804, PMID 28191833
Gourgoulhon 2007; for a review of the basics of numerical relativity, including the problems arising from the peculiarities of Einstein's equations, see Lehner 2001 Gourgoulhon, Eric (2007). "3+1 Formalism and Bases of Numerical Relativity". arXiv:gr-qc/0703035. Lehner, Luis (2001), "Numerical Relativity: A review", Class. Quantum Grav., 18 (17): R25 – R86, arXiv:gr-qc/0106072, Bibcode:2001CQGra..18R..25L, doi:10.1088/0264-9381/18/17/202, S2CID 9715975
Komar 1959; for a pedagogical introduction, see Wald 1984, sec. 11.2; although defined in a totally different way, it can be shown to be equivalent to the ADM mass for stationary spacetimes, cf. Ashtekar & Magnon-Ashtekar 1979 Komar, Arthur (1959), "Covariant Conservation Laws in General Relativity", Phys. Rev., 113 (3): 934–936, Bibcode:1959PhRv..113..934K, doi:10.1103/PhysRev.113.934 Wald, Robert M. (1984), General Relativity, University of Chicago Press, ISBN 978-0-226-87033-5 Ashtekar, Abhay; Magnon-Ashtekar, Anne (1979), "On conserved quantities in general relativity", Journal of Mathematical Physics, 20 (5): 793–800, Bibcode:1979JMP....20..793A, doi:10.1063/1.524151
Such quasi-local mass–energy definitions are the Hawking energy, Geroch energy, or Penrose's quasi-local energy–momentum based on twistor methods; cf. the review article Szabados 2004 Szabados, László B. (2004), "Quasi-Local Energy–Momentum and Angular Momentum in GR", Living Reviews in Relativity, 7 (1): 4, Bibcode:2004LRR.....7....4S, doi:10.12942/lrr-2004-4, PMC 5255888, PMID 28179865
An overview of quantum theory can be found in standard textbooks such as Messiah 1999; a more elementary account is given in Hey & Walters 2003 Messiah, Albert (1999), Quantum Mechanics, Dover Publications, ISBN 978-0-486-40924-5 Hey, Tony; Walters, Patrick (2003), The new quantum universe, Cambridge University Press, Bibcode:2003nqu..book.....H, ISBN 978-0-521-56457-1
Wald 1994, Birrell & Davies 1984 Wald, Robert M. (1994), Quantum field theory in curved spacetime and black hole thermodynamics, University of Chicago Press, Bibcode:1994qftc.book.....W, ISBN 978-0-226-87027-4 Birrell, N. D.; Davies, P. C. (1984), Quantum Fields in Curved Space, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0-521-27858-4
For Hawking radiation Hawking 1975, Wald 1975; an accessible introduction to black hole evaporation can be found in Traschen 2000 Hawking, S. W. (1975), "Particle Creation by Black Holes", Communications in Mathematical Physics, 43 (3): 199–220, Bibcode:1975CMaPh..43..199H, doi:10.1007/BF02345020, S2CID 55539246 Wald, Robert M. (1975), "On Particle Creation by Black Holes", Commun. Math. Phys., 45 (3): 9–34, Bibcode:1975CMaPh..45....9W, doi:10.1007/BF01609863, S2CID 120950657 Traschen, Jennie (2000), Bytsenko, A.; Williams, F. (eds.), "An Introduction to Black Hole Evaporation", Mathematical Methods of Physics (Proceedings of the 1999 Londrina Winter School), World Scientific: 180, arXiv:gr-qc/0010055, Bibcode:2000mmp..conf..180T
Wald 2001, ch. 3 Wald, Robert M. (2001), "The Thermodynamics of Black Holes", Living Reviews in Relativity, 4 (1): 6, arXiv:gr-qc/9912119, Bibcode:2001LRR.....4....6W, doi:10.12942/lrr-2001-6, PMC 5253844, PMID 28163633
Put simply, matter is the source of spacetime curvature, and once matter has quantum properties, we can expect spacetime to have them as well. Cf. Carlip 2001, sec. 2 Carlip, Steven (2001), "Quantum Gravity: a Progress Report", Rep. Prog. Phys., 64 (8): 885–942, arXiv:gr-qc/0108040, Bibcode:2001RPPh...64..885C, doi:10.1088/0034-4885/64/8/301, S2CID 118923209
Schutz 2003, p. 407 Schutz, Bernard F. (2003), Gravity from the ground up, Cambridge University Press, Bibcode:2003ggu..book.....S, ISBN 978-0-521-45506-0
't Hooft & Veltman 1974 't Hooft, Gerard; Veltman, Martinus (1974), "One Loop Divergencies in the Theory of Gravitation", Annales de l'Institut Henri Poincaré A, 20 (1): 69, Bibcode:1974AIHPA..20...69T
Donoghue 1995 Donoghue, John F. (1995), "Introduction to the Effective Field Theory Description of Gravity", in Cornet, Fernando (ed.), Effective Theories: Proceedings of the Advanced School, Almunecar, Spain, 26 June–1 July 1995, Singapore: World Scientific, p. 12024, arXiv:gr-qc/9512024, Bibcode:1995gr.qc....12024D, ISBN 978-981-02-2908-5
In particular, a perturbative technique known as renormalization, an integral part of deriving predictions which take into account higher-energy contributions, cf. Weinberg 1996, ch. 17, 18, fails in this case; cf. Veltman 1975, Goroff & Sagnotti 1985; for a recent comprehensive review of the failure of perturbative renormalizability for quantum gravity see Hamber 2009 Weinberg, Steven (1996), The Quantum Theory of Fields II: Modern Applications, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0-521-55002-4 Veltman, Martinus (1975), "Quantum Theory of Gravitation", in Balian, Roger; Zinn-Justin, Jean (eds.), Methods in Field Theory – Les Houches Summer School in Theoretical Physics., vol. 77, North Holland Goroff, Marc H.; Sagnotti, Augusto (1985), "Quantum gravity at two loops", Phys. Lett., 160B (1–3): 81–86, Bibcode:1985PhLB..160...81G, doi:10.1016/0370-2693(85)91470-4 Hamber, Herbert W. (2009), Hamber, Herbert W (ed.), Quantum Gravitation – The Feynman Path Integral Approach, Springer Publishing, doi:10.1007/978-3-540-85293-3, hdl:11858/00-001M-0000-0013-471D-A, ISBN 978-3-540-85292-6
An accessible introduction at the undergraduate level can be found in Zwiebach 2004; more complete overviews can be found in Polchinski 1998a and Polchinski 1998b Zwiebach, Barton (2004), A First Course in String Theory, Cambridge University Press, Bibcode:2004fcst.book.....Z, ISBN 978-0-521-83143-7 Polchinski, Joseph (1998a), String Theory Vol. I: An Introduction to the Bosonic String, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0-521-63303-1 Polchinski, Joseph (1998b), String Theory Vol. II: Superstring Theory and Beyond, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0-521-63304-8
At the energies reached in current experiments, these strings are indistinguishable from point-like particles, but, crucially, different modes of oscillation of one and the same type of fundamental string appear as particles with different (electric and other) charges, e.g. Ibanez 2000. The theory is successful in that one mode will always correspond to a graviton, the messenger particle of gravity, e.g. Green, Schwarz & Witten 1987, sec. 2.3, 5.3 Ibanez, L. E. (2000), "The second string (phenomenology) revolution", Class. Quantum Grav., 17 (5): 1117–1128, arXiv:hep-ph/9911499, Bibcode:2000CQGra..17.1117I, doi:10.1088/0264-9381/17/5/321, S2CID 15707877 Green, M. B.; Schwarz, J. H.; Witten, E. (1987), Superstring theory. Volume 1: Introduction, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0-521-35752-4
Townsend 1996, Duff 1996 Townsend, Paul K. (1996). "Four Lectures on M-Theory". High Energy Physics and Cosmology. 13: 385. arXiv:hep-th/9612121. Bibcode:1997hepcbconf..385T. Duff, Michael (1996), "M-Theory (the Theory Formerly Known as Strings)", Int. J. Mod. Phys. A, 11 (32): 5623–5641, arXiv:hep-th/9608117, Bibcode:1996IJMPA..11.5623D, doi:10.1142/S0217751X96002583, S2CID 17432791
These variables represent geometric gravity using mathematical analogues of electric and magnetic fields; cf. Ashtekar 1986, Ashtekar 1987 Ashtekar, Abhay (1986), "New variables for classical and quantum gravity", Phys. Rev. Lett., 57 (18): 2244–2247, Bibcode:1986PhRvL..57.2244A, doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.57.2244, PMID 10033673 Ashtekar, Abhay (1987), "New Hamiltonian formulation of general relativity", Phys. Rev. D, 36 (6): 1587–1602, Bibcode:1987PhRvD..36.1587A, doi:10.1103/PhysRevD.36.1587, PMID 9958340
For a review, see Thiemann 2007; more extensive accounts can be found in Rovelli 1998, Ashtekar & Lewandowski 2004 as well as in the lecture notes Thiemann 2003 Thiemann, Thomas (2007), "Loop Quantum Gravity: An Inside View", Approaches to Fundamental Physics, Lecture Notes in Physics, vol. 721, pp. 185–263, arXiv:hep-th/0608210, Bibcode:2007LNP...721..185T, doi:10.1007/978-3-540-71117-9_10, ISBN 978-3-540-71115-5, S2CID 119572847 Rovelli, Carlo (1998), "Loop Quantum Gravity", Living Reviews in Relativity, 1 (1): 1, arXiv:gr-qc/9710008, Bibcode:1998LRR.....1....1R, CiteSeerX 10.1.1.90.7036, doi:10.12942/lrr-1998-1, PMC 5567241, PMID 28937180 Ashtekar, Abhay; Lewandowski, Jerzy (2004), "Background Independent Quantum Gravity: A Status Report", Class. Quantum Grav., 21 (15): R53 – R152, arXiv:gr-qc/0404018, Bibcode:2004CQGra..21R..53A, doi:10.1088/0264-9381/21/15/R01, S2CID 119175535 Thiemann, Thomas (2003). "Lectures on Loop Quantum Gravity". In Domenico J.W. Giulini; Claus Kiefer; Claus Lämmerzahl (eds.). Quantum Gravity: From Theory to Experimental Search. Lecture Notes in Physics. Vol. 631. pp. 41–135. arXiv:gr-qc/0210094. Bibcode:2003LNP...631...41T. doi:10.1007/978-3-540-45230-0_3. ISBN 978-3-540-40810-9. S2CID 119151491.
Isham 1994, Sorkin 1997 Isham, Christopher J. (1994), "Prima facie questions in quantum gravity", in Ehlers, Jürgen; Friedrich, Helmut (eds.), Canonical Gravity: From Classical to Quantum, Lecture Notes in Physics, vol. 434, Springer, Bibcode:1994LNP...434.....E, doi:10.1007/3540583394, ISBN 978-3-540-58339-4 Sorkin, Rafael D. (1997), "Forks in the Road, on the Way to Quantum Gravity", Int. J. Theor. Phys., 36 (12): 2759–2781, arXiv:gr-qc/9706002, Bibcode:1997IJTP...36.2759S, doi:10.1007/BF02435709, S2CID 4803804
Loll 1998 Loll, Renate (1998), "Discrete Approaches to Quantum Gravity in Four Dimensions", Living Reviews in Relativity, 1 (1): 13, arXiv:gr-qc/9805049, Bibcode:1998LRR.....1...13L, doi:10.12942/lrr-1998-13, PMC 5253799, PMID 28191826
Sorkin 2005 Sorkin, Rafael D. (2005), "Causal Sets: Discrete Gravity", in Gomberoff, Andres; Marolf, Donald (eds.), Lectures on Quantum Gravity, Springer, p. 9009, arXiv:gr-qc/0309009, Bibcode:2003gr.qc.....9009S, ISBN 978-0-387-23995-8
Ashtekar 2007, Schwarz 2007 Ashtekar, Abhay (2007), "Loop Quantum Gravity: Four Recent Advances and a Dozen Frequently Asked Questions", Proceedings of the Eleventh Marcel Grossmann Meeting Meeting on General Relativity, The Eleventh Marcel Grossmann Meeting on Recent Developments in Theoretical and Experimental General Relativity, p. 126, arXiv:0705.2222, Bibcode:2008mgm..conf..126A, doi:10.1142/9789812834300_0008, ISBN 978-981-283-426-3, S2CID 119663169 Schwarz, John H. (2007), "String Theory: Progress and Problems", Progress of Theoretical Physics Supplement, 170: 214–226, arXiv:hep-th/0702219, Bibcode:2007PThPS.170..214S, doi:10.1143/PTPS.170.214, S2CID 16762545
Friedrich 2005 Friedrich, Helmut (2005), "Is general relativity 'essentially understood'?", Annalen der Physik, 15 (1–2): 84–108, arXiv:gr-qc/0508016, Bibcode:2006AnP...518...84F, doi:10.1002/andp.200510173, S2CID 37236624
A review of the various problems and the techniques being developed to overcome them, see Lehner 2002 Lehner, Luis (2002). "Numerical Relativity: Status and Prospects". In Nigel T. Bishop; Sunil D. Maharaj (eds.). General Relativity and Gravitation. General Relativity and Gravitation: Proceedings of the 16th International Conference, Durban, South Africa, 15–21 July 2001. p. 210. arXiv:gr-qc/0202055. Bibcode:2002grg..conf..210L. doi:10.1142/9789812776556_0010. ISBN 978-981-238-171-2. S2CID 9145148.
For the most recent papers on gravitational wave polarizations of inspiralling compact binaries, see Blanchet et al. 2008, and Arun et al. 2008; for a review of work on compact binaries, see Blanchet 2006 and Futamase & Itoh 2006; for a general review of experimental tests of general relativity, see Will 2006 Blanchet, L.; Faye, G.; Iyer, B. R.; Sinha, S. (2008), "The third post-Newtonian gravitational wave polarisations and associated spherical harmonic modes for inspiralling compact binaries in quasi-circular orbits", Classical and Quantum Gravity, 25 (16): 165003, arXiv:0802.1249, Bibcode:2008CQGra..25p5003B, doi:10.1088/0264-9381/25/16/165003, S2CID 54608927 Arun, K.G.; Blanchet, L.; Iyer, B. R.; Qusailah, M. S. S. (2008), "Inspiralling compact binaries in quasi-elliptical orbits: The complete 3PN energy flux", Physical Review D, 77 (6): 064035, arXiv:0711.0302, Bibcode:2008PhRvD..77f4035A, doi:10.1103/PhysRevD.77.064035, S2CID 55825202 Blanchet, Luc (2006), "Gravitational Radiation from Post-Newtonian Sources and Inspiralling Compact Binaries", Living Reviews in Relativity, 9 (1): 4, Bibcode:2006LRR.....9....4B, doi:10.12942/lrr-2006-4, PMC 5255899, PMID 28179874 Futamase, T.; Itoh, Y. (2006), "The Post-Newtonian Approximation for Relativistic Compact Binaries", Living Reviews in Relativity, 10 (1): 2, Bibcode:2007LRR....10....2F, doi:10.12942/lrr-2007-2, PMC 5255906, PMID 28179819 Will, Clifford M. (2006), "The Confrontation between General Relativity and Experiment", Living Reviews in Relativity, 9 (1): 3, arXiv:gr-qc/0510072, Bibcode:2006LRR.....9....3W, doi:10.12942/lrr-2006-3, PMC 5256066, PMID 28179873

jstor.org

Hawking 1966 Hawking, Stephen W. (1966), "The occurrence of singularities in cosmology", Proceedings of the Royal Society of London. Series A. Mathematical and Physical Sciences, 294 (1439): 511–521, Bibcode:1966RSPSA.294..511H, doi:10.1098/rspa.1966.0221, JSTOR 2415489, S2CID 120730123

jussieu.fr

ipgp.jussieu.fr

GPS is continually tested by comparing atomic clocks on the ground and aboard orbiting satellites; for an account of relativistic effects, see Ashby 2002 and Ashby 2003 Ashby, Neil (2002), "Relativity and the Global Positioning System" (PDF), Physics Today, 55 (5): 41–47, Bibcode:2002PhT....55e..41A, doi:10.1063/1.1485583 Ashby, Neil (2003), "Relativity in the Global Positioning System", Living Reviews in Relativity, 6 (1): 1, Bibcode:2003LRR.....6....1A, doi:10.12942/lrr-2003-1, PMC 5253894, PMID 28163638

mpg.de

einstein-annalen.mpiwg-berlin.mpg.de

Einstein, A (22 June 1916). "Näherungsweise Integration der Feldgleichungen der Gravitation". Sitzungsberichte der Königlich Preussischen Akademie der Wissenschaften Berlin (part 1): 688–696. Bibcode:1916SPAW.......688E. Archived from the original on 21 March 2019. Retrieved 12 February 2016.
Einstein, A (31 January 1918). "Über Gravitationswellen". Sitzungsberichte der Königlich Preussischen Akademie der Wissenschaften Berlin (part 1): 154–167. Bibcode:1918SPAW.......154E. Archived from the original on 21 March 2019. Retrieved 12 February 2016.

nature.com

Castelvecchi, Davide; Witze, Witze (11 February 2016). "Einstein's gravitational waves found at last". Nature News. doi:10.1038/nature.2016.19361. S2CID 182916902. Retrieved 11 February 2016.

nih.gov

pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov

Hubble's original article is Hubble 1929; an accessible overview is given in Singh 2004, ch. 2–4 Hubble, Edwin (1929), "A Relation between Distance and Radial Velocity among Extra-Galactic Nebulae", Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci., 15 (3): 168–173, Bibcode:1929PNAS...15..168H, doi:10.1073/pnas.15.3.168, PMC 522427, PMID 16577160 Singh, Simon (2004), Big Bang: The Origin of the Universe, Fourth Estate, Bibcode:2004biba.book.....S, ISBN 978-0-00-715251-3
Will 1993, sec. 2.4, Will 2006, sec. 2 Will, Clifford M. (1993), Theory and experiment in gravitational physics, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0-521-43973-2 Will, Clifford M. (2006), "The Confrontation between General Relativity and Experiment", Living Reviews in Relativity, 9 (1): 3, arXiv:gr-qc/0510072, Bibcode:2006LRR.....9....3W, doi:10.12942/lrr-2006-3, PMC 5256066, PMID 28179873
Brans & Dicke 1961, Weinberg 1972, sec. 3 in ch. 7, Goenner 2004, sec. 7.2, and Trautman 2006, respectively Brans, C. H.; Dicke, R. H. (1961), "Mach's Principle and a Relativistic Theory of Gravitation", Physical Review, 124 (3): 925–935, Bibcode:1961PhRv..124..925B, doi:10.1103/PhysRev.124.925 Weinberg, Steven (1972), Gravitation and Cosmology: Principles and Applications of the General Theory of Relativity, John Wiley, Bibcode:1972gcpa.book.....W, ISBN 978-0-471-92567-5 Goenner, Hubert F. M. (2004), "On the History of Unified Field Theories", Living Reviews in Relativity, 7 (1): 2, Bibcode:2004LRR.....7....2G, doi:10.12942/lrr-2004-2, PMC 5256024, PMID 28179864 Trautman, Andrzej (2006), "Einstein–Cartan theory", in Françoise, J.-P.; Naber, G. L.; Tsou, S. T. (eds.), Encyclopedia of Mathematical Physics, Vol. 2, Elsevier, pp. 189–195, arXiv:gr-qc/0606062, Bibcode:2006gr.qc.....6062T
At least approximately, cf. Poisson 2004a Poisson, Eric (27 May 2004a). "The Motion of Point Particles in Curved Spacetime". Living Reviews in Relativity. 7 (1). 6. arXiv:gr-qc/0306052. Bibcode:2004LRR.....7....6P. doi:10.12942/lrr-2004-6. PMC 5256043. PMID 28179866.
Will 2006, sec. 3.2, Will 1993, ch. 4 Will, Clifford M. (2006), "The Confrontation between General Relativity and Experiment", Living Reviews in Relativity, 9 (1): 3, arXiv:gr-qc/0510072, Bibcode:2006LRR.....9....3W, doi:10.12942/lrr-2006-3, PMC 5256066, PMID 28179873 Will, Clifford M. (1993), Theory and experiment in gravitational physics, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0-521-43973-2
Starting with the Hafele–Keating experiment, Hafele & Keating 1972a and Hafele & Keating 1972b, and culminating in the Gravity Probe A experiment; an overview of experiments can be found in Ohanian & Ruffini 1994, table 4.1 on p. 186 Hafele, J. C.; Keating, R. E. (14 July 1972). "Around-the-World Atomic Clocks: Predicted Relativistic Time Gains". Science. 177 (4044): 166–168. Bibcode:1972Sci...177..166H. doi:10.1126/science.177.4044.166. PMID 17779917. S2CID 10067969. Hafele, J. C.; Keating, R. E. (14 July 1972). "Around-the-World Atomic Clocks: Observed Relativistic Time Gains". Science. 177 (4044): 168–170. Bibcode:1972Sci...177..168H. doi:10.1126/science.177.4044.168. PMID 17779918. S2CID 37376002. Ohanian, Hans C.; Ruffini, Remo (1994), Gravitation and Spacetime, W. W. Norton & Company, ISBN 978-0-393-96501-8
GPS is continually tested by comparing atomic clocks on the ground and aboard orbiting satellites; for an account of relativistic effects, see Ashby 2002 and Ashby 2003 Ashby, Neil (2002), "Relativity and the Global Positioning System" (PDF), Physics Today, 55 (5): 41–47, Bibcode:2002PhT....55e..41A, doi:10.1063/1.1485583 Ashby, Neil (2003), "Relativity in the Global Positioning System", Living Reviews in Relativity, 6 (1): 1, Bibcode:2003LRR.....6....1A, doi:10.12942/lrr-2003-1, PMC 5253894, PMID 28163638
Stairs 2003 and Kramer 2004 Stairs, Ingrid H. (2003), "Testing General Relativity with Pulsar Timing", Living Reviews in Relativity, 6 (1): 5, arXiv:astro-ph/0307536, Bibcode:2003LRR.....6....5S, doi:10.12942/lrr-2003-5, PMC 5253800, PMID 28163640 Kramer, Michael (2004). "Millisecond Pulsarsas Tools of Fundamental Physics". In Karshenboim, S. G.; Peik, E. (eds.). Astrophysics, Clocks and Fundamental Constants. Lecture Notes in Physics. Vol. 648. pp. 33–54. arXiv:astro-ph/0405178. Bibcode:2004LNP...648...33K. doi:10.1007/978-3-540-40991-5_3. ISBN 978-3-540-21967-5.
Cf. Kennefick 2005 for the classic early measurements by Arthur Eddington's expeditions. For an overview of more recent measurements, see Ohanian & Ruffini 1994, ch. 4.3. For the most precise direct modern observations using quasars, cf. Shapiro et al. 2004 Kennefick, Daniel (2005), "Astronomers Test General Relativity: Light-bending and the Solar Redshift", in Renn, Jürgen (ed.), One hundred authors for Einstein, Wiley-VCH, pp. 178–181, ISBN 978-3-527-40574-9 Ohanian, Hans C.; Ruffini, Remo (1994), Gravitation and Spacetime, W. W. Norton & Company, ISBN 978-0-393-96501-8 Shapiro, S. S.; Davis, J. L.; Lebach, D. E.; Gregory, J. S. (2004), "Measurement of the solar gravitational deflection of radio waves using geodetic very-long-baseline interferometry data, 1979–1999", Phys. Rev. Lett., 92 (12): 121101, Bibcode:2004PhRvL..92l1101S, doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.92.121101, PMID 15089661
Blanchet 2006, sec. 1.3 Blanchet, Luc (2006), "Gravitational Radiation from Post-Newtonian Sources and Inspiralling Compact Binaries", Living Reviews in Relativity, 9 (1): 4, Bibcode:2006LRR.....9....4B, doi:10.12942/lrr-2006-4, PMC 5255899, PMID 28179874
For the Sun's gravitational field using radar signals reflected from planets such as Venus and Mercury, cf. Shapiro 1964, Weinberg 1972, ch. 8, sec. 7; for signals actively sent back by space probes (transponder measurements), cf. Bertotti, Iess & Tortora 2003; for an overview, see Ohanian & Ruffini 1994, table 4.4 on p. 200; for more recent measurements using signals received from a pulsar that is part of a binary system, the gravitational field causing the time delay being that of the other pulsar, cf. Stairs 2003, sec. 4.4 Shapiro, Irwin I. (1964), "Fourth test of general relativity", Phys. Rev. Lett., 13 (26): 789–791, Bibcode:1964PhRvL..13..789S, doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.13.789 Weinberg, Steven (1972), Gravitation and Cosmology: Principles and Applications of the General Theory of Relativity, John Wiley, Bibcode:1972gcpa.book.....W, ISBN 978-0-471-92567-5 Bertotti, Bruno; Iess, L.; Tortora, P. (2003), "A test of general relativity using radio links with the Cassini spacecraft", Nature, 425 (6956): 374–376, Bibcode:2003Natur.425..374B, doi:10.1038/nature01997, PMID 14508481, S2CID 4337125 Ohanian, Hans C.; Ruffini, Remo (1994), Gravitation and Spacetime, W. W. Norton & Company, ISBN 978-0-393-96501-8 Stairs, Ingrid H. (2003), "Testing General Relativity with Pulsar Timing", Living Reviews in Relativity, 6 (1): 5, arXiv:astro-ph/0307536, Bibcode:2003LRR.....6....5S, doi:10.12942/lrr-2003-5, PMC 5253800, PMID 28163640
B. P. Abbott; et al. (LIGO Scientific Collaboration and Virgo Collaboration) (2016). "Observation of Gravitational Waves from a Binary Black Hole Merger". Physical Review Letters. 116 (6): 061102. arXiv:1602.03837. Bibcode:2016PhRvL.116f1102A. doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.116.061102. PMID 26918975. S2CID 124959784.
For example Jaranowski & Królak 2005 Jaranowski, Piotr; Królak, Andrzej (2005), "Gravitational-Wave Data Analysis. Formalism and Sample Applications: The Gaussian Case", Living Reviews in Relativity, 8 (1): 3, Bibcode:2005LRR.....8....3J, doi:10.12942/lrr-2005-3, PMC 5253919, PMID 28163647
In consequence, in the parameterized post-Newtonian formalism (PPN), measurements of this effect determine a linear combination of the terms β and γ, cf. Will 2006, sec. 3.5 and Will 1993, sec. 7.3 Will, Clifford M. (2006), "The Confrontation between General Relativity and Experiment", Living Reviews in Relativity, 9 (1): 3, arXiv:gr-qc/0510072, Bibcode:2006LRR.....9....3W, doi:10.12942/lrr-2006-3, PMC 5256066, PMID 28179873 Will, Clifford M. (1993), Theory and experiment in gravitational physics, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0-521-43973-2
The most precise measurements are VLBI measurements of planetary positions; see Will 1993, ch. 5, Will 2006, sec. 3.5, Anderson et al. 1992; for an overview, Ohanian & Ruffini 1994, pp. 406–407 Will, Clifford M. (1993), Theory and experiment in gravitational physics, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0-521-43973-2 Will, Clifford M. (2006), "The Confrontation between General Relativity and Experiment", Living Reviews in Relativity, 9 (1): 3, arXiv:gr-qc/0510072, Bibcode:2006LRR.....9....3W, doi:10.12942/lrr-2006-3, PMC 5256066, PMID 28179873 Anderson, J. D.; Campbell, J. K.; Jurgens, R. F.; Lau, E. L. (1992), "Recent developments in solar-system tests of general relativity", in Sato, H.; Nakamura, T. (eds.), Proceedings of the Sixth Marcel Grossmann Meeting on General Relativity, World Scientific, pp. 353–355, ISBN 978-981-02-0950-6 Ohanian, Hans C.; Ruffini, Remo (1994), Gravitation and Spacetime, W. W. Norton & Company, ISBN 978-0-393-96501-8
Kramer et al. 2006 Kramer, M.; Stairs, I. H.; Manchester, R. N.; McLaughlin, M. A.; Lyne, A. G.; Ferdman, R. D.; Burgay, M.; Lorimer, D. R.; et al. (2006), "Tests of general relativity from timing the double pulsar", Science, 314 (5796): 97–102, arXiv:astro-ph/0609417, Bibcode:2006Sci...314...97K, doi:10.1126/science.1132305, PMID 16973838, S2CID 6674714
Stairs 2003, Schutz 2003, pp. 317–321, Bartusiak 2000, pp. 70–86 Stairs, Ingrid H. (2003), "Testing General Relativity with Pulsar Timing", Living Reviews in Relativity, 6 (1): 5, arXiv:astro-ph/0307536, Bibcode:2003LRR.....6....5S, doi:10.12942/lrr-2003-5, PMC 5253800, PMID 28163640 Schutz, Bernard F. (2003), Gravity from the ground up, Cambridge University Press, Bibcode:2003ggu..book.....S, ISBN 978-0-521-45506-0 Bartusiak, Marcia (2000), Einstein's Unfinished Symphony: Listening to the Sounds of Space-Time, Berkley, ISBN 978-0-425-18620-6
Bertotti, Ciufolini & Bender 1987, Nordtvedt 2003 Bertotti, Bruno; Ciufolini, Ignazio; Bender, Peter L. (1987), "New test of general relativity: Measurement of de Sitter geodetic precession rate for lunar perigee", Physical Review Letters, 58 (11): 1062–1065, Bibcode:1987PhRvL..58.1062B, doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.58.1062, PMID 10034329 Nordtvedt, Kenneth (2003). "Lunar Laser Ranging—a comprehensive probe of post-Newtonian gravity". arXiv:gr-qc/0301024.
Ciufolini & Pavlis 2004, Ciufolini, Pavlis & Peron 2006, Iorio 2009 Ciufolini, Ignazio; Pavlis, Erricos C. (2004), "A confirmation of the general relativistic prediction of the Lense–Thirring effect", Nature, 431 (7011): 958–960, Bibcode:2004Natur.431..958C, doi:10.1038/nature03007, PMID 15496915, S2CID 4423434 Ciufolini, Ignazio; Pavlis, Erricos C.; Peron, R. (2006), "Determination of frame-dragging using Earth gravity models from CHAMP and GRACE", New Astron., 11 (8): 527–550, Bibcode:2006NewA...11..527C, doi:10.1016/j.newast.2006.02.001 Iorio, L. (2009), "An Assessment of the Systematic Uncertainty in Present and Future Tests of the Lense–Thirring Effect with Satellite Laser Ranging", Space Sci. Rev., 148 (1–4): 363–381, arXiv:0809.1373, Bibcode:2009SSRv..148..363I, doi:10.1007/s11214-008-9478-1, S2CID 15698399
For overviews of gravitational lensing and its applications, see Ehlers, Falco & Schneider 1992 and Wambsganss 1998 Ehlers, Jürgen; Falco, Emilio E.; Schneider, Peter (1992), Gravitational lenses, Springer, ISBN 978-3-540-66506-9 Wambsganss, Joachim (1998), "Gravitational Lensing in Astronomy", Living Reviews in Relativity, 1 (1): 12, arXiv:astro-ph/9812021, Bibcode:1998LRR.....1...12W, doi:10.12942/lrr-1998-12, PMC 5567250, PMID 28937183
Walsh, Carswell & Weymann 1979 Walsh, D.; Carswell, R. F.; Weymann, R. J. (1979), "0957 + 561 A, B: twin quasistellar objects or gravitational lens?", Nature, 279 (5712): 381–4, Bibcode:1979Natur.279..381W, doi:10.1038/279381a0, PMID 16068158, S2CID 2142707
Hough & Rowan 2000 Hough, Jim; Rowan, Sheila (2000), "Gravitational Wave Detection by Interferometry (Ground and Space)", Living Reviews in Relativity, 3 (1): 3, Bibcode:2000LRR.....3....3R, doi:10.12942/lrr-2000-3, PMC 5255574, PMID 28179855
Springel et al. 2005 and the accompanying summary Gnedin 2005 Springel, Volker; White, Simon D. M.; Jenkins, Adrian; Frenk, Carlos S.; Yoshida, Naoki; Gao, Liang; Navarro, Julio; Thacker, Robert; et al. (2005), "Simulations of the formation, evolution and clustering of galaxies and quasars", Nature, 435 (7042): 629–636, arXiv:astro-ph/0504097, Bibcode:2005Natur.435..629S, doi:10.1038/nature03597, PMID 15931216, S2CID 4383030 Gnedin, Nickolay Y. (2005), "Digitizing the Universe", Nature, 435 (7042): 572–573, Bibcode:2005Natur.435..572G, doi:10.1038/435572a, PMID 15931201, S2CID 3023436
For stellar end states, cf. Oppenheimer & Snyder 1939 or, for more recent numerical work, Font 2003, sec. 4.1; for supernovae, there are still major problems to be solved, cf. Buras et al. 2003; for simulating accretion and the formation of jets, cf. Font 2003, sec. 4.2. Also, relativistic lensing effects are thought to play a role for the signals received from X-ray pulsars, cf. Kraus 1998 Oppenheimer, J. Robert; Snyder, H. (1939), "On continued gravitational contraction", Physical Review, 56 (5): 455–459, Bibcode:1939PhRv...56..455O, doi:10.1103/PhysRev.56.455 Font, José A. (2003), "Numerical Hydrodynamics in General Relativity", Living Reviews in Relativity, 6 (1): 4, Bibcode:2003LRR.....6....4F, doi:10.12942/lrr-2003-4, PMC 5660627, PMID 29104452 Buras, R.; Rampp, M.; Janka, H.-Th.; Kifonidis, K. (2003), "Improved Models of Stellar Core Collapse and Still no Explosions: What is Missing?", Phys. Rev. Lett., 90 (24): 241101, arXiv:astro-ph/0303171, Bibcode:2003PhRvL..90x1101B, doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.90.241101, PMID 12857181, S2CID 27632148 Font, José A. (2003), "Numerical Hydrodynamics in General Relativity", Living Reviews in Relativity, 6 (1): 4, Bibcode:2003LRR.....6....4F, doi:10.12942/lrr-2003-4, PMC 5660627, PMID 29104452 Kraus, Ute (1998), "Light Deflection Near Neutron Stars", Relativistic Astrophysics, Vieweg, pp. 66–81, ISBN 978-3-528-06909-4
The evidence includes limits on compactness from the observation of accretion-driven phenomena ("Eddington luminosity"), see Celotti, Miller & Sciama 1999, observations of stellar dynamics in the center of our own Milky Way galaxy, cf. Schödel et al. 2003, and indications that at least some of the compact objects in question appear to have no solid surface, which can be deduced from the examination of X-ray bursts for which the central compact object is either a neutron star or a black hole; cf. Remillard et al. 2006 for an overview, Narayan 2006, sec. 5. Observations of the "shadow" of the Milky Way galaxy's central black hole horizon are eagerly sought for, cf. Falcke, Melia & Agol 2000 Celotti, Annalisa; Miller, John C.; Sciama, Dennis W. (1999), "Astrophysical evidence for the existence of black holes", Class. Quantum Grav., 16 (12A): A3 – A21, arXiv:astro-ph/9912186, Bibcode:1999CQGra..16A...3C, doi:10.1088/0264-9381/16/12A/301, S2CID 17677758 Schödel, R.; Ott, T.; Genzel, R.; Eckart, A.; Mouawad, N.; Alexander, T. (2003), "Stellar Dynamics in the Central Arcsecond of Our Galaxy", Astrophysical Journal, 596 (2): 1015–1034, arXiv:astro-ph/0306214, Bibcode:2003ApJ...596.1015S, doi:10.1086/378122, S2CID 17719367 Remillard, Ronald A.; Lin, Dacheng; Cooper, Randall L.; Narayan, Ramesh (2006), "The Rates of Type I X-Ray Bursts from Transients Observed with RXTE: Evidence for Black Hole Event Horizons", Astrophysical Journal, 646 (1): 407–419, arXiv:astro-ph/0509758, Bibcode:2006ApJ...646..407R, doi:10.1086/504862, S2CID 14949527 Narayan, Ramesh (2006), "Black holes in astrophysics", New Journal of Physics, 7 (1): 199, arXiv:gr-qc/0506078, Bibcode:2005NJPh....7..199N, doi:10.1088/1367-2630/7/1/199, S2CID 17986323 Falcke, Heino; Melia, Fulvio; Agol, Eric (2000), "Viewing the Shadow of the Black Hole at the Galactic Center", Astrophysical Journal, 528 (1): L13 – L16, arXiv:astro-ph/9912263, Bibcode:2000ApJ...528L..13F, doi:10.1086/312423, PMID 10587484, S2CID 119433133
Carroll 2001, ch. 2 Carroll, Sean M. (2001), "The Cosmological Constant", Living Reviews in Relativity, 4 (1): 1, arXiv:astro-ph/0004075, Bibcode:2001LRR.....4....1C, doi:10.12942/lrr-2001-1, PMC 5256042, PMID 28179856
These tests involve the separate observations detailed further on, see, e.g., fig. 2 in Bridle et al. 2003 Bridle, Sarah L.; Lahav, Ofer; Ostriker, Jeremiah P.; Steinhardt, Paul J. (2003), "Precision Cosmology? Not Just Yet", Science, 299 (5612): 1532–1533, arXiv:astro-ph/0303180, Bibcode:2003Sci...299.1532B, doi:10.1126/science.1082158, PMID 12624255, S2CID 119368762
Peebles 1966; for a recent account of predictions, see Coc, Vangioni‐Flam et al. 2004; an accessible account can be found in Weiss 2006; compare with the observations in Olive & Skillman 2004, Bania, Rood & Balser 2002, O'Meara et al. 2001, and Charbonnel & Primas 2005 Peebles, P. J. E. (1966), "Primordial Helium abundance and primordial fireball II", Astrophysical Journal, 146: 542–552, Bibcode:1966ApJ...146..542P, doi:10.1086/148918 Coc, A.; Vangioni-Flam, Elisabeth; Descouvemont, Pierre; Adahchour, Abderrahim; Angulo, Carmen (2004), "Updated Big Bang Nucleosynthesis confronted to WMAP observations and to the Abundance of Light Elements", Astrophysical Journal, 600 (2): 544–552, arXiv:astro-ph/0309480, Bibcode:2004ApJ...600..544C, doi:10.1086/380121, S2CID 16276658 Weiss, Achim (2006), "Elements of the past: Big Bang Nucleosynthesis and observation", Einstein Online, Max Planck Institute for Gravitational Physics, archived from the original on 8 February 2007, retrieved 24 February 2007 Olive, K. A.; Skillman, E. A. (2004), "A Realistic Determination of the Error on the Primordial Helium Abundance", Astrophysical Journal, 617 (1): 29–49, arXiv:astro-ph/0405588, Bibcode:2004ApJ...617...29O, doi:10.1086/425170, S2CID 15187664 Bania, T. M.; Rood, R. T.; Balser, D. S. (2002), "The cosmological density of baryons from observations of 3He+ in the Milky Way", Nature, 415 (6867): 54–57, Bibcode:2002Natur.415...54B, doi:10.1038/415054a, PMID 11780112, S2CID 4303625 O'Meara, John M.; Tytler, David; Kirkman, David; Suzuki, Nao; Prochaska, Jason X.; Lubin, Dan; Wolfe, Arthur M. (2001), "The Deuterium to Hydrogen Abundance Ratio Towards a Fourth QSO: HS0105+1619", Astrophysical Journal, 552 (2): 718–730, arXiv:astro-ph/0011179, Bibcode:2001ApJ...552..718O, doi:10.1086/320579, S2CID 14164537 Charbonnel, C.; Primas, F. (2005), "The Lithium Content of the Galactic Halo Stars", Astronomy & Astrophysics, 442 (3): 961–992, arXiv:astro-ph/0505247, Bibcode:2005A&A...442..961C, doi:10.1051/0004-6361:20042491, S2CID 119340132
Lahav & Suto 2004, Bertschinger 1998, Springel et al. 2005 Lahav, Ofer; Suto, Yasushi (2004), "Measuring our Universe from Galaxy Redshift Surveys", Living Reviews in Relativity, 7 (1): 8, arXiv:astro-ph/0310642, Bibcode:2004LRR.....7....8L, doi:10.12942/lrr-2004-8, PMC 5253994, PMID 28163643 Bertschinger, Edmund (1998), "Simulations of structure formation in the universe", Annu. Rev. Astron. Astrophys., 36 (1): 599–654, Bibcode:1998ARA&A..36..599B, doi:10.1146/annurev.astro.36.1.599 Springel, Volker; White, Simon D. M.; Jenkins, Adrian; Frenk, Carlos S.; Yoshida, Naoki; Gao, Liang; Navarro, Julio; Thacker, Robert; et al. (2005), "Simulations of the formation, evolution and clustering of galaxies and quasars", Nature, 435 (7042): 629–636, arXiv:astro-ph/0504097, Bibcode:2005Natur.435..629S, doi:10.1038/nature03597, PMID 15931216, S2CID 4383030
Evidence for this comes from the determination of cosmological parameters and additional observations involving the dynamics of galaxies and galaxy clusters cf. Peebles 1993, ch. 18, evidence from gravitational lensing, cf. Peacock 1999, sec. 4.6, and simulations of large-scale structure formation, see Springel et al. 2005 Peebles, P. J. E. (1993), Principles of physical cosmology, Princeton University Press, ISBN 978-0-691-01933-8 Peacock, John A. (1999), Cosmological Physics, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0-521-41072-4 Springel, Volker; White, Simon D. M.; Jenkins, Adrian; Frenk, Carlos S.; Yoshida, Naoki; Gao, Liang; Navarro, Julio; Thacker, Robert; et al. (2005), "Simulations of the formation, evolution and clustering of galaxies and quasars", Nature, 435 (7042): 629–636, arXiv:astro-ph/0504097, Bibcode:2005Natur.435..629S, doi:10.1038/nature03597, PMID 15931216, S2CID 4383030
Carroll 2001; an accessible overview is given in Caldwell 2004. Here, too, scientists have argued that the evidence indicates not a new form of energy, but the need for modifications in our cosmological models, cf. Mannheim 2006, sec. 10; aforementioned modifications need not be modifications of general relativity, they could, for example, be modifications in the way we treat the inhomogeneities in the universe, cf. Buchert 2008 Carroll, Sean M. (2001), "The Cosmological Constant", Living Reviews in Relativity, 4 (1): 1, arXiv:astro-ph/0004075, Bibcode:2001LRR.....4....1C, doi:10.12942/lrr-2001-1, PMC 5256042, PMID 28179856 Caldwell, Robert R. (2004), "Dark Energy", Physics World, 17 (5): 37–42, doi:10.1088/2058-7058/17/5/36 Mannheim, Philip D. (2006), "Alternatives to Dark Matter and Dark Energy", Prog. Part. Nucl. Phys., 56 (2): 340–445, arXiv:astro-ph/0505266, Bibcode:2006PrPNP..56..340M, doi:10.1016/j.ppnp.2005.08.001, S2CID 14024934 Buchert, Thomas (2008), "Dark Energy from Structure—A Status Report", General Relativity and Gravitation, 40 (2–3): 467–527, arXiv:0707.2153, Bibcode:2008GReGr..40..467B, doi:10.1007/s10714-007-0554-8, S2CID 17281664
Frauendiener 2004, Wald 1984, sec. 11.1, Hawking & Ellis 1973, sec. 6.8, 6.9 Frauendiener, Jörg (2004), "Conformal Infinity", Living Reviews in Relativity, 7 (1): 1, Bibcode:2004LRR.....7....1F, doi:10.12942/lrr-2004-1, PMC 5256109, PMID 28179863 Wald, Robert M. (1984), General Relativity, University of Chicago Press, ISBN 978-0-226-87033-5 Hawking, Stephen W.; Ellis, George F. R. (1973), The large scale structure of space-time, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0-521-09906-6
Thorne 1972; for more recent numerical studies, see Berger 2002, sec. 2.1 Thorne, Kip S. (1972), "Nonspherical Gravitational Collapse—A Short Review", in Klauder, J. (ed.), Magic without Magic, W. H. Freeman, pp. 231–258 Berger, Beverly K. (2002), "Numerical Approaches to Spacetime Singularities", Living Reviews in Relativity, 5 (1): 1, arXiv:gr-qc/0201056, Bibcode:2002LRR.....5....1B, doi:10.12942/lrr-2002-1, PMC 5256073, PMID 28179859
Israel 1987. A more exact mathematical description distinguishes several kinds of horizon, notably event horizons and apparent horizons cf. Hawking & Ellis 1973, pp. 312–320 or Wald 1984, sec. 12.2; there are also more intuitive definitions for isolated systems that do not require knowledge of spacetime properties at infinity, cf. Ashtekar & Krishnan 2004 Israel, Werner (1987), "Dark stars: the evolution of an idea", in Hawking, Stephen W.; Israel, Werner (eds.), 300 Years of Gravitation, Cambridge University Press, pp. 199–276, ISBN 978-0-521-37976-2 Hawking, Stephen W.; Ellis, George F. R. (1973), The large scale structure of space-time, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0-521-09906-6 Wald, Robert M. (1984), General Relativity, University of Chicago Press, ISBN 978-0-226-87033-5 Ashtekar, Abhay; Krishnan, Badri (2004), "Isolated and Dynamical Horizons and Their Applications", Living Reviews in Relativity, 7 (1): 10, arXiv:gr-qc/0407042, Bibcode:2004LRR.....7...10A, doi:10.12942/lrr-2004-10, PMC 5253930, PMID 28163644
For first steps, cf. Israel 1971; see Hawking & Ellis 1973, sec. 9.3 or Heusler 1996, ch. 9 and 10 for a derivation, and Heusler 1998 as well as Beig & Chruściel 2006 as overviews of more recent results Israel, Werner (1971), "Event Horizons and Gravitational Collapse", General Relativity and Gravitation, 2 (1): 53–59, Bibcode:1971GReGr...2...53I, doi:10.1007/BF02450518, S2CID 119645546 Hawking, Stephen W.; Ellis, George F. R. (1973), The large scale structure of space-time, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0-521-09906-6 Heusler, Markus (1996), "Black Hole Uniqueness Theorems", Cambridge Lecture Notes in Physics, 6, Cambridge University Press, Bibcode:1996CLNP....6.....H, ISBN 978-0-521-56735-0 Heusler, Markus (1998), "Stationary Black Holes: Uniqueness and Beyond", Living Reviews in Relativity, 1 (1): 6, Bibcode:1998LRR.....1....6H, doi:10.12942/lrr-1998-6, PMC 5567259, PMID 28937184 Beig, Robert; Chruściel, Piotr T. (2006), "Stationary black holes", in Françoise, J.-P.; Naber, G.; Tsou, T.S. (eds.), Encyclopedia of Mathematical Physics, Volume 2, Elsevier, p. 2041, arXiv:gr-qc/0502041, Bibcode:2005gr.qc.....2041B, ISBN 978-0-12-512660-1
The laws of black hole mechanics were first described in Bardeen, Carter & Hawking 1973; a more pedagogical presentation can be found in Carter 1979; for a more recent review, see Wald 2001, ch. 2. A thorough, book-length introduction including an introduction to the necessary mathematics Poisson 2004. For the Penrose process, see Penrose 1969 Bardeen, J. M.; Carter, B.; Hawking, S. W. (1973), "The Four Laws of Black Hole Mechanics", Comm. Math. Phys., 31 (2): 161–170, Bibcode:1973CMaPh..31..161B, doi:10.1007/BF01645742, S2CID 54690354 Carter, Brandon (1979), "The general theory of the mechanical, electromagnetic and thermodynamic properties of black holes", in Hawking, S. W.; Israel, W. (eds.), General Relativity, an Einstein Centenary Survey, Cambridge University Press, pp. 294–369 and 860–863, ISBN 978-0-521-29928-2 Wald, Robert M. (2001), "The Thermodynamics of Black Holes", Living Reviews in Relativity, 4 (1): 6, arXiv:gr-qc/9912119, Bibcode:2001LRR.....4....6W, doi:10.12942/lrr-2001-6, PMC 5253844, PMID 28163633 Poisson, Eric (2004), A Relativist's Toolkit. The Mathematics of Black-Hole Mechanics, Cambridge University Press, Bibcode:2004rtmb.book.....P, ISBN 978-0-521-83091-1 Penrose, Roger (1969), "Gravitational collapse: the role of general relativity", Rivista del Nuovo Cimento, 1: 252–276, Bibcode:1969NCimR...1..252P
The fact that black holes radiate, quantum mechanically, was first derived in Hawking 1975; a more thorough derivation can be found in Wald 1975. A review is given in Wald 2001, ch. 3 Hawking, S. W. (1975), "Particle Creation by Black Holes", Communications in Mathematical Physics, 43 (3): 199–220, Bibcode:1975CMaPh..43..199H, doi:10.1007/BF02345020, S2CID 55539246 Wald, Robert M. (1975), "On Particle Creation by Black Holes", Commun. Math. Phys., 45 (3): 9–34, Bibcode:1975CMaPh..45....9W, doi:10.1007/BF01609863, S2CID 120950657 Wald, Robert M. (2001), "The Thermodynamics of Black Holes", Living Reviews in Relativity, 4 (1): 6, arXiv:gr-qc/9912119, Bibcode:2001LRR.....4....6W, doi:10.12942/lrr-2001-6, PMC 5253844, PMID 28163633
Horizons: cf. Rindler 2001, sec. 12.4. Unruh effect: Unruh 1976, cf. Wald 2001, ch. 3 Rindler, Wolfgang (2001), Relativity. Special, General and Cosmological, Oxford University Press, Bibcode:2001rsgc.book.....R, ISBN 978-0-19-850836-6 Unruh, W. G. (1976), "Notes on Black Hole Evaporation", Phys. Rev. D, 14 (4): 870–892, Bibcode:1976PhRvD..14..870U, doi:10.1103/PhysRevD.14.870 Wald, Robert M. (2001), "The Thermodynamics of Black Holes", Living Reviews in Relativity, 4 (1): 6, arXiv:gr-qc/9912119, Bibcode:2001LRR.....4....6W, doi:10.12942/lrr-2001-6, PMC 5253844, PMID 28163633
The conjecture was made in Belinskii, Khalatnikov & Lifschitz 1971; for a more recent review, see Berger 2002. An accessible exposition is given by Garfinkle 2007 Belinskii, V. A.; Khalatnikov, I. M.; Lifschitz, E. M. (1971), "Oscillatory approach to the singular point in relativistic cosmology", Advances in Physics, 19 (80): 525–573, Bibcode:1970AdPhy..19..525B, doi:10.1080/00018737000101171; original paper in Russian: Belinsky, V. A.; Lifshits, I. M.; Khalatnikov, E. M. (1970), "Колебательный Режим Приближения К Особой Точке В Релятивистской Космологии", Uspekhi Fizicheskikh Nauk, 102 (11): 463–500, Bibcode:1970UsFiN.102..463B, doi:10.3367/ufnr.0102.197011d.0463 Berger, Beverly K. (2002), "Numerical Approaches to Spacetime Singularities", Living Reviews in Relativity, 5 (1): 1, arXiv:gr-qc/0201056, Bibcode:2002LRR.....5....1B, doi:10.12942/lrr-2002-1, PMC 5256073, PMID 28179859 Garfinkle, David (2007), "Of singularities and breadmaking", Einstein Online, Max Planck Institute for Gravitational Physics, archived from the original on 10 August 2007, retrieved 3 August 2007
The restriction to future singularities naturally excludes initial singularities such as the big bang singularity, which in principle be visible to observers at later cosmic time. The cosmic censorship conjecture was first presented in Penrose 1969; a textbook-level account is given in Wald 1984, pp. 302–305. For numerical results, see the review Berger 2002, sec. 2.1 Penrose, Roger (1969), "Gravitational collapse: the role of general relativity", Rivista del Nuovo Cimento, 1: 252–276, Bibcode:1969NCimR...1..252P Wald, Robert M. (1984), General Relativity, University of Chicago Press, ISBN 978-0-226-87033-5 Berger, Beverly K. (2002), "Numerical Approaches to Spacetime Singularities", Living Reviews in Relativity, 5 (1): 1, arXiv:gr-qc/0201056, Bibcode:2002LRR.....5....1B, doi:10.12942/lrr-2002-1, PMC 5256073, PMID 28179859
Fourès-Bruhat 1952 and Bruhat 1962; for a pedagogical introduction, see Wald 1984, ch. 10; an online review can be found in Reula 1998 Fourès-Bruhat, Yvonne (1952), "Théoréme d'existence pour certains systémes d'équations aux derivées partielles non linéaires", Acta Mathematica, 88 (1): 141–225, Bibcode:1952AcMa...88..141F, doi:10.1007/BF02392131 Bruhat, Yvonne (1962), "The Cauchy Problem", in Witten, Louis (ed.), Gravitation: An Introduction to Current Research, Wiley, p. 130, ISBN 978-1-114-29166-9 {{citation}}: ISBN / Date incompatibility (help) Wald, Robert M. (1984), General Relativity, University of Chicago Press, ISBN 978-0-226-87033-5 Reula, Oscar A. (1998), "Hyperbolic Methods for Einstein's Equations", Living Reviews in Relativity, 1 (1): 3, Bibcode:1998LRR.....1....3R, doi:10.12942/lrr-1998-3, PMC 5253804, PMID 28191833
Such quasi-local mass–energy definitions are the Hawking energy, Geroch energy, or Penrose's quasi-local energy–momentum based on twistor methods; cf. the review article Szabados 2004 Szabados, László B. (2004), "Quasi-Local Energy–Momentum and Angular Momentum in GR", Living Reviews in Relativity, 7 (1): 4, Bibcode:2004LRR.....7....4S, doi:10.12942/lrr-2004-4, PMC 5255888, PMID 28179865
Wald 2001, ch. 3 Wald, Robert M. (2001), "The Thermodynamics of Black Holes", Living Reviews in Relativity, 4 (1): 6, arXiv:gr-qc/9912119, Bibcode:2001LRR.....4....6W, doi:10.12942/lrr-2001-6, PMC 5253844, PMID 28163633
These variables represent geometric gravity using mathematical analogues of electric and magnetic fields; cf. Ashtekar 1986, Ashtekar 1987 Ashtekar, Abhay (1986), "New variables for classical and quantum gravity", Phys. Rev. Lett., 57 (18): 2244–2247, Bibcode:1986PhRvL..57.2244A, doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.57.2244, PMID 10033673 Ashtekar, Abhay (1987), "New Hamiltonian formulation of general relativity", Phys. Rev. D, 36 (6): 1587–1602, Bibcode:1987PhRvD..36.1587A, doi:10.1103/PhysRevD.36.1587, PMID 9958340
For a review, see Thiemann 2007; more extensive accounts can be found in Rovelli 1998, Ashtekar & Lewandowski 2004 as well as in the lecture notes Thiemann 2003 Thiemann, Thomas (2007), "Loop Quantum Gravity: An Inside View", Approaches to Fundamental Physics, Lecture Notes in Physics, vol. 721, pp. 185–263, arXiv:hep-th/0608210, Bibcode:2007LNP...721..185T, doi:10.1007/978-3-540-71117-9_10, ISBN 978-3-540-71115-5, S2CID 119572847 Rovelli, Carlo (1998), "Loop Quantum Gravity", Living Reviews in Relativity, 1 (1): 1, arXiv:gr-qc/9710008, Bibcode:1998LRR.....1....1R, CiteSeerX 10.1.1.90.7036, doi:10.12942/lrr-1998-1, PMC 5567241, PMID 28937180 Ashtekar, Abhay; Lewandowski, Jerzy (2004), "Background Independent Quantum Gravity: A Status Report", Class. Quantum Grav., 21 (15): R53 – R152, arXiv:gr-qc/0404018, Bibcode:2004CQGra..21R..53A, doi:10.1088/0264-9381/21/15/R01, S2CID 119175535 Thiemann, Thomas (2003). "Lectures on Loop Quantum Gravity". In Domenico J.W. Giulini; Claus Kiefer; Claus Lämmerzahl (eds.). Quantum Gravity: From Theory to Experimental Search. Lecture Notes in Physics. Vol. 631. pp. 41–135. arXiv:gr-qc/0210094. Bibcode:2003LNP...631...41T. doi:10.1007/978-3-540-45230-0_3. ISBN 978-3-540-40810-9. S2CID 119151491.
Loll 1998 Loll, Renate (1998), "Discrete Approaches to Quantum Gravity in Four Dimensions", Living Reviews in Relativity, 1 (1): 13, arXiv:gr-qc/9805049, Bibcode:1998LRR.....1...13L, doi:10.12942/lrr-1998-13, PMC 5253799, PMID 28191826
For the most recent papers on gravitational wave polarizations of inspiralling compact binaries, see Blanchet et al. 2008, and Arun et al. 2008; for a review of work on compact binaries, see Blanchet 2006 and Futamase & Itoh 2006; for a general review of experimental tests of general relativity, see Will 2006 Blanchet, L.; Faye, G.; Iyer, B. R.; Sinha, S. (2008), "The third post-Newtonian gravitational wave polarisations and associated spherical harmonic modes for inspiralling compact binaries in quasi-circular orbits", Classical and Quantum Gravity, 25 (16): 165003, arXiv:0802.1249, Bibcode:2008CQGra..25p5003B, doi:10.1088/0264-9381/25/16/165003, S2CID 54608927 Arun, K.G.; Blanchet, L.; Iyer, B. R.; Qusailah, M. S. S. (2008), "Inspiralling compact binaries in quasi-elliptical orbits: The complete 3PN energy flux", Physical Review D, 77 (6): 064035, arXiv:0711.0302, Bibcode:2008PhRvD..77f4035A, doi:10.1103/PhysRevD.77.064035, S2CID 55825202 Blanchet, Luc (2006), "Gravitational Radiation from Post-Newtonian Sources and Inspiralling Compact Binaries", Living Reviews in Relativity, 9 (1): 4, Bibcode:2006LRR.....9....4B, doi:10.12942/lrr-2006-4, PMC 5255899, PMID 28179874 Futamase, T.; Itoh, Y. (2006), "The Post-Newtonian Approximation for Relativistic Compact Binaries", Living Reviews in Relativity, 10 (1): 2, Bibcode:2007LRR....10....2F, doi:10.12942/lrr-2007-2, PMC 5255906, PMID 28179819 Will, Clifford M. (2006), "The Confrontation between General Relativity and Experiment", Living Reviews in Relativity, 9 (1): 3, arXiv:gr-qc/0510072, Bibcode:2006LRR.....9....3W, doi:10.12942/lrr-2006-3, PMC 5256066, PMID 28179873

ncbi.nlm.nih.gov

Hubble's original article is Hubble 1929; an accessible overview is given in Singh 2004, ch. 2–4 Hubble, Edwin (1929), "A Relation between Distance and Radial Velocity among Extra-Galactic Nebulae", Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci., 15 (3): 168–173, Bibcode:1929PNAS...15..168H, doi:10.1073/pnas.15.3.168, PMC 522427, PMID 16577160 Singh, Simon (2004), Big Bang: The Origin of the Universe, Fourth Estate, Bibcode:2004biba.book.....S, ISBN 978-0-00-715251-3
Will 1993, sec. 2.4, Will 2006, sec. 2 Will, Clifford M. (1993), Theory and experiment in gravitational physics, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0-521-43973-2 Will, Clifford M. (2006), "The Confrontation between General Relativity and Experiment", Living Reviews in Relativity, 9 (1): 3, arXiv:gr-qc/0510072, Bibcode:2006LRR.....9....3W, doi:10.12942/lrr-2006-3, PMC 5256066, PMID 28179873
Brans & Dicke 1961, Weinberg 1972, sec. 3 in ch. 7, Goenner 2004, sec. 7.2, and Trautman 2006, respectively Brans, C. H.; Dicke, R. H. (1961), "Mach's Principle and a Relativistic Theory of Gravitation", Physical Review, 124 (3): 925–935, Bibcode:1961PhRv..124..925B, doi:10.1103/PhysRev.124.925 Weinberg, Steven (1972), Gravitation and Cosmology: Principles and Applications of the General Theory of Relativity, John Wiley, Bibcode:1972gcpa.book.....W, ISBN 978-0-471-92567-5 Goenner, Hubert F. M. (2004), "On the History of Unified Field Theories", Living Reviews in Relativity, 7 (1): 2, Bibcode:2004LRR.....7....2G, doi:10.12942/lrr-2004-2, PMC 5256024, PMID 28179864 Trautman, Andrzej (2006), "Einstein–Cartan theory", in Françoise, J.-P.; Naber, G. L.; Tsou, S. T. (eds.), Encyclopedia of Mathematical Physics, Vol. 2, Elsevier, pp. 189–195, arXiv:gr-qc/0606062, Bibcode:2006gr.qc.....6062T
At least approximately, cf. Poisson 2004a Poisson, Eric (27 May 2004a). "The Motion of Point Particles in Curved Spacetime". Living Reviews in Relativity. 7 (1). 6. arXiv:gr-qc/0306052. Bibcode:2004LRR.....7....6P. doi:10.12942/lrr-2004-6. PMC 5256043. PMID 28179866.
Will 2006, sec. 3.2, Will 1993, ch. 4 Will, Clifford M. (2006), "The Confrontation between General Relativity and Experiment", Living Reviews in Relativity, 9 (1): 3, arXiv:gr-qc/0510072, Bibcode:2006LRR.....9....3W, doi:10.12942/lrr-2006-3, PMC 5256066, PMID 28179873 Will, Clifford M. (1993), Theory and experiment in gravitational physics, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0-521-43973-2
GPS is continually tested by comparing atomic clocks on the ground and aboard orbiting satellites; for an account of relativistic effects, see Ashby 2002 and Ashby 2003 Ashby, Neil (2002), "Relativity and the Global Positioning System" (PDF), Physics Today, 55 (5): 41–47, Bibcode:2002PhT....55e..41A, doi:10.1063/1.1485583 Ashby, Neil (2003), "Relativity in the Global Positioning System", Living Reviews in Relativity, 6 (1): 1, Bibcode:2003LRR.....6....1A, doi:10.12942/lrr-2003-1, PMC 5253894, PMID 28163638
Stairs 2003 and Kramer 2004 Stairs, Ingrid H. (2003), "Testing General Relativity with Pulsar Timing", Living Reviews in Relativity, 6 (1): 5, arXiv:astro-ph/0307536, Bibcode:2003LRR.....6....5S, doi:10.12942/lrr-2003-5, PMC 5253800, PMID 28163640 Kramer, Michael (2004). "Millisecond Pulsarsas Tools of Fundamental Physics". In Karshenboim, S. G.; Peik, E. (eds.). Astrophysics, Clocks and Fundamental Constants. Lecture Notes in Physics. Vol. 648. pp. 33–54. arXiv:astro-ph/0405178. Bibcode:2004LNP...648...33K. doi:10.1007/978-3-540-40991-5_3. ISBN 978-3-540-21967-5.
Blanchet 2006, sec. 1.3 Blanchet, Luc (2006), "Gravitational Radiation from Post-Newtonian Sources and Inspiralling Compact Binaries", Living Reviews in Relativity, 9 (1): 4, Bibcode:2006LRR.....9....4B, doi:10.12942/lrr-2006-4, PMC 5255899, PMID 28179874
For the Sun's gravitational field using radar signals reflected from planets such as Venus and Mercury, cf. Shapiro 1964, Weinberg 1972, ch. 8, sec. 7; for signals actively sent back by space probes (transponder measurements), cf. Bertotti, Iess & Tortora 2003; for an overview, see Ohanian & Ruffini 1994, table 4.4 on p. 200; for more recent measurements using signals received from a pulsar that is part of a binary system, the gravitational field causing the time delay being that of the other pulsar, cf. Stairs 2003, sec. 4.4 Shapiro, Irwin I. (1964), "Fourth test of general relativity", Phys. Rev. Lett., 13 (26): 789–791, Bibcode:1964PhRvL..13..789S, doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.13.789 Weinberg, Steven (1972), Gravitation and Cosmology: Principles and Applications of the General Theory of Relativity, John Wiley, Bibcode:1972gcpa.book.....W, ISBN 978-0-471-92567-5 Bertotti, Bruno; Iess, L.; Tortora, P. (2003), "A test of general relativity using radio links with the Cassini spacecraft", Nature, 425 (6956): 374–376, Bibcode:2003Natur.425..374B, doi:10.1038/nature01997, PMID 14508481, S2CID 4337125 Ohanian, Hans C.; Ruffini, Remo (1994), Gravitation and Spacetime, W. W. Norton & Company, ISBN 978-0-393-96501-8 Stairs, Ingrid H. (2003), "Testing General Relativity with Pulsar Timing", Living Reviews in Relativity, 6 (1): 5, arXiv:astro-ph/0307536, Bibcode:2003LRR.....6....5S, doi:10.12942/lrr-2003-5, PMC 5253800, PMID 28163640
For example Jaranowski & Królak 2005 Jaranowski, Piotr; Królak, Andrzej (2005), "Gravitational-Wave Data Analysis. Formalism and Sample Applications: The Gaussian Case", Living Reviews in Relativity, 8 (1): 3, Bibcode:2005LRR.....8....3J, doi:10.12942/lrr-2005-3, PMC 5253919, PMID 28163647
In consequence, in the parameterized post-Newtonian formalism (PPN), measurements of this effect determine a linear combination of the terms β and γ, cf. Will 2006, sec. 3.5 and Will 1993, sec. 7.3 Will, Clifford M. (2006), "The Confrontation between General Relativity and Experiment", Living Reviews in Relativity, 9 (1): 3, arXiv:gr-qc/0510072, Bibcode:2006LRR.....9....3W, doi:10.12942/lrr-2006-3, PMC 5256066, PMID 28179873 Will, Clifford M. (1993), Theory and experiment in gravitational physics, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0-521-43973-2
The most precise measurements are VLBI measurements of planetary positions; see Will 1993, ch. 5, Will 2006, sec. 3.5, Anderson et al. 1992; for an overview, Ohanian & Ruffini 1994, pp. 406–407 Will, Clifford M. (1993), Theory and experiment in gravitational physics, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0-521-43973-2 Will, Clifford M. (2006), "The Confrontation between General Relativity and Experiment", Living Reviews in Relativity, 9 (1): 3, arXiv:gr-qc/0510072, Bibcode:2006LRR.....9....3W, doi:10.12942/lrr-2006-3, PMC 5256066, PMID 28179873 Anderson, J. D.; Campbell, J. K.; Jurgens, R. F.; Lau, E. L. (1992), "Recent developments in solar-system tests of general relativity", in Sato, H.; Nakamura, T. (eds.), Proceedings of the Sixth Marcel Grossmann Meeting on General Relativity, World Scientific, pp. 353–355, ISBN 978-981-02-0950-6 Ohanian, Hans C.; Ruffini, Remo (1994), Gravitation and Spacetime, W. W. Norton & Company, ISBN 978-0-393-96501-8
Stairs 2003, Schutz 2003, pp. 317–321, Bartusiak 2000, pp. 70–86 Stairs, Ingrid H. (2003), "Testing General Relativity with Pulsar Timing", Living Reviews in Relativity, 6 (1): 5, arXiv:astro-ph/0307536, Bibcode:2003LRR.....6....5S, doi:10.12942/lrr-2003-5, PMC 5253800, PMID 28163640 Schutz, Bernard F. (2003), Gravity from the ground up, Cambridge University Press, Bibcode:2003ggu..book.....S, ISBN 978-0-521-45506-0 Bartusiak, Marcia (2000), Einstein's Unfinished Symphony: Listening to the Sounds of Space-Time, Berkley, ISBN 978-0-425-18620-6
For overviews of gravitational lensing and its applications, see Ehlers, Falco & Schneider 1992 and Wambsganss 1998 Ehlers, Jürgen; Falco, Emilio E.; Schneider, Peter (1992), Gravitational lenses, Springer, ISBN 978-3-540-66506-9 Wambsganss, Joachim (1998), "Gravitational Lensing in Astronomy", Living Reviews in Relativity, 1 (1): 12, arXiv:astro-ph/9812021, Bibcode:1998LRR.....1...12W, doi:10.12942/lrr-1998-12, PMC 5567250, PMID 28937183
Hough & Rowan 2000 Hough, Jim; Rowan, Sheila (2000), "Gravitational Wave Detection by Interferometry (Ground and Space)", Living Reviews in Relativity, 3 (1): 3, Bibcode:2000LRR.....3....3R, doi:10.12942/lrr-2000-3, PMC 5255574, PMID 28179855
For stellar end states, cf. Oppenheimer & Snyder 1939 or, for more recent numerical work, Font 2003, sec. 4.1; for supernovae, there are still major problems to be solved, cf. Buras et al. 2003; for simulating accretion and the formation of jets, cf. Font 2003, sec. 4.2. Also, relativistic lensing effects are thought to play a role for the signals received from X-ray pulsars, cf. Kraus 1998 Oppenheimer, J. Robert; Snyder, H. (1939), "On continued gravitational contraction", Physical Review, 56 (5): 455–459, Bibcode:1939PhRv...56..455O, doi:10.1103/PhysRev.56.455 Font, José A. (2003), "Numerical Hydrodynamics in General Relativity", Living Reviews in Relativity, 6 (1): 4, Bibcode:2003LRR.....6....4F, doi:10.12942/lrr-2003-4, PMC 5660627, PMID 29104452 Buras, R.; Rampp, M.; Janka, H.-Th.; Kifonidis, K. (2003), "Improved Models of Stellar Core Collapse and Still no Explosions: What is Missing?", Phys. Rev. Lett., 90 (24): 241101, arXiv:astro-ph/0303171, Bibcode:2003PhRvL..90x1101B, doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.90.241101, PMID 12857181, S2CID 27632148 Font, José A. (2003), "Numerical Hydrodynamics in General Relativity", Living Reviews in Relativity, 6 (1): 4, Bibcode:2003LRR.....6....4F, doi:10.12942/lrr-2003-4, PMC 5660627, PMID 29104452 Kraus, Ute (1998), "Light Deflection Near Neutron Stars", Relativistic Astrophysics, Vieweg, pp. 66–81, ISBN 978-3-528-06909-4
Carroll 2001, ch. 2 Carroll, Sean M. (2001), "The Cosmological Constant", Living Reviews in Relativity, 4 (1): 1, arXiv:astro-ph/0004075, Bibcode:2001LRR.....4....1C, doi:10.12942/lrr-2001-1, PMC 5256042, PMID 28179856
Lahav & Suto 2004, Bertschinger 1998, Springel et al. 2005 Lahav, Ofer; Suto, Yasushi (2004), "Measuring our Universe from Galaxy Redshift Surveys", Living Reviews in Relativity, 7 (1): 8, arXiv:astro-ph/0310642, Bibcode:2004LRR.....7....8L, doi:10.12942/lrr-2004-8, PMC 5253994, PMID 28163643 Bertschinger, Edmund (1998), "Simulations of structure formation in the universe", Annu. Rev. Astron. Astrophys., 36 (1): 599–654, Bibcode:1998ARA&A..36..599B, doi:10.1146/annurev.astro.36.1.599 Springel, Volker; White, Simon D. M.; Jenkins, Adrian; Frenk, Carlos S.; Yoshida, Naoki; Gao, Liang; Navarro, Julio; Thacker, Robert; et al. (2005), "Simulations of the formation, evolution and clustering of galaxies and quasars", Nature, 435 (7042): 629–636, arXiv:astro-ph/0504097, Bibcode:2005Natur.435..629S, doi:10.1038/nature03597, PMID 15931216, S2CID 4383030
Carroll 2001; an accessible overview is given in Caldwell 2004. Here, too, scientists have argued that the evidence indicates not a new form of energy, but the need for modifications in our cosmological models, cf. Mannheim 2006, sec. 10; aforementioned modifications need not be modifications of general relativity, they could, for example, be modifications in the way we treat the inhomogeneities in the universe, cf. Buchert 2008 Carroll, Sean M. (2001), "The Cosmological Constant", Living Reviews in Relativity, 4 (1): 1, arXiv:astro-ph/0004075, Bibcode:2001LRR.....4....1C, doi:10.12942/lrr-2001-1, PMC 5256042, PMID 28179856 Caldwell, Robert R. (2004), "Dark Energy", Physics World, 17 (5): 37–42, doi:10.1088/2058-7058/17/5/36 Mannheim, Philip D. (2006), "Alternatives to Dark Matter and Dark Energy", Prog. Part. Nucl. Phys., 56 (2): 340–445, arXiv:astro-ph/0505266, Bibcode:2006PrPNP..56..340M, doi:10.1016/j.ppnp.2005.08.001, S2CID 14024934 Buchert, Thomas (2008), "Dark Energy from Structure—A Status Report", General Relativity and Gravitation, 40 (2–3): 467–527, arXiv:0707.2153, Bibcode:2008GReGr..40..467B, doi:10.1007/s10714-007-0554-8, S2CID 17281664
Frauendiener 2004, Wald 1984, sec. 11.1, Hawking & Ellis 1973, sec. 6.8, 6.9 Frauendiener, Jörg (2004), "Conformal Infinity", Living Reviews in Relativity, 7 (1): 1, Bibcode:2004LRR.....7....1F, doi:10.12942/lrr-2004-1, PMC 5256109, PMID 28179863 Wald, Robert M. (1984), General Relativity, University of Chicago Press, ISBN 978-0-226-87033-5 Hawking, Stephen W.; Ellis, George F. R. (1973), The large scale structure of space-time, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0-521-09906-6
Thorne 1972; for more recent numerical studies, see Berger 2002, sec. 2.1 Thorne, Kip S. (1972), "Nonspherical Gravitational Collapse—A Short Review", in Klauder, J. (ed.), Magic without Magic, W. H. Freeman, pp. 231–258 Berger, Beverly K. (2002), "Numerical Approaches to Spacetime Singularities", Living Reviews in Relativity, 5 (1): 1, arXiv:gr-qc/0201056, Bibcode:2002LRR.....5....1B, doi:10.12942/lrr-2002-1, PMC 5256073, PMID 28179859
Israel 1987. A more exact mathematical description distinguishes several kinds of horizon, notably event horizons and apparent horizons cf. Hawking & Ellis 1973, pp. 312–320 or Wald 1984, sec. 12.2; there are also more intuitive definitions for isolated systems that do not require knowledge of spacetime properties at infinity, cf. Ashtekar & Krishnan 2004 Israel, Werner (1987), "Dark stars: the evolution of an idea", in Hawking, Stephen W.; Israel, Werner (eds.), 300 Years of Gravitation, Cambridge University Press, pp. 199–276, ISBN 978-0-521-37976-2 Hawking, Stephen W.; Ellis, George F. R. (1973), The large scale structure of space-time, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0-521-09906-6 Wald, Robert M. (1984), General Relativity, University of Chicago Press, ISBN 978-0-226-87033-5 Ashtekar, Abhay; Krishnan, Badri (2004), "Isolated and Dynamical Horizons and Their Applications", Living Reviews in Relativity, 7 (1): 10, arXiv:gr-qc/0407042, Bibcode:2004LRR.....7...10A, doi:10.12942/lrr-2004-10, PMC 5253930, PMID 28163644
For first steps, cf. Israel 1971; see Hawking & Ellis 1973, sec. 9.3 or Heusler 1996, ch. 9 and 10 for a derivation, and Heusler 1998 as well as Beig & Chruściel 2006 as overviews of more recent results Israel, Werner (1971), "Event Horizons and Gravitational Collapse", General Relativity and Gravitation, 2 (1): 53–59, Bibcode:1971GReGr...2...53I, doi:10.1007/BF02450518, S2CID 119645546 Hawking, Stephen W.; Ellis, George F. R. (1973), The large scale structure of space-time, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0-521-09906-6 Heusler, Markus (1996), "Black Hole Uniqueness Theorems", Cambridge Lecture Notes in Physics, 6, Cambridge University Press, Bibcode:1996CLNP....6.....H, ISBN 978-0-521-56735-0 Heusler, Markus (1998), "Stationary Black Holes: Uniqueness and Beyond", Living Reviews in Relativity, 1 (1): 6, Bibcode:1998LRR.....1....6H, doi:10.12942/lrr-1998-6, PMC 5567259, PMID 28937184 Beig, Robert; Chruściel, Piotr T. (2006), "Stationary black holes", in Françoise, J.-P.; Naber, G.; Tsou, T.S. (eds.), Encyclopedia of Mathematical Physics, Volume 2, Elsevier, p. 2041, arXiv:gr-qc/0502041, Bibcode:2005gr.qc.....2041B, ISBN 978-0-12-512660-1
The laws of black hole mechanics were first described in Bardeen, Carter & Hawking 1973; a more pedagogical presentation can be found in Carter 1979; for a more recent review, see Wald 2001, ch. 2. A thorough, book-length introduction including an introduction to the necessary mathematics Poisson 2004. For the Penrose process, see Penrose 1969 Bardeen, J. M.; Carter, B.; Hawking, S. W. (1973), "The Four Laws of Black Hole Mechanics", Comm. Math. Phys., 31 (2): 161–170, Bibcode:1973CMaPh..31..161B, doi:10.1007/BF01645742, S2CID 54690354 Carter, Brandon (1979), "The general theory of the mechanical, electromagnetic and thermodynamic properties of black holes", in Hawking, S. W.; Israel, W. (eds.), General Relativity, an Einstein Centenary Survey, Cambridge University Press, pp. 294–369 and 860–863, ISBN 978-0-521-29928-2 Wald, Robert M. (2001), "The Thermodynamics of Black Holes", Living Reviews in Relativity, 4 (1): 6, arXiv:gr-qc/9912119, Bibcode:2001LRR.....4....6W, doi:10.12942/lrr-2001-6, PMC 5253844, PMID 28163633 Poisson, Eric (2004), A Relativist's Toolkit. The Mathematics of Black-Hole Mechanics, Cambridge University Press, Bibcode:2004rtmb.book.....P, ISBN 978-0-521-83091-1 Penrose, Roger (1969), "Gravitational collapse: the role of general relativity", Rivista del Nuovo Cimento, 1: 252–276, Bibcode:1969NCimR...1..252P
The fact that black holes radiate, quantum mechanically, was first derived in Hawking 1975; a more thorough derivation can be found in Wald 1975. A review is given in Wald 2001, ch. 3 Hawking, S. W. (1975), "Particle Creation by Black Holes", Communications in Mathematical Physics, 43 (3): 199–220, Bibcode:1975CMaPh..43..199H, doi:10.1007/BF02345020, S2CID 55539246 Wald, Robert M. (1975), "On Particle Creation by Black Holes", Commun. Math. Phys., 45 (3): 9–34, Bibcode:1975CMaPh..45....9W, doi:10.1007/BF01609863, S2CID 120950657 Wald, Robert M. (2001), "The Thermodynamics of Black Holes", Living Reviews in Relativity, 4 (1): 6, arXiv:gr-qc/9912119, Bibcode:2001LRR.....4....6W, doi:10.12942/lrr-2001-6, PMC 5253844, PMID 28163633
Horizons: cf. Rindler 2001, sec. 12.4. Unruh effect: Unruh 1976, cf. Wald 2001, ch. 3 Rindler, Wolfgang (2001), Relativity. Special, General and Cosmological, Oxford University Press, Bibcode:2001rsgc.book.....R, ISBN 978-0-19-850836-6 Unruh, W. G. (1976), "Notes on Black Hole Evaporation", Phys. Rev. D, 14 (4): 870–892, Bibcode:1976PhRvD..14..870U, doi:10.1103/PhysRevD.14.870 Wald, Robert M. (2001), "The Thermodynamics of Black Holes", Living Reviews in Relativity, 4 (1): 6, arXiv:gr-qc/9912119, Bibcode:2001LRR.....4....6W, doi:10.12942/lrr-2001-6, PMC 5253844, PMID 28163633
The conjecture was made in Belinskii, Khalatnikov & Lifschitz 1971; for a more recent review, see Berger 2002. An accessible exposition is given by Garfinkle 2007 Belinskii, V. A.; Khalatnikov, I. M.; Lifschitz, E. M. (1971), "Oscillatory approach to the singular point in relativistic cosmology", Advances in Physics, 19 (80): 525–573, Bibcode:1970AdPhy..19..525B, doi:10.1080/00018737000101171; original paper in Russian: Belinsky, V. A.; Lifshits, I. M.; Khalatnikov, E. M. (1970), "Колебательный Режим Приближения К Особой Точке В Релятивистской Космологии", Uspekhi Fizicheskikh Nauk, 102 (11): 463–500, Bibcode:1970UsFiN.102..463B, doi:10.3367/ufnr.0102.197011d.0463 Berger, Beverly K. (2002), "Numerical Approaches to Spacetime Singularities", Living Reviews in Relativity, 5 (1): 1, arXiv:gr-qc/0201056, Bibcode:2002LRR.....5....1B, doi:10.12942/lrr-2002-1, PMC 5256073, PMID 28179859 Garfinkle, David (2007), "Of singularities and breadmaking", Einstein Online, Max Planck Institute for Gravitational Physics, archived from the original on 10 August 2007, retrieved 3 August 2007
The restriction to future singularities naturally excludes initial singularities such as the big bang singularity, which in principle be visible to observers at later cosmic time. The cosmic censorship conjecture was first presented in Penrose 1969; a textbook-level account is given in Wald 1984, pp. 302–305. For numerical results, see the review Berger 2002, sec. 2.1 Penrose, Roger (1969), "Gravitational collapse: the role of general relativity", Rivista del Nuovo Cimento, 1: 252–276, Bibcode:1969NCimR...1..252P Wald, Robert M. (1984), General Relativity, University of Chicago Press, ISBN 978-0-226-87033-5 Berger, Beverly K. (2002), "Numerical Approaches to Spacetime Singularities", Living Reviews in Relativity, 5 (1): 1, arXiv:gr-qc/0201056, Bibcode:2002LRR.....5....1B, doi:10.12942/lrr-2002-1, PMC 5256073, PMID 28179859
Fourès-Bruhat 1952 and Bruhat 1962; for a pedagogical introduction, see Wald 1984, ch. 10; an online review can be found in Reula 1998 Fourès-Bruhat, Yvonne (1952), "Théoréme d'existence pour certains systémes d'équations aux derivées partielles non linéaires", Acta Mathematica, 88 (1): 141–225, Bibcode:1952AcMa...88..141F, doi:10.1007/BF02392131 Bruhat, Yvonne (1962), "The Cauchy Problem", in Witten, Louis (ed.), Gravitation: An Introduction to Current Research, Wiley, p. 130, ISBN 978-1-114-29166-9 {{citation}}: ISBN / Date incompatibility (help) Wald, Robert M. (1984), General Relativity, University of Chicago Press, ISBN 978-0-226-87033-5 Reula, Oscar A. (1998), "Hyperbolic Methods for Einstein's Equations", Living Reviews in Relativity, 1 (1): 3, Bibcode:1998LRR.....1....3R, doi:10.12942/lrr-1998-3, PMC 5253804, PMID 28191833
Such quasi-local mass–energy definitions are the Hawking energy, Geroch energy, or Penrose's quasi-local energy–momentum based on twistor methods; cf. the review article Szabados 2004 Szabados, László B. (2004), "Quasi-Local Energy–Momentum and Angular Momentum in GR", Living Reviews in Relativity, 7 (1): 4, Bibcode:2004LRR.....7....4S, doi:10.12942/lrr-2004-4, PMC 5255888, PMID 28179865
Wald 2001, ch. 3 Wald, Robert M. (2001), "The Thermodynamics of Black Holes", Living Reviews in Relativity, 4 (1): 6, arXiv:gr-qc/9912119, Bibcode:2001LRR.....4....6W, doi:10.12942/lrr-2001-6, PMC 5253844, PMID 28163633
For a review, see Thiemann 2007; more extensive accounts can be found in Rovelli 1998, Ashtekar & Lewandowski 2004 as well as in the lecture notes Thiemann 2003 Thiemann, Thomas (2007), "Loop Quantum Gravity: An Inside View", Approaches to Fundamental Physics, Lecture Notes in Physics, vol. 721, pp. 185–263, arXiv:hep-th/0608210, Bibcode:2007LNP...721..185T, doi:10.1007/978-3-540-71117-9_10, ISBN 978-3-540-71115-5, S2CID 119572847 Rovelli, Carlo (1998), "Loop Quantum Gravity", Living Reviews in Relativity, 1 (1): 1, arXiv:gr-qc/9710008, Bibcode:1998LRR.....1....1R, CiteSeerX 10.1.1.90.7036, doi:10.12942/lrr-1998-1, PMC 5567241, PMID 28937180 Ashtekar, Abhay; Lewandowski, Jerzy (2004), "Background Independent Quantum Gravity: A Status Report", Class. Quantum Grav., 21 (15): R53 – R152, arXiv:gr-qc/0404018, Bibcode:2004CQGra..21R..53A, doi:10.1088/0264-9381/21/15/R01, S2CID 119175535 Thiemann, Thomas (2003). "Lectures on Loop Quantum Gravity". In Domenico J.W. Giulini; Claus Kiefer; Claus Lämmerzahl (eds.). Quantum Gravity: From Theory to Experimental Search. Lecture Notes in Physics. Vol. 631. pp. 41–135. arXiv:gr-qc/0210094. Bibcode:2003LNP...631...41T. doi:10.1007/978-3-540-45230-0_3. ISBN 978-3-540-40810-9. S2CID 119151491.
Loll 1998 Loll, Renate (1998), "Discrete Approaches to Quantum Gravity in Four Dimensions", Living Reviews in Relativity, 1 (1): 13, arXiv:gr-qc/9805049, Bibcode:1998LRR.....1...13L, doi:10.12942/lrr-1998-13, PMC 5253799, PMID 28191826
For the most recent papers on gravitational wave polarizations of inspiralling compact binaries, see Blanchet et al. 2008, and Arun et al. 2008; for a review of work on compact binaries, see Blanchet 2006 and Futamase & Itoh 2006; for a general review of experimental tests of general relativity, see Will 2006 Blanchet, L.; Faye, G.; Iyer, B. R.; Sinha, S. (2008), "The third post-Newtonian gravitational wave polarisations and associated spherical harmonic modes for inspiralling compact binaries in quasi-circular orbits", Classical and Quantum Gravity, 25 (16): 165003, arXiv:0802.1249, Bibcode:2008CQGra..25p5003B, doi:10.1088/0264-9381/25/16/165003, S2CID 54608927 Arun, K.G.; Blanchet, L.; Iyer, B. R.; Qusailah, M. S. S. (2008), "Inspiralling compact binaries in quasi-elliptical orbits: The complete 3PN energy flux", Physical Review D, 77 (6): 064035, arXiv:0711.0302, Bibcode:2008PhRvD..77f4035A, doi:10.1103/PhysRevD.77.064035, S2CID 55825202 Blanchet, Luc (2006), "Gravitational Radiation from Post-Newtonian Sources and Inspiralling Compact Binaries", Living Reviews in Relativity, 9 (1): 4, Bibcode:2006LRR.....9....4B, doi:10.12942/lrr-2006-4, PMC 5255899, PMID 28179874 Futamase, T.; Itoh, Y. (2006), "The Post-Newtonian Approximation for Relativistic Compact Binaries", Living Reviews in Relativity, 10 (1): 2, Bibcode:2007LRR....10....2F, doi:10.12942/lrr-2007-2, PMC 5255906, PMID 28179819 Will, Clifford M. (2006), "The Confrontation between General Relativity and Experiment", Living Reviews in Relativity, 9 (1): 3, arXiv:gr-qc/0510072, Bibcode:2006LRR.....9....3W, doi:10.12942/lrr-2006-3, PMC 5256066, PMID 28179873

nsf.gov

"Gravitational waves detected 100 years after Einstein's prediction". NSF – National Science Foundation. 11 February 2016.

numdam.org

Ehlers 1973, sec. 1.2, Havas 1964, Künzle 1972. The simple thought experiment in question was first described in Heckmann & Schücking 1959 Ehlers, Jürgen (1973), "Survey of general relativity theory", in Israel, Werner (ed.), Relativity, Astrophysics and Cosmology, D. Reidel, pp. 1–125, ISBN 978-90-277-0369-9 Havas, P. (1964), "Four-Dimensional Formulation of Newtonian Mechanics and Their Relation to the Special and the General Theory of Relativity", Rev. Mod. Phys., 36 (4): 938–965, Bibcode:1964RvMP...36..938H, doi:10.1103/RevModPhys.36.938 Künzle, H. P. (1972), "Galilei and Lorentz Structures on spacetime: comparison of the corresponding geometry and physics", Annales de l'Institut Henri Poincaré A, 17: 337–362 Heckmann, O. H. L.; Schücking, E. (1959), "Newtonsche und Einsteinsche Kosmologie", in Flügge, S. (ed.), Encyclopedia of Physics, vol. 53, p. 489

pitt.edu

Grossmann for the mathematical part and Einstein for the physical part (1913). Entwurf einer verallgemeinerten Relativitätstheorie und einer Theorie der Gravitation (Outline of a Generalized Theory of Relativity and of a Theory of Gravitation), Zeitschrift für Mathematik und Physik, 62, 225–261. English translate
Rindler 2001, sec. 1.13; for an elementary account, see Wheeler 1990, ch. 2; there are, however, some differences between the modern version and Einstein's original concept used in the historical derivation of general relativity, cf. Norton 1985 Rindler, Wolfgang (2001), Relativity. Special, General and Cosmological, Oxford University Press, Bibcode:2001rsgc.book.....R, ISBN 978-0-19-850836-6 Wheeler, John A. (1990), A Journey Into Gravity and Spacetime, Scientific American Library, San Francisco: W. H. Freeman, ISBN 978-0-7167-6034-4 Norton, John D. (1985), "What was Einstein's principle of equivalence?" (PDF), Studies in History and Philosophy of Science, 16 (3): 203–246, Bibcode:1985SHPSA..16..203N, doi:10.1016/0039-3681(85)90002-0, archived (PDF) from the original on 22 September 2006, retrieved 11 June 2007

princeton.edu

einsteinpapers.press.princeton.edu

Pais 1982, ch. 9 to 15, Janssen 2005; an up-to-date collection of current research, including reprints of many of the original articles, is Renn 2007; an accessible overview can be found in Renn 2005, pp. 110ff. Einstein's original papers are found in Digital Einstein, volumes 4 and 6. An early key article is Einstein 1907, cf. Pais 1982, ch. 9. The publication featuring the field equations is Einstein 1915, cf. Pais 1982, ch. 11–15 Pais, Abraham (1982), 'Subtle is the Lord ...' The Science and life of Albert Einstein, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0-19-853907-0 Janssen, Michel (2005), "Of pots and holes: Einstein's bumpy road to general relativity", Annalen der Physik, 14 (S1): 58–85, Bibcode:2005AnP...517S..58J, doi:10.1002/andp.200410130, S2CID 10641693, archived from the original (PDF) on 25 August 2020, retrieved 28 August 2010 Renn, Jürgen, ed. (2007), The Genesis of General Relativity (4 Volumes), Dordrecht: Springer, ISBN 978-1-4020-3999-7 Renn, Jürgen, ed. (2005), Albert Einstein—Chief Engineer of the Universe: Einstein's Life and Work in Context, Berlin: Wiley-VCH, ISBN 978-3-527-40571-8 Einstein, Albert (1907), "Über das Relativitätsprinzip und die aus demselben gezogene Folgerungen", Jahrbuch der Radioaktivität und Elektronik, 4: 411 See also English translation at Einstein Papers Project Pais, Abraham (1982), 'Subtle is the Lord ...' The Science and life of Albert Einstein, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0-19-853907-0 Einstein, Albert (1915), "Die Feldgleichungen der Gravitation", Sitzungsberichte der Preussischen Akademie der Wissenschaften zu Berlin: 844–847, Bibcode:1915SPAW.......844E See also English translation at Einstein Papers Project Pais, Abraham (1982), 'Subtle is the Lord ...' The Science and life of Albert Einstein, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0-19-853907-0
Einstein 1917, cf. Pais 1982, ch. 15e Einstein, Albert (1917), "Kosmologische Betrachtungen zur allgemeinen Relativitätstheorie", Sitzungsberichte der Preußischen Akademie der Wissenschaften: 142, Bibcode:1917SPAW.......142E See also English translation at Einstein Papers Project Pais, Abraham (1982), 'Subtle is the Lord ...' The Science and life of Albert Einstein, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0-19-853907-0
Rindler 2001, pp. 24–26 vs. pp. 236–237 and Ohanian & Ruffini 1994, pp. 164–172. Einstein derived these effects using the equivalence principle as early as 1907, cf. Einstein 1907 and the description in Pais 1982, pp. 196–198 Rindler, Wolfgang (2001), Relativity. Special, General and Cosmological, Oxford University Press, Bibcode:2001rsgc.book.....R, ISBN 978-0-19-850836-6 Ohanian, Hans C.; Ruffini, Remo (1994), Gravitation and Spacetime, W. W. Norton & Company, ISBN 978-0-393-96501-8 Einstein, Albert (1907), "Über das Relativitätsprinzip und die aus demselben gezogene Folgerungen", Jahrbuch der Radioaktivität und Elektronik, 4: 411 See also English translation at Einstein Papers Project Pais, Abraham (1982), 'Subtle is the Lord ...' The Science and life of Albert Einstein, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0-19-853907-0
Rindler 2001, sec. 1.16; for the historical examples, Israel 1987, pp. 202–204; in fact, Einstein published one such derivation as Einstein 1907. Such calculations tacitly assume that the geometry of space is Euclidean, cf. Ehlers & Rindler 1997 Rindler, Wolfgang (2001), Relativity. Special, General and Cosmological, Oxford University Press, Bibcode:2001rsgc.book.....R, ISBN 978-0-19-850836-6 Israel, Werner (1987), "Dark stars: the evolution of an idea", in Hawking, Stephen W.; Israel, Werner (eds.), 300 Years of Gravitation, Cambridge University Press, pp. 199–276, ISBN 978-0-521-37976-2 Einstein, Albert (1907), "Über das Relativitätsprinzip und die aus demselben gezogene Folgerungen", Jahrbuch der Radioaktivität und Elektronik, 4: 411 See also English translation at Einstein Papers Project Ehlers, Jürgen; Rindler, Wolfgang (1997), "Local and Global Light Bending in Einstein's and other Gravitational Theories", General Relativity and Gravitation, 29 (4): 519–529, Bibcode:1997GReGr..29..519E, doi:10.1023/A:1018843001842, hdl:11858/00-001M-0000-0013-5AB5-4, S2CID 118162303
Einstein 1917; cf. Pais 1982, pp. 285–288 Einstein, Albert (1917), "Kosmologische Betrachtungen zur allgemeinen Relativitätstheorie", Sitzungsberichte der Preußischen Akademie der Wissenschaften: 142, Bibcode:1917SPAW.......142E See also English translation at Einstein Papers Project Pais, Abraham (1982), 'Subtle is the Lord ...' The Science and life of Albert Einstein, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0-19-853907-0

projecteuclid.org

The laws of black hole mechanics were first described in Bardeen, Carter & Hawking 1973; a more pedagogical presentation can be found in Carter 1979; for a more recent review, see Wald 2001, ch. 2. A thorough, book-length introduction including an introduction to the necessary mathematics Poisson 2004. For the Penrose process, see Penrose 1969 Bardeen, J. M.; Carter, B.; Hawking, S. W. (1973), "The Four Laws of Black Hole Mechanics", Comm. Math. Phys., 31 (2): 161–170, Bibcode:1973CMaPh..31..161B, doi:10.1007/BF01645742, S2CID 54690354 Carter, Brandon (1979), "The general theory of the mechanical, electromagnetic and thermodynamic properties of black holes", in Hawking, S. W.; Israel, W. (eds.), General Relativity, an Einstein Centenary Survey, Cambridge University Press, pp. 294–369 and 860–863, ISBN 978-0-521-29928-2 Wald, Robert M. (2001), "The Thermodynamics of Black Holes", Living Reviews in Relativity, 4 (1): 6, arXiv:gr-qc/9912119, Bibcode:2001LRR.....4....6W, doi:10.12942/lrr-2001-6, PMC 5253844, PMID 28163633 Poisson, Eric (2004), A Relativist's Toolkit. The Mathematics of Black-Hole Mechanics, Cambridge University Press, Bibcode:2004rtmb.book.....P, ISBN 978-0-521-83091-1 Penrose, Roger (1969), "Gravitational collapse: the role of general relativity", Rivista del Nuovo Cimento, 1: 252–276, Bibcode:1969NCimR...1..252P
The fact that black holes radiate, quantum mechanically, was first derived in Hawking 1975; a more thorough derivation can be found in Wald 1975. A review is given in Wald 2001, ch. 3 Hawking, S. W. (1975), "Particle Creation by Black Holes", Communications in Mathematical Physics, 43 (3): 199–220, Bibcode:1975CMaPh..43..199H, doi:10.1007/BF02345020, S2CID 55539246 Wald, Robert M. (1975), "On Particle Creation by Black Holes", Commun. Math. Phys., 45 (3): 9–34, Bibcode:1975CMaPh..45....9W, doi:10.1007/BF01609863, S2CID 120950657 Wald, Robert M. (2001), "The Thermodynamics of Black Holes", Living Reviews in Relativity, 4 (1): 6, arXiv:gr-qc/9912119, Bibcode:2001LRR.....4....6W, doi:10.12942/lrr-2001-6, PMC 5253844, PMID 28163633
For Hawking radiation Hawking 1975, Wald 1975; an accessible introduction to black hole evaporation can be found in Traschen 2000 Hawking, S. W. (1975), "Particle Creation by Black Holes", Communications in Mathematical Physics, 43 (3): 199–220, Bibcode:1975CMaPh..43..199H, doi:10.1007/BF02345020, S2CID 55539246 Wald, Robert M. (1975), "On Particle Creation by Black Holes", Commun. Math. Phys., 45 (3): 9–34, Bibcode:1975CMaPh..45....9W, doi:10.1007/BF01609863, S2CID 120950657 Traschen, Jennie (2000), Bytsenko, A.; Williams, F. (eds.), "An Introduction to Black Hole Evaporation", Mathematical Methods of Physics (Proceedings of the 1999 Londrina Winter School), World Scientific: 180, arXiv:gr-qc/0010055, Bibcode:2000mmp..conf..180T

psu.edu

citeseerx.ist.psu.edu

For a review, see Thiemann 2007; more extensive accounts can be found in Rovelli 1998, Ashtekar & Lewandowski 2004 as well as in the lecture notes Thiemann 2003 Thiemann, Thomas (2007), "Loop Quantum Gravity: An Inside View", Approaches to Fundamental Physics, Lecture Notes in Physics, vol. 721, pp. 185–263, arXiv:hep-th/0608210, Bibcode:2007LNP...721..185T, doi:10.1007/978-3-540-71117-9_10, ISBN 978-3-540-71115-5, S2CID 119572847 Rovelli, Carlo (1998), "Loop Quantum Gravity", Living Reviews in Relativity, 1 (1): 1, arXiv:gr-qc/9710008, Bibcode:1998LRR.....1....1R, CiteSeerX 10.1.1.90.7036, doi:10.12942/lrr-1998-1, PMC 5567241, PMID 28937180 Ashtekar, Abhay; Lewandowski, Jerzy (2004), "Background Independent Quantum Gravity: A Status Report", Class. Quantum Grav., 21 (15): R53 – R152, arXiv:gr-qc/0404018, Bibcode:2004CQGra..21R..53A, doi:10.1088/0264-9381/21/15/R01, S2CID 119175535 Thiemann, Thomas (2003). "Lectures on Loop Quantum Gravity". In Domenico J.W. Giulini; Claus Kiefer; Claus Lämmerzahl (eds.). Quantum Gravity: From Theory to Experimental Search. Lecture Notes in Physics. Vol. 631. pp. 41–135. arXiv:gr-qc/0210094. Bibcode:2003LNP...631...41T. doi:10.1007/978-3-540-45230-0_3. ISBN 978-3-540-40810-9. S2CID 119151491.

semanticscholar.org

api.semanticscholar.org

Pais 1982, ch. 9 to 15, Janssen 2005; an up-to-date collection of current research, including reprints of many of the original articles, is Renn 2007; an accessible overview can be found in Renn 2005, pp. 110ff. Einstein's original papers are found in Digital Einstein, volumes 4 and 6. An early key article is Einstein 1907, cf. Pais 1982, ch. 9. The publication featuring the field equations is Einstein 1915, cf. Pais 1982, ch. 11–15 Pais, Abraham (1982), 'Subtle is the Lord ...' The Science and life of Albert Einstein, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0-19-853907-0 Janssen, Michel (2005), "Of pots and holes: Einstein's bumpy road to general relativity", Annalen der Physik, 14 (S1): 58–85, Bibcode:2005AnP...517S..58J, doi:10.1002/andp.200410130, S2CID 10641693, archived from the original (PDF) on 25 August 2020, retrieved 28 August 2010 Renn, Jürgen, ed. (2007), The Genesis of General Relativity (4 Volumes), Dordrecht: Springer, ISBN 978-1-4020-3999-7 Renn, Jürgen, ed. (2005), Albert Einstein—Chief Engineer of the Universe: Einstein's Life and Work in Context, Berlin: Wiley-VCH, ISBN 978-3-527-40571-8 Einstein, Albert (1907), "Über das Relativitätsprinzip und die aus demselben gezogene Folgerungen", Jahrbuch der Radioaktivität und Elektronik, 4: 411 See also English translation at Einstein Papers Project Pais, Abraham (1982), 'Subtle is the Lord ...' The Science and life of Albert Einstein, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0-19-853907-0 Einstein, Albert (1915), "Die Feldgleichungen der Gravitation", Sitzungsberichte der Preussischen Akademie der Wissenschaften zu Berlin: 844–847, Bibcode:1915SPAW.......844E See also English translation at Einstein Papers Project Pais, Abraham (1982), 'Subtle is the Lord ...' The Science and life of Albert Einstein, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0-19-853907-0
Kennefick 2005, Kennefick 2007 Kennefick, Daniel (2005), "Astronomers Test General Relativity: Light-bending and the Solar Redshift", in Renn, Jürgen (ed.), One hundred authors for Einstein, Wiley-VCH, pp. 178–181, ISBN 978-3-527-40574-9 Kennefick, Daniel (2007), "Not Only Because of Theory: Dyson, Eddington and the Competing Myths of the 1919 Eclipse Expedition", Proceedings of the 7th Conference on the History of General Relativity, Tenerife, 2005, vol. 0709, p. 685, arXiv:0709.0685, Bibcode:2007arXiv0709.0685K, doi:10.1016/j.shpsa.2012.07.010, S2CID 119203172
Chandrasekhar 1984, p. 6 Chandrasekhar, Subrahmanyan (1984), "The general theory of relativity – Why 'It is probably the most beautiful of all existing theories'", Journal of Astrophysics and Astronomy, 5 (1): 3–11, Bibcode:1984JApA....5....3C, doi:10.1007/BF02714967, S2CID 120910934
Engler 2002 Engler, Gideon (2002), "Einstein and the most beautiful theories in physics", International Studies in the Philosophy of Science, 16 (1): 27–37, doi:10.1080/02698590120118800, S2CID 120160056
An in-depth comparison between the two symmetry groups can be found in Giulini 2006 Giulini, Domenico (2006), "Algebraic and Geometric Structures in Special Relativity", in Ehlers, Jürgen; Lämmerzahl, Claus (eds.), Special Relativity—Will it Survive the Next 101 Years?, Lecture Notes in Physics, vol. 702, pp. 45–111, arXiv:math-ph/0602018, Bibcode:2006math.ph...2018G, doi:10.1007/3-540-34523-X_4, ISBN 978-3-540-34522-0, S2CID 15948765
For the (conceptual and historical) difficulties in defining a general principle of relativity and separating it from the notion of general covariance, see Giulini 2007 Giulini, Domenico (2007), "Remarks on the Notions of General Covariance and Background Independence", in Stamatescu, I. O. (ed.), Approaches to Fundamental Physics, Lecture Notes in Physics, vol. 721, pp. 105–120, arXiv:gr-qc/0603087, Bibcode:2007LNP...721..105G, doi:10.1007/978-3-540-71117-9_6, ISBN 978-3-540-71115-5, S2CID 14772226
For background information and a list of solutions, cf. Stephani et al. 2003; a more recent review can be found in MacCallum 2006 Stephani, H.; Kramer, D.; MacCallum, M.; Hoenselaers, C.; Herlt, E. (2003), Exact Solutions of Einstein's Field Equations (2 ed.), Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0-521-46136-8 MacCallum, M. (2006), "Finding and using exact solutions of the Einstein equations", in Mornas, L.; Alonso, J. D. (eds.), AIP Conference Proceedings (A Century of Relativity Physics: ERE05, the XXVIII Spanish Relativity Meeting), vol. 841, pp. 129–143, arXiv:gr-qc/0601102, Bibcode:2006AIPC..841..129M, doi:10.1063/1.2218172, S2CID 13096531
Lehner 2002 Lehner, Luis (2002). "Numerical Relativity: Status and Prospects". In Nigel T. Bishop; Sunil D. Maharaj (eds.). General Relativity and Gravitation. General Relativity and Gravitation: Proceedings of the 16th International Conference, Durban, South Africa, 15–21 July 2001. p. 210. arXiv:gr-qc/0202055. Bibcode:2002grg..conf..210L. doi:10.1142/9789812776556_0010. ISBN 978-981-238-171-2. S2CID 9145148.
Greenstein, Oke & Shipman 1971; the most recent and most accurate Sirius B measurements are published in Barstow, Bond et al. 2005. Greenstein, J. L.; Oke, J. B.; Shipman, H. L. (1971), "Effective Temperature, Radius, and Gravitational Redshift of Sirius B", Astrophysical Journal, 169: 563, Bibcode:1971ApJ...169..563G, doi:10.1086/151174 Barstow, M.; Bond, Howard E.; Holberg, J. B.; Burleigh, M. R.; Hubeny, I.; Koester, D. (2005), "Hubble Space Telescope Spectroscopy of the Balmer lines in Sirius B", Mon. Not. R. Astron. Soc., 362 (4): 1134–1142, arXiv:astro-ph/0506600, Bibcode:2005MNRAS.362.1134B, doi:10.1111/j.1365-2966.2005.09359.x, S2CID 4607496
Starting with the Hafele–Keating experiment, Hafele & Keating 1972a and Hafele & Keating 1972b, and culminating in the Gravity Probe A experiment; an overview of experiments can be found in Ohanian & Ruffini 1994, table 4.1 on p. 186 Hafele, J. C.; Keating, R. E. (14 July 1972). "Around-the-World Atomic Clocks: Predicted Relativistic Time Gains". Science. 177 (4044): 166–168. Bibcode:1972Sci...177..166H. doi:10.1126/science.177.4044.166. PMID 17779917. S2CID 10067969. Hafele, J. C.; Keating, R. E. (14 July 1972). "Around-the-World Atomic Clocks: Observed Relativistic Time Gains". Science. 177 (4044): 168–170. Bibcode:1972Sci...177..168H. doi:10.1126/science.177.4044.168. PMID 17779918. S2CID 37376002. Ohanian, Hans C.; Ruffini, Remo (1994), Gravitation and Spacetime, W. W. Norton & Company, ISBN 978-0-393-96501-8
Rindler 2001, sec. 1.16; for the historical examples, Israel 1987, pp. 202–204; in fact, Einstein published one such derivation as Einstein 1907. Such calculations tacitly assume that the geometry of space is Euclidean, cf. Ehlers & Rindler 1997 Rindler, Wolfgang (2001), Relativity. Special, General and Cosmological, Oxford University Press, Bibcode:2001rsgc.book.....R, ISBN 978-0-19-850836-6 Israel, Werner (1987), "Dark stars: the evolution of an idea", in Hawking, Stephen W.; Israel, Werner (eds.), 300 Years of Gravitation, Cambridge University Press, pp. 199–276, ISBN 978-0-521-37976-2 Einstein, Albert (1907), "Über das Relativitätsprinzip und die aus demselben gezogene Folgerungen", Jahrbuch der Radioaktivität und Elektronik, 4: 411 See also English translation at Einstein Papers Project Ehlers, Jürgen; Rindler, Wolfgang (1997), "Local and Global Light Bending in Einstein's and other Gravitational Theories", General Relativity and Gravitation, 29 (4): 519–529, Bibcode:1997GReGr..29..519E, doi:10.1023/A:1018843001842, hdl:11858/00-001M-0000-0013-5AB5-4, S2CID 118162303
For the Sun's gravitational field using radar signals reflected from planets such as Venus and Mercury, cf. Shapiro 1964, Weinberg 1972, ch. 8, sec. 7; for signals actively sent back by space probes (transponder measurements), cf. Bertotti, Iess & Tortora 2003; for an overview, see Ohanian & Ruffini 1994, table 4.4 on p. 200; for more recent measurements using signals received from a pulsar that is part of a binary system, the gravitational field causing the time delay being that of the other pulsar, cf. Stairs 2003, sec. 4.4 Shapiro, Irwin I. (1964), "Fourth test of general relativity", Phys. Rev. Lett., 13 (26): 789–791, Bibcode:1964PhRvL..13..789S, doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.13.789 Weinberg, Steven (1972), Gravitation and Cosmology: Principles and Applications of the General Theory of Relativity, John Wiley, Bibcode:1972gcpa.book.....W, ISBN 978-0-471-92567-5 Bertotti, Bruno; Iess, L.; Tortora, P. (2003), "A test of general relativity using radio links with the Cassini spacecraft", Nature, 425 (6956): 374–376, Bibcode:2003Natur.425..374B, doi:10.1038/nature01997, PMID 14508481, S2CID 4337125 Ohanian, Hans C.; Ruffini, Remo (1994), Gravitation and Spacetime, W. W. Norton & Company, ISBN 978-0-393-96501-8 Stairs, Ingrid H. (2003), "Testing General Relativity with Pulsar Timing", Living Reviews in Relativity, 6 (1): 5, arXiv:astro-ph/0307536, Bibcode:2003LRR.....6....5S, doi:10.12942/lrr-2003-5, PMC 5253800, PMID 28163640
Castelvecchi, Davide; Witze, Witze (11 February 2016). "Einstein's gravitational waves found at last". Nature News. doi:10.1038/nature.2016.19361. S2CID 182916902. Retrieved 11 February 2016.
B. P. Abbott; et al. (LIGO Scientific Collaboration and Virgo Collaboration) (2016). "Observation of Gravitational Waves from a Binary Black Hole Merger". Physical Review Letters. 116 (6): 061102. arXiv:1602.03837. Bibcode:2016PhRvL.116f1102A. doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.116.061102. PMID 26918975. S2CID 124959784.
See Lehner 2002 for a brief introduction to the methods of numerical relativity, and Seidel 1998 for the connection with gravitational wave astronomy Lehner, Luis (2002). "Numerical Relativity: Status and Prospects". In Nigel T. Bishop; Sunil D. Maharaj (eds.). General Relativity and Gravitation. General Relativity and Gravitation: Proceedings of the 16th International Conference, Durban, South Africa, 15–21 July 2001. p. 210. arXiv:gr-qc/0202055. Bibcode:2002grg..conf..210L. doi:10.1142/9789812776556_0010. ISBN 978-981-238-171-2. S2CID 9145148. Seidel, Edward (1998), "Numerical Relativity: Towards Simulations of 3D Black Hole Coalescence", in Narlikar, J. V.; Dadhich, N. (eds.), Gravitation and Relativity: At the turn of the millennium (Proceedings of the GR-15 Conference, held at IUCAA, Pune, India, December 16–21, 1997), IUCAA, p. 6088, arXiv:gr-qc/9806088, Bibcode:1998gr.qc.....6088S, ISBN 978-81-900378-3-9
Kramer et al. 2006 Kramer, M.; Stairs, I. H.; Manchester, R. N.; McLaughlin, M. A.; Lyne, A. G.; Ferdman, R. D.; Burgay, M.; Lorimer, D. R.; et al. (2006), "Tests of general relativity from timing the double pulsar", Science, 314 (5796): 97–102, arXiv:astro-ph/0609417, Bibcode:2006Sci...314...97K, doi:10.1126/science.1132305, PMID 16973838, S2CID 6674714
Kramer, M.; Stairs, I. H.; Manchester, R. N.; Wex, N.; Deller, A. T.; Coles, W. A.; Ali, M.; Burgay, M.; Camilo, F.; Cognard, I.; Damour, T. (13 December 2021). "Strong-Field Gravity Tests with the Double Pulsar". Physical Review X. 11 (4): 041050. arXiv:2112.06795. Bibcode:2021PhRvX..11d1050K. doi:10.1103/PhysRevX.11.041050. ISSN 2160-3308. S2CID 245124502.
Weisberg & Taylor 2003; for the pulsar discovery, see Hulse & Taylor 1975; for the initial evidence for gravitational radiation, see Taylor 1994 Weisberg, Joel M.; Taylor, Joseph H. (2003), "The Relativistic Binary Pulsar B1913+16"", in Bailes, M.; Nice, D. J.; Thorsett, S. E. (eds.), Proceedings of "Radio Pulsars," Chania, Crete, August, 2002, ASP Conference Series Hulse, Russell A.; Taylor, Joseph H. (1975), "Discovery of a pulsar in a binary system", Astrophys. J., 195: L51 – L55, Bibcode:1975ApJ...195L..51H, doi:10.1086/181708 Taylor, Joseph H. (1994), "Binary pulsars and relativistic gravity", Rev. Mod. Phys., 66 (3): 711–719, Bibcode:1994RvMP...66..711T, doi:10.1103/RevModPhys.66.711, S2CID 120534048
Ohanian & Ruffini 1994, sec. 4.7, Weinberg 1972, sec. 9.7; for a more recent review, see Schäfer 2004 Ohanian, Hans C.; Ruffini, Remo (1994), Gravitation and Spacetime, W. W. Norton & Company, ISBN 978-0-393-96501-8 Weinberg, Steven (1972), Gravitation and Cosmology: Principles and Applications of the General Theory of Relativity, John Wiley, Bibcode:1972gcpa.book.....W, ISBN 978-0-471-92567-5 Schäfer, Gerhard (2004), "Gravitomagnetic Effects", General Relativity and Gravitation, 36 (10): 2223–2235, arXiv:gr-qc/0407116, Bibcode:2004GReGr..36.2223S, doi:10.1023/B:GERG.0000046180.97877.32, S2CID 14255129
Ciufolini & Pavlis 2004, Ciufolini, Pavlis & Peron 2006, Iorio 2009 Ciufolini, Ignazio; Pavlis, Erricos C. (2004), "A confirmation of the general relativistic prediction of the Lense–Thirring effect", Nature, 431 (7011): 958–960, Bibcode:2004Natur.431..958C, doi:10.1038/nature03007, PMID 15496915, S2CID 4423434 Ciufolini, Ignazio; Pavlis, Erricos C.; Peron, R. (2006), "Determination of frame-dragging using Earth gravity models from CHAMP and GRACE", New Astron., 11 (8): 527–550, Bibcode:2006NewA...11..527C, doi:10.1016/j.newast.2006.02.001 Iorio, L. (2009), "An Assessment of the Systematic Uncertainty in Present and Future Tests of the Lense–Thirring Effect with Satellite Laser Ranging", Space Sci. Rev., 148 (1–4): 363–381, arXiv:0809.1373, Bibcode:2009SSRv..148..363I, doi:10.1007/s11214-008-9478-1, S2CID 15698399
Iorio 2006, Iorio 2010 Iorio, L. (2006), "A note on the evidence of the gravitomagnetic field of Mars", Classical and Quantum Gravity, 23 (17): 5451–5454, arXiv:gr-qc/0606092, Bibcode:2006CQGra..23.5451I, doi:10.1088/0264-9381/23/17/N01, S2CID 118233440 Iorio, L. (2010), "On the Lense–Thirring test with the Mars Global Surveyor in the gravitational field of Mars", Central European Journal of Physics, 8 (3): 509–513, arXiv:gr-qc/0701146, Bibcode:2010CEJPh...8..509I, doi:10.2478/s11534-009-0117-6, S2CID 16052420
Walsh, Carswell & Weymann 1979 Walsh, D.; Carswell, R. F.; Weymann, R. J. (1979), "0957 + 561 A, B: twin quasistellar objects or gravitational lens?", Nature, 279 (5712): 381–4, Bibcode:1979Natur.279..381W, doi:10.1038/279381a0, PMID 16068158, S2CID 2142707
Roulet & Mollerach 1997 Roulet, E.; Mollerach, S. (1997), "Microlensing", Physics Reports, 279 (2): 67–118, arXiv:astro-ph/9603119, Bibcode:1997PhR...279...67R, doi:10.1016/S0370-1573(96)00020-8, S2CID 262685723
Hobbs, George; Archibald, A.; Arzoumanian, Z.; Backer, D.; Bailes, M.; Bhat, N. D. R.; Burgay, M.; Burke-Spolaor, S.; et al. (2010), "The international pulsar timing array project: using pulsars as a gravitational wave detector", Classical and Quantum Gravity, 27 (8): 084013, arXiv:0911.5206, Bibcode:2010CQGra..27h4013H, doi:10.1088/0264-9381/27/8/084013, S2CID 56073764
Danzmann & Rüdiger 2003 Danzmann, Karsten; Rüdiger, Albrecht (2003), "LISA Technology—Concepts, Status, Prospects" (PDF), Class. Quantum Grav., 20 (10): S1 – S9, Bibcode:2003CQGra..20S...1D, doi:10.1088/0264-9381/20/10/301, hdl:11858/00-001M-0000-0013-5233-E, S2CID 250836327, archived from the original (PDF) on 26 September 2007
Celotti, Miller & Sciama 1999, sec. 3 Celotti, Annalisa; Miller, John C.; Sciama, Dennis W. (1999), "Astrophysical evidence for the existence of black holes", Class. Quantum Grav., 16 (12A): A3 – A21, arXiv:astro-ph/9912186, Bibcode:1999CQGra..16A...3C, doi:10.1088/0264-9381/16/12A/301, S2CID 17677758
Springel et al. 2005 and the accompanying summary Gnedin 2005 Springel, Volker; White, Simon D. M.; Jenkins, Adrian; Frenk, Carlos S.; Yoshida, Naoki; Gao, Liang; Navarro, Julio; Thacker, Robert; et al. (2005), "Simulations of the formation, evolution and clustering of galaxies and quasars", Nature, 435 (7042): 629–636, arXiv:astro-ph/0504097, Bibcode:2005Natur.435..629S, doi:10.1038/nature03597, PMID 15931216, S2CID 4383030 Gnedin, Nickolay Y. (2005), "Digitizing the Universe", Nature, 435 (7042): 572–573, Bibcode:2005Natur.435..572G, doi:10.1038/435572a, PMID 15931201, S2CID 3023436
For a review, see Begelman, Blandford & Rees 1984. To a distant observer, some of these jets even appear to move faster than light; this, however, can be explained as an optical illusion that does not violate the tenets of relativity, see Rees 1966 Begelman, Mitchell C.; Blandford, Roger D.; Rees, Martin J. (1984), "Theory of extragalactic radio sources", Rev. Mod. Phys., 56 (2): 255–351, Bibcode:1984RvMP...56..255B, doi:10.1103/RevModPhys.56.255 Rees, Martin (1966), "Appearance of Relativistically Expanding Radio Sources", Nature, 211 (5048): 468–470, Bibcode:1966Natur.211..468R, doi:10.1038/211468a0, S2CID 41065207
For stellar end states, cf. Oppenheimer & Snyder 1939 or, for more recent numerical work, Font 2003, sec. 4.1; for supernovae, there are still major problems to be solved, cf. Buras et al. 2003; for simulating accretion and the formation of jets, cf. Font 2003, sec. 4.2. Also, relativistic lensing effects are thought to play a role for the signals received from X-ray pulsars, cf. Kraus 1998 Oppenheimer, J. Robert; Snyder, H. (1939), "On continued gravitational contraction", Physical Review, 56 (5): 455–459, Bibcode:1939PhRv...56..455O, doi:10.1103/PhysRev.56.455 Font, José A. (2003), "Numerical Hydrodynamics in General Relativity", Living Reviews in Relativity, 6 (1): 4, Bibcode:2003LRR.....6....4F, doi:10.12942/lrr-2003-4, PMC 5660627, PMID 29104452 Buras, R.; Rampp, M.; Janka, H.-Th.; Kifonidis, K. (2003), "Improved Models of Stellar Core Collapse and Still no Explosions: What is Missing?", Phys. Rev. Lett., 90 (24): 241101, arXiv:astro-ph/0303171, Bibcode:2003PhRvL..90x1101B, doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.90.241101, PMID 12857181, S2CID 27632148 Font, José A. (2003), "Numerical Hydrodynamics in General Relativity", Living Reviews in Relativity, 6 (1): 4, Bibcode:2003LRR.....6....4F, doi:10.12942/lrr-2003-4, PMC 5660627, PMID 29104452 Kraus, Ute (1998), "Light Deflection Near Neutron Stars", Relativistic Astrophysics, Vieweg, pp. 66–81, ISBN 978-3-528-06909-4
The evidence includes limits on compactness from the observation of accretion-driven phenomena ("Eddington luminosity"), see Celotti, Miller & Sciama 1999, observations of stellar dynamics in the center of our own Milky Way galaxy, cf. Schödel et al. 2003, and indications that at least some of the compact objects in question appear to have no solid surface, which can be deduced from the examination of X-ray bursts for which the central compact object is either a neutron star or a black hole; cf. Remillard et al. 2006 for an overview, Narayan 2006, sec. 5. Observations of the "shadow" of the Milky Way galaxy's central black hole horizon are eagerly sought for, cf. Falcke, Melia & Agol 2000 Celotti, Annalisa; Miller, John C.; Sciama, Dennis W. (1999), "Astrophysical evidence for the existence of black holes", Class. Quantum Grav., 16 (12A): A3 – A21, arXiv:astro-ph/9912186, Bibcode:1999CQGra..16A...3C, doi:10.1088/0264-9381/16/12A/301, S2CID 17677758 Schödel, R.; Ott, T.; Genzel, R.; Eckart, A.; Mouawad, N.; Alexander, T. (2003), "Stellar Dynamics in the Central Arcsecond of Our Galaxy", Astrophysical Journal, 596 (2): 1015–1034, arXiv:astro-ph/0306214, Bibcode:2003ApJ...596.1015S, doi:10.1086/378122, S2CID 17719367 Remillard, Ronald A.; Lin, Dacheng; Cooper, Randall L.; Narayan, Ramesh (2006), "The Rates of Type I X-Ray Bursts from Transients Observed with RXTE: Evidence for Black Hole Event Horizons", Astrophysical Journal, 646 (1): 407–419, arXiv:astro-ph/0509758, Bibcode:2006ApJ...646..407R, doi:10.1086/504862, S2CID 14949527 Narayan, Ramesh (2006), "Black holes in astrophysics", New Journal of Physics, 7 (1): 199, arXiv:gr-qc/0506078, Bibcode:2005NJPh....7..199N, doi:10.1088/1367-2630/7/1/199, S2CID 17986323 Falcke, Heino; Melia, Fulvio; Agol, Eric (2000), "Viewing the Shadow of the Black Hole at the Galactic Center", Astrophysical Journal, 528 (1): L13 – L16, arXiv:astro-ph/9912263, Bibcode:2000ApJ...528L..13F, doi:10.1086/312423, PMID 10587484, S2CID 119433133
Dalal et al. 2006 Dalal, Neal; Holz, Daniel E.; Hughes, Scott A.; Jain, Bhuvnesh (2006), "Short GRB and binary black hole standard sirens as a probe of dark energy", Phys. Rev. D, 74 (6): 063006, arXiv:astro-ph/0601275, Bibcode:2006PhRvD..74f3006D, doi:10.1103/PhysRevD.74.063006, S2CID 10008243
Barack & Cutler 2004 Barack, Leor; Cutler, Curt (2004), "LISA Capture Sources: Approximate Waveforms, Signal-to-Noise Ratios, and Parameter Estimation Accuracy", Phys. Rev. D, 69 (8): 082005, arXiv:gr-qc/0310125, Bibcode:2004PhRvD..69h2005B, doi:10.1103/PhysRevD.69.082005, S2CID 21565397
Bergström & Goobar 2003, ch. 9–11; use of these models is justified by the fact that, at large scales of around hundred million light-years and more, our own universe indeed appears to be isotropic and homogeneous, cf. Peebles et al. 1991 Bergström, Lars; Goobar, Ariel (2003), Cosmology and Particle Astrophysics (2nd ed.), Wiley & Sons, ISBN 978-3-540-43128-2 Peebles, P.J.E.; Schramm, D.N.; Turner, E.L.; Kron, R.G. (1991), "The case for the relativistic hot Big Bang cosmology", Nature, 352 (6338): 769–776, Bibcode:1991Natur.352..769P, doi:10.1038/352769a0, S2CID 4337502
E.g. with WMAP data, see Spergel et al. 2003 Spergel, D. N.; Verde, L.; Peiris, H. V.; Komatsu, E.; Nolta, M. R.; Bennett, C. L.; Halpern, M.; Hinshaw, G.; et al. (2003), "First Year Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe (WMAP) Observations: Determination of Cosmological Parameters", Astrophys. J. Suppl. Ser., 148 (1): 175–194, arXiv:astro-ph/0302209, Bibcode:2003ApJS..148..175S, doi:10.1086/377226, S2CID 10794058
These tests involve the separate observations detailed further on, see, e.g., fig. 2 in Bridle et al. 2003 Bridle, Sarah L.; Lahav, Ofer; Ostriker, Jeremiah P.; Steinhardt, Paul J. (2003), "Precision Cosmology? Not Just Yet", Science, 299 (5612): 1532–1533, arXiv:astro-ph/0303180, Bibcode:2003Sci...299.1532B, doi:10.1126/science.1082158, PMID 12624255, S2CID 119368762
Peebles 1966; for a recent account of predictions, see Coc, Vangioni‐Flam et al. 2004; an accessible account can be found in Weiss 2006; compare with the observations in Olive & Skillman 2004, Bania, Rood & Balser 2002, O'Meara et al. 2001, and Charbonnel & Primas 2005 Peebles, P. J. E. (1966), "Primordial Helium abundance and primordial fireball II", Astrophysical Journal, 146: 542–552, Bibcode:1966ApJ...146..542P, doi:10.1086/148918 Coc, A.; Vangioni-Flam, Elisabeth; Descouvemont, Pierre; Adahchour, Abderrahim; Angulo, Carmen (2004), "Updated Big Bang Nucleosynthesis confronted to WMAP observations and to the Abundance of Light Elements", Astrophysical Journal, 600 (2): 544–552, arXiv:astro-ph/0309480, Bibcode:2004ApJ...600..544C, doi:10.1086/380121, S2CID 16276658 Weiss, Achim (2006), "Elements of the past: Big Bang Nucleosynthesis and observation", Einstein Online, Max Planck Institute for Gravitational Physics, archived from the original on 8 February 2007, retrieved 24 February 2007 Olive, K. A.; Skillman, E. A. (2004), "A Realistic Determination of the Error on the Primordial Helium Abundance", Astrophysical Journal, 617 (1): 29–49, arXiv:astro-ph/0405588, Bibcode:2004ApJ...617...29O, doi:10.1086/425170, S2CID 15187664 Bania, T. M.; Rood, R. T.; Balser, D. S. (2002), "The cosmological density of baryons from observations of 3He+ in the Milky Way", Nature, 415 (6867): 54–57, Bibcode:2002Natur.415...54B, doi:10.1038/415054a, PMID 11780112, S2CID 4303625 O'Meara, John M.; Tytler, David; Kirkman, David; Suzuki, Nao; Prochaska, Jason X.; Lubin, Dan; Wolfe, Arthur M. (2001), "The Deuterium to Hydrogen Abundance Ratio Towards a Fourth QSO: HS0105+1619", Astrophysical Journal, 552 (2): 718–730, arXiv:astro-ph/0011179, Bibcode:2001ApJ...552..718O, doi:10.1086/320579, S2CID 14164537 Charbonnel, C.; Primas, F. (2005), "The Lithium Content of the Galactic Halo Stars", Astronomy & Astrophysics, 442 (3): 961–992, arXiv:astro-ph/0505247, Bibcode:2005A&A...442..961C, doi:10.1051/0004-6361:20042491, S2CID 119340132
Lahav & Suto 2004, Bertschinger 1998, Springel et al. 2005 Lahav, Ofer; Suto, Yasushi (2004), "Measuring our Universe from Galaxy Redshift Surveys", Living Reviews in Relativity, 7 (1): 8, arXiv:astro-ph/0310642, Bibcode:2004LRR.....7....8L, doi:10.12942/lrr-2004-8, PMC 5253994, PMID 28163643 Bertschinger, Edmund (1998), "Simulations of structure formation in the universe", Annu. Rev. Astron. Astrophys., 36 (1): 599–654, Bibcode:1998ARA&A..36..599B, doi:10.1146/annurev.astro.36.1.599 Springel, Volker; White, Simon D. M.; Jenkins, Adrian; Frenk, Carlos S.; Yoshida, Naoki; Gao, Liang; Navarro, Julio; Thacker, Robert; et al. (2005), "Simulations of the formation, evolution and clustering of galaxies and quasars", Nature, 435 (7042): 629–636, arXiv:astro-ph/0504097, Bibcode:2005Natur.435..629S, doi:10.1038/nature03597, PMID 15931216, S2CID 4383030
Alpher & Herman 1948, for a pedagogical introduction, see Bergström & Goobar 2003, ch. 11; for the initial detection, see Penzias & Wilson 1965 and, for precision measurements by satellite observatories, Mather et al. 1994 (COBE) and Bennett et al. 2003 (WMAP). Future measurements could also reveal evidence about gravitational waves in the early universe; this additional information is contained in the background radiation's polarization, cf. Kamionkowski, Kosowsky & Stebbins 1997 and Seljak & Zaldarriaga 1997 Alpher, R. A.; Herman, R. C. (1948), "Evolution of the universe", Nature, 162 (4124): 774–775, Bibcode:1948Natur.162..774A, doi:10.1038/162774b0, S2CID 4113488 Bergström, Lars; Goobar, Ariel (2003), Cosmology and Particle Astrophysics (2nd ed.), Wiley & Sons, ISBN 978-3-540-43128-2 Penzias, A. A.; Wilson, R. W. (1965), "A measurement of excess antenna temperature at 4080 Mc/s", Astrophysical Journal, 142: 419–421, Bibcode:1965ApJ...142..419P, doi:10.1086/148307 Mather, J. C.; Cheng, E. S.; Cottingham, D. A.; Eplee, R. E.; Fixsen, D. J.; Hewagama, T.; Isaacman, R. B.; Jensen, K. A.; et al. (1994), "Measurement of the cosmic microwave spectrum by the COBE FIRAS instrument", Astrophysical Journal, 420: 439–444, Bibcode:1994ApJ...420..439M, doi:10.1086/173574 Bennett, C. L.; Halpern, M.; Hinshaw, G.; Jarosik, N.; Kogut, A.; Limon, M.; Meyer, S. S.; Page, L.; et al. (2003), "First Year Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe (WMAP) Observations: Preliminary Maps and Basic Results", Astrophys. J. Suppl. Ser., 148 (1): 1–27, arXiv:astro-ph/0302207, Bibcode:2003ApJS..148....1B, doi:10.1086/377253, S2CID 115601 Kamionkowski, Marc; Kosowsky, Arthur; Stebbins, Albert (1997), "Statistics of Cosmic Microwave Background Polarization", Phys. Rev. D, 55 (12): 7368–7388, arXiv:astro-ph/9611125, Bibcode:1997PhRvD..55.7368K, doi:10.1103/PhysRevD.55.7368, S2CID 14018215 Seljak, Uros̆; Zaldarriaga, Matias (1997), "Signature of Gravity Waves in the Polarization of the Microwave Background", Phys. Rev. Lett., 78 (11): 2054–2057, arXiv:astro-ph/9609169, Bibcode:1997PhRvL..78.2054S, doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.78.2054, S2CID 30795875
Evidence for this comes from the determination of cosmological parameters and additional observations involving the dynamics of galaxies and galaxy clusters cf. Peebles 1993, ch. 18, evidence from gravitational lensing, cf. Peacock 1999, sec. 4.6, and simulations of large-scale structure formation, see Springel et al. 2005 Peebles, P. J. E. (1993), Principles of physical cosmology, Princeton University Press, ISBN 978-0-691-01933-8 Peacock, John A. (1999), Cosmological Physics, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0-521-41072-4 Springel, Volker; White, Simon D. M.; Jenkins, Adrian; Frenk, Carlos S.; Yoshida, Naoki; Gao, Liang; Navarro, Julio; Thacker, Robert; et al. (2005), "Simulations of the formation, evolution and clustering of galaxies and quasars", Nature, 435 (7042): 629–636, arXiv:astro-ph/0504097, Bibcode:2005Natur.435..629S, doi:10.1038/nature03597, PMID 15931216, S2CID 4383030
Peacock 1999, ch. 12, Peskin 2007; in particular, observations indicate that all but a negligible portion of that matter is not in the form of the usual elementary particles ("non-baryonic matter"), cf. Peacock 1999, ch. 12 Peacock, John A. (1999), Cosmological Physics, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0-521-41072-4 Peskin, Michael E. (2007), "Dark Matter and Particle Physics", Journal of the Physical Society of Japan, 76 (11): 111017, arXiv:0707.1536, Bibcode:2007JPSJ...76k1017P, doi:10.1143/JPSJ.76.111017, S2CID 16276112 Peacock, John A. (1999), Cosmological Physics, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0-521-41072-4
Namely, some physicists have questioned whether or not the evidence for dark matter is, in fact, evidence for deviations from the Einsteinian (and the Newtonian) description of gravity cf. the overview in Mannheim 2006, sec. 9 Mannheim, Philip D. (2006), "Alternatives to Dark Matter and Dark Energy", Prog. Part. Nucl. Phys., 56 (2): 340–445, arXiv:astro-ph/0505266, Bibcode:2006PrPNP..56..340M, doi:10.1016/j.ppnp.2005.08.001, S2CID 14024934
Carroll 2001; an accessible overview is given in Caldwell 2004. Here, too, scientists have argued that the evidence indicates not a new form of energy, but the need for modifications in our cosmological models, cf. Mannheim 2006, sec. 10; aforementioned modifications need not be modifications of general relativity, they could, for example, be modifications in the way we treat the inhomogeneities in the universe, cf. Buchert 2008 Carroll, Sean M. (2001), "The Cosmological Constant", Living Reviews in Relativity, 4 (1): 1, arXiv:astro-ph/0004075, Bibcode:2001LRR.....4....1C, doi:10.12942/lrr-2001-1, PMC 5256042, PMID 28179856 Caldwell, Robert R. (2004), "Dark Energy", Physics World, 17 (5): 37–42, doi:10.1088/2058-7058/17/5/36 Mannheim, Philip D. (2006), "Alternatives to Dark Matter and Dark Energy", Prog. Part. Nucl. Phys., 56 (2): 340–445, arXiv:astro-ph/0505266, Bibcode:2006PrPNP..56..340M, doi:10.1016/j.ppnp.2005.08.001, S2CID 14024934 Buchert, Thomas (2008), "Dark Energy from Structure—A Status Report", General Relativity and Gravitation, 40 (2–3): 467–527, arXiv:0707.2153, Bibcode:2008GReGr..40..467B, doi:10.1007/s10714-007-0554-8, S2CID 17281664
A good introduction is Linde 2005; for a more recent review, see Linde 2006 Linde, Andrei (2005), Particle Physics and Inflationary Cosmology, Contemporary Concepts in Physics, vol. 5, pp. 1–362, arXiv:hep-th/0503203, Bibcode:2005hep.th....3203L, ISBN 978-3-7186-0489-0 Linde, Andrei (2006), "Towards inflation in string theory", J. Phys. Conf. Ser., 24 (1): 151–160, arXiv:hep-th/0503195, Bibcode:2005JPhCS..24..151L, doi:10.1088/1742-6596/24/1/018, S2CID 250677699
Spergel et al. 2007, sec. 5,6 Spergel, D. N.; Bean, R.; Doré, O.; Nolta, M. R.; Bennett, C. L.; Dunkley, J.; Hinshaw, G.; Jarosik, N.; et al. (2007), "Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe (WMAP) Three Year Results: Implications for Cosmology", Astrophysical Journal Supplement, 170 (2): 377–408, arXiv:astro-ph/0603449, Bibcode:2007ApJS..170..377S, doi:10.1086/513700, S2CID 1386346
Brandenberger 2008, sec. 2 Brandenberger, Robert H. (2008), "Conceptual problems of inflationary cosmology and a new approach to cosmological structure formation", in Lemoine, Martin; Martin, Jerome; Peter, Patrick (eds.), Inflationary Cosmology, Lecture Notes in Physics, vol. 738, pp. 393–424, arXiv:hep-th/0701111, Bibcode:2007LNP...738..393B, doi:10.1007/978-3-540-74353-8_11, ISBN 978-3-540-74352-1, S2CID 18752698
Finazzi, Stefano; Liberati, Stefano; Barceló, Carlos (15 June 2009). "Semiclassical instability of dynamical warp drives". Physical Review D. 79 (12): 124017. arXiv:0904.0141. Bibcode:2009PhRvD..79l4017F. doi:10.1103/PhysRevD.79.124017. S2CID 59575856.
Bondi, H.; Van der Burg, M.G.J.; Metzner, A. (1962). "Gravitational waves in general relativity: VII. Waves from axisymmetric isolated systems". Proceedings of the Royal Society of London. Series A. Mathematical and Physical Sciences. 269 (1336): 21–52. Bibcode:1962RSPSA.269...21B. doi:10.1098/rspa.1962.0161. S2CID 120125096.
For first steps, cf. Israel 1971; see Hawking & Ellis 1973, sec. 9.3 or Heusler 1996, ch. 9 and 10 for a derivation, and Heusler 1998 as well as Beig & Chruściel 2006 as overviews of more recent results Israel, Werner (1971), "Event Horizons and Gravitational Collapse", General Relativity and Gravitation, 2 (1): 53–59, Bibcode:1971GReGr...2...53I, doi:10.1007/BF02450518, S2CID 119645546 Hawking, Stephen W.; Ellis, George F. R. (1973), The large scale structure of space-time, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0-521-09906-6 Heusler, Markus (1996), "Black Hole Uniqueness Theorems", Cambridge Lecture Notes in Physics, 6, Cambridge University Press, Bibcode:1996CLNP....6.....H, ISBN 978-0-521-56735-0 Heusler, Markus (1998), "Stationary Black Holes: Uniqueness and Beyond", Living Reviews in Relativity, 1 (1): 6, Bibcode:1998LRR.....1....6H, doi:10.12942/lrr-1998-6, PMC 5567259, PMID 28937184 Beig, Robert; Chruściel, Piotr T. (2006), "Stationary black holes", in Françoise, J.-P.; Naber, G.; Tsou, T.S. (eds.), Encyclopedia of Mathematical Physics, Volume 2, Elsevier, p. 2041, arXiv:gr-qc/0502041, Bibcode:2005gr.qc.....2041B, ISBN 978-0-12-512660-1
The laws of black hole mechanics were first described in Bardeen, Carter & Hawking 1973; a more pedagogical presentation can be found in Carter 1979; for a more recent review, see Wald 2001, ch. 2. A thorough, book-length introduction including an introduction to the necessary mathematics Poisson 2004. For the Penrose process, see Penrose 1969 Bardeen, J. M.; Carter, B.; Hawking, S. W. (1973), "The Four Laws of Black Hole Mechanics", Comm. Math. Phys., 31 (2): 161–170, Bibcode:1973CMaPh..31..161B, doi:10.1007/BF01645742, S2CID 54690354 Carter, Brandon (1979), "The general theory of the mechanical, electromagnetic and thermodynamic properties of black holes", in Hawking, S. W.; Israel, W. (eds.), General Relativity, an Einstein Centenary Survey, Cambridge University Press, pp. 294–369 and 860–863, ISBN 978-0-521-29928-2 Wald, Robert M. (2001), "The Thermodynamics of Black Holes", Living Reviews in Relativity, 4 (1): 6, arXiv:gr-qc/9912119, Bibcode:2001LRR.....4....6W, doi:10.12942/lrr-2001-6, PMC 5253844, PMID 28163633 Poisson, Eric (2004), A Relativist's Toolkit. The Mathematics of Black-Hole Mechanics, Cambridge University Press, Bibcode:2004rtmb.book.....P, ISBN 978-0-521-83091-1 Penrose, Roger (1969), "Gravitational collapse: the role of general relativity", Rivista del Nuovo Cimento, 1: 252–276, Bibcode:1969NCimR...1..252P
Bekenstein 1973, Bekenstein 1974 Bekenstein, Jacob D. (1973), "Black Holes and Entropy", Phys. Rev. D, 7 (8): 2333–2346, Bibcode:1973PhRvD...7.2333B, doi:10.1103/PhysRevD.7.2333, S2CID 122636624 Bekenstein, Jacob D. (1974), "Generalized Second Law of Thermodynamics in Black-Hole Physics", Phys. Rev. D, 9 (12): 3292–3300, Bibcode:1974PhRvD...9.3292B, doi:10.1103/PhysRevD.9.3292, S2CID 123043135
The fact that black holes radiate, quantum mechanically, was first derived in Hawking 1975; a more thorough derivation can be found in Wald 1975. A review is given in Wald 2001, ch. 3 Hawking, S. W. (1975), "Particle Creation by Black Holes", Communications in Mathematical Physics, 43 (3): 199–220, Bibcode:1975CMaPh..43..199H, doi:10.1007/BF02345020, S2CID 55539246 Wald, Robert M. (1975), "On Particle Creation by Black Holes", Commun. Math. Phys., 45 (3): 9–34, Bibcode:1975CMaPh..45....9W, doi:10.1007/BF01609863, S2CID 120950657 Wald, Robert M. (2001), "The Thermodynamics of Black Holes", Living Reviews in Relativity, 4 (1): 6, arXiv:gr-qc/9912119, Bibcode:2001LRR.....4....6W, doi:10.12942/lrr-2001-6, PMC 5253844, PMID 28163633
Ellis & Van Elst 1999; a closer look at the singularity itself is taken in Börner 1993, sec. 1.2 Ellis, George F R; Van Elst, Henk (1999), "Cosmological Models", in Lachièze-Rey, Marc (ed.), Theoretical and Observational Cosmology, vol. 541, pp. 1–116, arXiv:gr-qc/9812046, Bibcode:1999ASIC..541....1E, doi:10.1007/978-94-011-4455-1_1, ISBN 978-0-7923-5946-3, S2CID 122994560 Börner, Gerhard (1993), The Early Universe. Facts and Fiction, Springer, Bibcode:1993euff.book.....B, ISBN 978-0-387-56729-7
Hawking 1966 Hawking, Stephen W. (1966), "The occurrence of singularities in cosmology", Proceedings of the Royal Society of London. Series A. Mathematical and Physical Sciences, 294 (1439): 511–521, Bibcode:1966RSPSA.294..511H, doi:10.1098/rspa.1966.0221, JSTOR 2415489, S2CID 120730123
Gourgoulhon 2007; for a review of the basics of numerical relativity, including the problems arising from the peculiarities of Einstein's equations, see Lehner 2001 Gourgoulhon, Eric (2007). "3+1 Formalism and Bases of Numerical Relativity". arXiv:gr-qc/0703035. Lehner, Luis (2001), "Numerical Relativity: A review", Class. Quantum Grav., 18 (17): R25 – R86, arXiv:gr-qc/0106072, Bibcode:2001CQGra..18R..25L, doi:10.1088/0264-9381/18/17/202, S2CID 9715975
For Hawking radiation Hawking 1975, Wald 1975; an accessible introduction to black hole evaporation can be found in Traschen 2000 Hawking, S. W. (1975), "Particle Creation by Black Holes", Communications in Mathematical Physics, 43 (3): 199–220, Bibcode:1975CMaPh..43..199H, doi:10.1007/BF02345020, S2CID 55539246 Wald, Robert M. (1975), "On Particle Creation by Black Holes", Commun. Math. Phys., 45 (3): 9–34, Bibcode:1975CMaPh..45....9W, doi:10.1007/BF01609863, S2CID 120950657 Traschen, Jennie (2000), Bytsenko, A.; Williams, F. (eds.), "An Introduction to Black Hole Evaporation", Mathematical Methods of Physics (Proceedings of the 1999 Londrina Winter School), World Scientific: 180, arXiv:gr-qc/0010055, Bibcode:2000mmp..conf..180T
Put simply, matter is the source of spacetime curvature, and once matter has quantum properties, we can expect spacetime to have them as well. Cf. Carlip 2001, sec. 2 Carlip, Steven (2001), "Quantum Gravity: a Progress Report", Rep. Prog. Phys., 64 (8): 885–942, arXiv:gr-qc/0108040, Bibcode:2001RPPh...64..885C, doi:10.1088/0034-4885/64/8/301, S2CID 118923209
At the energies reached in current experiments, these strings are indistinguishable from point-like particles, but, crucially, different modes of oscillation of one and the same type of fundamental string appear as particles with different (electric and other) charges, e.g. Ibanez 2000. The theory is successful in that one mode will always correspond to a graviton, the messenger particle of gravity, e.g. Green, Schwarz & Witten 1987, sec. 2.3, 5.3 Ibanez, L. E. (2000), "The second string (phenomenology) revolution", Class. Quantum Grav., 17 (5): 1117–1128, arXiv:hep-ph/9911499, Bibcode:2000CQGra..17.1117I, doi:10.1088/0264-9381/17/5/321, S2CID 15707877 Green, M. B.; Schwarz, J. H.; Witten, E. (1987), Superstring theory. Volume 1: Introduction, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0-521-35752-4
Townsend 1996, Duff 1996 Townsend, Paul K. (1996). "Four Lectures on M-Theory". High Energy Physics and Cosmology. 13: 385. arXiv:hep-th/9612121. Bibcode:1997hepcbconf..385T. Duff, Michael (1996), "M-Theory (the Theory Formerly Known as Strings)", Int. J. Mod. Phys. A, 11 (32): 5623–5641, arXiv:hep-th/9608117, Bibcode:1996IJMPA..11.5623D, doi:10.1142/S0217751X96002583, S2CID 17432791
For a review, see Thiemann 2007; more extensive accounts can be found in Rovelli 1998, Ashtekar & Lewandowski 2004 as well as in the lecture notes Thiemann 2003 Thiemann, Thomas (2007), "Loop Quantum Gravity: An Inside View", Approaches to Fundamental Physics, Lecture Notes in Physics, vol. 721, pp. 185–263, arXiv:hep-th/0608210, Bibcode:2007LNP...721..185T, doi:10.1007/978-3-540-71117-9_10, ISBN 978-3-540-71115-5, S2CID 119572847 Rovelli, Carlo (1998), "Loop Quantum Gravity", Living Reviews in Relativity, 1 (1): 1, arXiv:gr-qc/9710008, Bibcode:1998LRR.....1....1R, CiteSeerX 10.1.1.90.7036, doi:10.12942/lrr-1998-1, PMC 5567241, PMID 28937180 Ashtekar, Abhay; Lewandowski, Jerzy (2004), "Background Independent Quantum Gravity: A Status Report", Class. Quantum Grav., 21 (15): R53 – R152, arXiv:gr-qc/0404018, Bibcode:2004CQGra..21R..53A, doi:10.1088/0264-9381/21/15/R01, S2CID 119175535 Thiemann, Thomas (2003). "Lectures on Loop Quantum Gravity". In Domenico J.W. Giulini; Claus Kiefer; Claus Lämmerzahl (eds.). Quantum Gravity: From Theory to Experimental Search. Lecture Notes in Physics. Vol. 631. pp. 41–135. arXiv:gr-qc/0210094. Bibcode:2003LNP...631...41T. doi:10.1007/978-3-540-45230-0_3. ISBN 978-3-540-40810-9. S2CID 119151491.
Isham 1994, Sorkin 1997 Isham, Christopher J. (1994), "Prima facie questions in quantum gravity", in Ehlers, Jürgen; Friedrich, Helmut (eds.), Canonical Gravity: From Classical to Quantum, Lecture Notes in Physics, vol. 434, Springer, Bibcode:1994LNP...434.....E, doi:10.1007/3540583394, ISBN 978-3-540-58339-4 Sorkin, Rafael D. (1997), "Forks in the Road, on the Way to Quantum Gravity", Int. J. Theor. Phys., 36 (12): 2759–2781, arXiv:gr-qc/9706002, Bibcode:1997IJTP...36.2759S, doi:10.1007/BF02435709, S2CID 4803804
Ashtekar 2007, Schwarz 2007 Ashtekar, Abhay (2007), "Loop Quantum Gravity: Four Recent Advances and a Dozen Frequently Asked Questions", Proceedings of the Eleventh Marcel Grossmann Meeting Meeting on General Relativity, The Eleventh Marcel Grossmann Meeting on Recent Developments in Theoretical and Experimental General Relativity, p. 126, arXiv:0705.2222, Bibcode:2008mgm..conf..126A, doi:10.1142/9789812834300_0008, ISBN 978-981-283-426-3, S2CID 119663169 Schwarz, John H. (2007), "String Theory: Progress and Problems", Progress of Theoretical Physics Supplement, 170: 214–226, arXiv:hep-th/0702219, Bibcode:2007PThPS.170..214S, doi:10.1143/PTPS.170.214, S2CID 16762545
Friedrich 2005 Friedrich, Helmut (2005), "Is general relativity 'essentially understood'?", Annalen der Physik, 15 (1–2): 84–108, arXiv:gr-qc/0508016, Bibcode:2006AnP...518...84F, doi:10.1002/andp.200510173, S2CID 37236624
A review of the various problems and the techniques being developed to overcome them, see Lehner 2002 Lehner, Luis (2002). "Numerical Relativity: Status and Prospects". In Nigel T. Bishop; Sunil D. Maharaj (eds.). General Relativity and Gravitation. General Relativity and Gravitation: Proceedings of the 16th International Conference, Durban, South Africa, 15–21 July 2001. p. 210. arXiv:gr-qc/0202055. Bibcode:2002grg..conf..210L. doi:10.1142/9789812776556_0010. ISBN 978-981-238-171-2. S2CID 9145148.
For the most recent papers on gravitational wave polarizations of inspiralling compact binaries, see Blanchet et al. 2008, and Arun et al. 2008; for a review of work on compact binaries, see Blanchet 2006 and Futamase & Itoh 2006; for a general review of experimental tests of general relativity, see Will 2006 Blanchet, L.; Faye, G.; Iyer, B. R.; Sinha, S. (2008), "The third post-Newtonian gravitational wave polarisations and associated spherical harmonic modes for inspiralling compact binaries in quasi-circular orbits", Classical and Quantum Gravity, 25 (16): 165003, arXiv:0802.1249, Bibcode:2008CQGra..25p5003B, doi:10.1088/0264-9381/25/16/165003, S2CID 54608927 Arun, K.G.; Blanchet, L.; Iyer, B. R.; Qusailah, M. S. S. (2008), "Inspiralling compact binaries in quasi-elliptical orbits: The complete 3PN energy flux", Physical Review D, 77 (6): 064035, arXiv:0711.0302, Bibcode:2008PhRvD..77f4035A, doi:10.1103/PhysRevD.77.064035, S2CID 55825202 Blanchet, Luc (2006), "Gravitational Radiation from Post-Newtonian Sources and Inspiralling Compact Binaries", Living Reviews in Relativity, 9 (1): 4, Bibcode:2006LRR.....9....4B, doi:10.12942/lrr-2006-4, PMC 5255899, PMID 28179874 Futamase, T.; Itoh, Y. (2006), "The Post-Newtonian Approximation for Relativistic Compact Binaries", Living Reviews in Relativity, 10 (1): 2, Bibcode:2007LRR....10....2F, doi:10.12942/lrr-2007-2, PMC 5255906, PMID 28179819 Will, Clifford M. (2006), "The Confrontation between General Relativity and Experiment", Living Reviews in Relativity, 9 (1): 3, arXiv:gr-qc/0510072, Bibcode:2006LRR.....9....3W, doi:10.12942/lrr-2006-3, PMC 5256066, PMID 28179873

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A mission description can be found in Everitt et al. 2001; a first post-flight evaluation is given in Everitt, Parkinson & Kahn 2007; further updates will be available on the mission website Kahn 1996–2012. Everitt, C. W. F.; Buchman, S.; DeBra, D. B.; Keiser, G. M. (2001), "Gravity Probe B: Countdown to launch", in Lämmerzahl, C.; Everitt, C. W. F.; Hehl, F. W. (eds.), Gyros, Clocks, and Interferometers: Testing Relativistic Gravity in Space (Lecture Notes in Physics 562), Springer, pp. 52–82, ISBN 978-3-540-41236-6 Everitt, C. W. F.; Parkinson, Bradford; Kahn, Bob (2007), The Gravity Probe B experiment. Post Flight Analysis—Final Report (Preface and Executive Summary) (PDF), Project Report: NASA, Stanford University and Lockheed Martin, archived (PDF) from the original on 9 June 2007, retrieved 5 August 2007 Kahn, Bob (1996–2012), Gravity Probe B Website, Stanford University, retrieved 20 April 2012

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Pais 1982, ch. 9 to 15, Janssen 2005; an up-to-date collection of current research, including reprints of many of the original articles, is Renn 2007; an accessible overview can be found in Renn 2005, pp. 110ff. Einstein's original papers are found in Digital Einstein, volumes 4 and 6. An early key article is Einstein 1907, cf. Pais 1982, ch. 9. The publication featuring the field equations is Einstein 1915, cf. Pais 1982, ch. 11–15 Pais, Abraham (1982), 'Subtle is the Lord ...' The Science and life of Albert Einstein, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0-19-853907-0 Janssen, Michel (2005), "Of pots and holes: Einstein's bumpy road to general relativity", Annalen der Physik, 14 (S1): 58–85, Bibcode:2005AnP...517S..58J, doi:10.1002/andp.200410130, S2CID 10641693, archived from the original (PDF) on 25 August 2020, retrieved 28 August 2010 Renn, Jürgen, ed. (2007), The Genesis of General Relativity (4 Volumes), Dordrecht: Springer, ISBN 978-1-4020-3999-7 Renn, Jürgen, ed. (2005), Albert Einstein—Chief Engineer of the Universe: Einstein's Life and Work in Context, Berlin: Wiley-VCH, ISBN 978-3-527-40571-8 Einstein, Albert (1907), "Über das Relativitätsprinzip und die aus demselben gezogene Folgerungen", Jahrbuch der Radioaktivität und Elektronik, 4: 411 See also English translation at Einstein Papers Project Pais, Abraham (1982), 'Subtle is the Lord ...' The Science and life of Albert Einstein, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0-19-853907-0 Einstein, Albert (1915), "Die Feldgleichungen der Gravitation", Sitzungsberichte der Preussischen Akademie der Wissenschaften zu Berlin: 844–847, Bibcode:1915SPAW.......844E See also English translation at Einstein Papers Project Pais, Abraham (1982), 'Subtle is the Lord ...' The Science and life of Albert Einstein, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0-19-853907-0

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O'Connor, J.J.; Robertson, E.F. (May 1996). "General relativity]". History Topics: Mathematical Physics Index, Scotland: School of Mathematics and Statistics, University of St. Andrews, archived from the original on 4 February 2015, retrieved 4 February 2015
Pais 1982, ch. 9 to 15, Janssen 2005; an up-to-date collection of current research, including reprints of many of the original articles, is Renn 2007; an accessible overview can be found in Renn 2005, pp. 110ff. Einstein's original papers are found in Digital Einstein, volumes 4 and 6. An early key article is Einstein 1907, cf. Pais 1982, ch. 9. The publication featuring the field equations is Einstein 1915, cf. Pais 1982, ch. 11–15 Pais, Abraham (1982), 'Subtle is the Lord ...' The Science and life of Albert Einstein, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0-19-853907-0 Janssen, Michel (2005), "Of pots and holes: Einstein's bumpy road to general relativity", Annalen der Physik, 14 (S1): 58–85, Bibcode:2005AnP...517S..58J, doi:10.1002/andp.200410130, S2CID 10641693, archived from the original (PDF) on 25 August 2020, retrieved 28 August 2010 Renn, Jürgen, ed. (2007), The Genesis of General Relativity (4 Volumes), Dordrecht: Springer, ISBN 978-1-4020-3999-7 Renn, Jürgen, ed. (2005), Albert Einstein—Chief Engineer of the Universe: Einstein's Life and Work in Context, Berlin: Wiley-VCH, ISBN 978-3-527-40571-8 Einstein, Albert (1907), "Über das Relativitätsprinzip und die aus demselben gezogene Folgerungen", Jahrbuch der Radioaktivität und Elektronik, 4: 411 See also English translation at Einstein Papers Project Pais, Abraham (1982), 'Subtle is the Lord ...' The Science and life of Albert Einstein, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0-19-853907-0 Einstein, Albert (1915), "Die Feldgleichungen der Gravitation", Sitzungsberichte der Preussischen Akademie der Wissenschaften zu Berlin: 844–847, Bibcode:1915SPAW.......844E See also English translation at Einstein Papers Project Pais, Abraham (1982), 'Subtle is the Lord ...' The Science and life of Albert Einstein, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0-19-853907-0
Rindler 2001, sec. 1.13; for an elementary account, see Wheeler 1990, ch. 2; there are, however, some differences between the modern version and Einstein's original concept used in the historical derivation of general relativity, cf. Norton 1985 Rindler, Wolfgang (2001), Relativity. Special, General and Cosmological, Oxford University Press, Bibcode:2001rsgc.book.....R, ISBN 978-0-19-850836-6 Wheeler, John A. (1990), A Journey Into Gravity and Spacetime, Scientific American Library, San Francisco: W. H. Freeman, ISBN 978-0-7167-6034-4 Norton, John D. (1985), "What was Einstein's principle of equivalence?" (PDF), Studies in History and Philosophy of Science, 16 (3): 203–246, Bibcode:1985SHPSA..16..203N, doi:10.1016/0039-3681(85)90002-0, archived (PDF) from the original on 22 September 2006, retrieved 11 June 2007
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Kahn 2007 Kahn, Bob (14 April 2007), Was Einstein right? Scientists provide first public peek at Gravity Probe B results (Stanford University Press Release) (PDF), Stanford University News Service, archived (PDF) from the original on 23 April 2007
A mission description can be found in Everitt et al. 2001; a first post-flight evaluation is given in Everitt, Parkinson & Kahn 2007; further updates will be available on the mission website Kahn 1996–2012. Everitt, C. W. F.; Buchman, S.; DeBra, D. B.; Keiser, G. M. (2001), "Gravity Probe B: Countdown to launch", in Lämmerzahl, C.; Everitt, C. W. F.; Hehl, F. W. (eds.), Gyros, Clocks, and Interferometers: Testing Relativistic Gravity in Space (Lecture Notes in Physics 562), Springer, pp. 52–82, ISBN 978-3-540-41236-6 Everitt, C. W. F.; Parkinson, Bradford; Kahn, Bob (2007), The Gravity Probe B experiment. Post Flight Analysis—Final Report (Preface and Executive Summary) (PDF), Project Report: NASA, Stanford University and Lockheed Martin, archived (PDF) from the original on 9 June 2007, retrieved 5 August 2007 Kahn, Bob (1996–2012), Gravity Probe B Website, Stanford University, retrieved 20 April 2012
Danzmann & Rüdiger 2003 Danzmann, Karsten; Rüdiger, Albrecht (2003), "LISA Technology—Concepts, Status, Prospects" (PDF), Class. Quantum Grav., 20 (10): S1 – S9, Bibcode:2003CQGra..20S...1D, doi:10.1088/0264-9381/20/10/301, hdl:11858/00-001M-0000-0013-5233-E, S2CID 250836327, archived from the original (PDF) on 26 September 2007
Peebles 1966; for a recent account of predictions, see Coc, Vangioni‐Flam et al. 2004; an accessible account can be found in Weiss 2006; compare with the observations in Olive & Skillman 2004, Bania, Rood & Balser 2002, O'Meara et al. 2001, and Charbonnel & Primas 2005 Peebles, P. J. E. (1966), "Primordial Helium abundance and primordial fireball II", Astrophysical Journal, 146: 542–552, Bibcode:1966ApJ...146..542P, doi:10.1086/148918 Coc, A.; Vangioni-Flam, Elisabeth; Descouvemont, Pierre; Adahchour, Abderrahim; Angulo, Carmen (2004), "Updated Big Bang Nucleosynthesis confronted to WMAP observations and to the Abundance of Light Elements", Astrophysical Journal, 600 (2): 544–552, arXiv:astro-ph/0309480, Bibcode:2004ApJ...600..544C, doi:10.1086/380121, S2CID 16276658 Weiss, Achim (2006), "Elements of the past: Big Bang Nucleosynthesis and observation", Einstein Online, Max Planck Institute for Gravitational Physics, archived from the original on 8 February 2007, retrieved 24 February 2007 Olive, K. A.; Skillman, E. A. (2004), "A Realistic Determination of the Error on the Primordial Helium Abundance", Astrophysical Journal, 617 (1): 29–49, arXiv:astro-ph/0405588, Bibcode:2004ApJ...617...29O, doi:10.1086/425170, S2CID 15187664 Bania, T. M.; Rood, R. T.; Balser, D. S. (2002), "The cosmological density of baryons from observations of 3He+ in the Milky Way", Nature, 415 (6867): 54–57, Bibcode:2002Natur.415...54B, doi:10.1038/415054a, PMID 11780112, S2CID 4303625 O'Meara, John M.; Tytler, David; Kirkman, David; Suzuki, Nao; Prochaska, Jason X.; Lubin, Dan; Wolfe, Arthur M. (2001), "The Deuterium to Hydrogen Abundance Ratio Towards a Fourth QSO: HS0105+1619", Astrophysical Journal, 552 (2): 718–730, arXiv:astro-ph/0011179, Bibcode:2001ApJ...552..718O, doi:10.1086/320579, S2CID 14164537 Charbonnel, C.; Primas, F. (2005), "The Lithium Content of the Galactic Halo Stars", Astronomy & Astrophysics, 442 (3): 961–992, arXiv:astro-ph/0505247, Bibcode:2005A&A...442..961C, doi:10.1051/0004-6361:20042491, S2CID 119340132
The conjecture was made in Belinskii, Khalatnikov & Lifschitz 1971; for a more recent review, see Berger 2002. An accessible exposition is given by Garfinkle 2007 Belinskii, V. A.; Khalatnikov, I. M.; Lifschitz, E. M. (1971), "Oscillatory approach to the singular point in relativistic cosmology", Advances in Physics, 19 (80): 525–573, Bibcode:1970AdPhy..19..525B, doi:10.1080/00018737000101171; original paper in Russian: Belinsky, V. A.; Lifshits, I. M.; Khalatnikov, E. M. (1970), "Колебательный Режим Приближения К Особой Точке В Релятивистской Космологии", Uspekhi Fizicheskikh Nauk, 102 (11): 463–500, Bibcode:1970UsFiN.102..463B, doi:10.3367/ufnr.0102.197011d.0463 Berger, Beverly K. (2002), "Numerical Approaches to Spacetime Singularities", Living Reviews in Relativity, 5 (1): 1, arXiv:gr-qc/0201056, Bibcode:2002LRR.....5....1B, doi:10.12942/lrr-2002-1, PMC 5256073, PMID 28179859 Garfinkle, David (2007), "Of singularities and breadmaking", Einstein Online, Max Planck Institute for Gravitational Physics, archived from the original on 10 August 2007, retrieved 3 August 2007

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Kramer, M.; Stairs, I. H.; Manchester, R. N.; Wex, N.; Deller, A. T.; Coles, W. A.; Ali, M.; Burgay, M.; Camilo, F.; Cognard, I.; Damour, T. (13 December 2021). "Strong-Field Gravity Tests with the Double Pulsar". Physical Review X. 11 (4): 041050. arXiv:2112.06795. Bibcode:2021PhRvX..11d1050K. doi:10.1103/PhysRevX.11.041050. ISSN 2160-3308. S2CID 245124502.

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Schwarzschild 1916a, Schwarzschild 1916b and Reissner 1916 (later complemented in Nordström 1918) Schwarzschild, Karl (1916a), "Über das Gravitationsfeld eines Massenpunktes nach der Einsteinschen Theorie", Sitzungsber. Preuss. Akad. D. Wiss.: 189–196, Bibcode:1916SPAW.......189S Schwarzschild, Karl (1916b), "Über das Gravitationsfeld einer Kugel aus inkompressibler Flüssigkeit nach der Einsteinschen Theorie", Sitzungsber. Preuss. Akad. D. Wiss.: 424–434, Bibcode:1916skpa.conf..424S Reissner, H. (1916), "Über die Eigengravitation des elektrischen Feldes nach der Einsteinschen Theorie", Annalen der Physik, 355 (9): 106–120, Bibcode:1916AnP...355..106R, doi:10.1002/andp.19163550905 Nordström, Gunnar (1918), "On the Energy of the Gravitational Field in Einstein's Theory", Verhandl. Koninkl. Ned. Akad. Wetenschap., 26: 1238–1245, Bibcode:1918KNAB...20.1238N