Germanic languages (English Wikipedia)

Koyfman, Steph (29 April 2018). "How Many People Speak Swedish, And Where Is It Spoken?". Babbel Magazine. Archived from the original on 25 February 2024. Retrieved 11 June 2024.

books.google.com

Jacobs (2005). Jacobs, Neil G. (2005). Yiddish: A Linguistic Introduction. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9780521772150 – via Google Books.
Basbøll & Jacobsen (2003). Basbøll, Hans; Jacobsen, Henrik Galberg (2003). Take Danish, for Instance: Linguistic Studies in Honour of Hans Basbøll Presented on the Occasion of His 60th Birthday, 12 July 2003. University Press of Southern Denmark. pp. 41–57. ISBN 9788778388261.
Campbell (1983), p. 139. Campbell, Alistair (1983). Old English Grammar. Clarendon Press. ISBN 9780198119432.
Campbell (1983), p. 169. Campbell, Alistair (1983). Old English Grammar. Clarendon Press. ISBN 9780198119432.

britannica.com

"Germanic languages - Proto-Germanic, Indo-European, Germanic Dialects | Britannica". Archived from the original on 29 December 2023. Retrieved 29 December 2023.
"Germanic peoples". Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved 31 March 2025.
"Germanic languages | Definition, Language Tree, & List | Britannica". www.britannica.com. Archived from the original on 29 December 2023. Retrieved 11 June 2024.

cambridge.org

"Inscribed sandstone fragments of Hole, Norway: radiocarbon dates provide insight into rune-stone traditions". cambridge.org. Retrieved 26 April 2025.

coe.int

conventions.coe.int

"List of declarations made with respect to treaty No. 148". Conventions.coe.int. Archived from the original on 9 July 2011. Retrieved 9 September 2012.

doi.org

The result of the High German consonant shift produced a different sort of s than the original Proto-Germanic s. The former was written ⟨z⟩ and the latter ⟨s⟩. It is thought that the former was a dental /s/, somewhat like in English, while the latter was an "apicoalveolar" sound as in modern European Spanish, sounding somewhere between English /s/ and /ʃ/.Joos (1952)) Modern standard German has /ʃ/ for this sound in some contexts, e.g. initially before a consonant (schlimm cf. English slim; Stand /ʃtant/, cf. English stand), and after /r/ (Arsch, cf. English arse or ass). A number of modern southern German dialects have /ʃ/ for this sound before all consonants, whether or not word-initially. Joos, Martin (1952). "The Medieval Sibilants". Language. 28 (2): 222–231. doi:10.2307/410515. JSTOR 410515.
Wang et al. (2012), p. 657. Wang, Chuan-Chao; Ding, Qi-Liang; Tao, Huan; Li, Hui (2012). "Comment on "Phonemic Diversity Supports a Serial Founder Effect Model of Language Expansion from Africa"". Science. 335 (6069): 657. Bibcode:2012Sci...335..657W. doi:10.1126/science.1207846. ISSN 0036-8075. PMID 22323803.

dur.ac.uk

Holmberg, Anders and Christer Platzack (2005). "The Scandinavian languages". In The Comparative Syntax Handbook, eds Guglielmo Cinque and Richard S. Kayne. Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press. Excerpt at Durham University Archived 3 December 2007 at the Wayback Machine.

ethnologue.com

"Afrikaans". Archived from the original on 3 December 2013. Retrieved 3 August 2016.
Saxon, Low Archived 2 January 2018 at the Wayback Machine Ethnologue.
"Germanic". Ethnologue. Archived from the original on 18 July 2013. Retrieved 3 August 2016.
"Danish". ethnologue.com. Archived from the original on 8 February 2021. Retrieved 18 June 2014.
"Scots". Ethnologue. Archived from the original on 27 March 2021. Retrieved 12 March 2015.
"Frisian". Ethnologue. Archived from the original on 22 March 2021. Retrieved 18 June 2014.
"Faroese". ethnologue.com. Archived from the original on 23 March 2021. Retrieved 18 June 2014.

farese.edu.br

"A co-oficialização da língua pomerana" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 21 December 2012. Retrieved 11 October 2012.

ghostarchive.org

Vasagar, Jeevan (18 June 2013). "German 'should be a working language of EU', says Merkel's party". Archived from the original on 11 January 2022 – via The Telegraph.

grapevine.is

"Iceland And The Rest Of The World" (PDF). The Reykjavík Grapevine. p. 1. Retrieved 15 April 2014. Icelandic towns were essentially turning Danish; the merchant class was Danish and well off Icelanders started speaking their language.

hal.science

Pierre Vogler. "Le dialecte alsacien : vers l'oubli". hal.science. Archived from the original on 19 January 2023. Retrieved 14 July 2021.

harvard.edu

ui.adsabs.harvard.edu

Wang et al. (2012), p. 657. Wang, Chuan-Chao; Ding, Qi-Liang; Tao, Huan; Li, Hui (2012). "Comment on "Phonemic Diversity Supports a Serial Founder Effect Model of Language Expansion from Africa"". Science. 335 (6069): 657. Bibcode:2012Sci...335..657W. doi:10.1126/science.1207846. ISSN 0036-8075. PMID 22323803.

ins-bremen.de

Status und Gebrauch des Niederdeutschen 2016 Archived 16 January 2021 at the Wayback Machine, A. Adler, C. Ehlers, R. Goltz, A. Kleene, A. Plewnia (2016)
"Status und Gebrauch des Niederdeutschen 2016" (PDF). ins-bremen.de. p. 40. Archived from the original (PDF) on 16 January 2021. Retrieved 13 March 2021.

jstor.org

The result of the High German consonant shift produced a different sort of s than the original Proto-Germanic s. The former was written ⟨z⟩ and the latter ⟨s⟩. It is thought that the former was a dental /s/, somewhat like in English, while the latter was an "apicoalveolar" sound as in modern European Spanish, sounding somewhere between English /s/ and /ʃ/.Joos (1952)) Modern standard German has /ʃ/ for this sound in some contexts, e.g. initially before a consonant (schlimm cf. English slim; Stand /ʃtant/, cf. English stand), and after /r/ (Arsch, cf. English arse or ass). A number of modern southern German dialects have /ʃ/ for this sound before all consonants, whether or not word-initially. Joos, Martin (1952). "The Medieval Sibilants". Language. 28 (2): 222–231. doi:10.2307/410515. JSTOR 410515.

koeblergerhard.de

Before Proto-Germanic /x/, /xʷ/ or /r/, but not before Proto-Germanic /z/ (which only merged with /r/ much later in North Germanic). Cf. Old Norse árr (masc.) "messenger" < PG *airuz, ár (fem.) "oar" < PG *airō, vs. eir (fem.) "honor" < PG *aizō, eir (neut.) "bronze" < PG *aizan. (All four become ār in Old English; in Gothic, they become, respectively, airus, (unattested), *aiza, *aiz.) Cf. Köbler, Gerhard. "Altenglisches Wörterbuch" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 18 April 2003.

loc.gov

lccn.loc.gov

Bloemhoff, Henk (2005). Taaltelling Nedersaksisch. Een enquête naar het gebruik en de beheersing van het Nedersaksisch in Nederland [Lower Saxon Language Census. A survey of the use and proficiency of Low Saxon in the Netherlands] (PDF). Nedersaksisch Instituut (Report) (in Dutch). Groningen: Rijksuniversiteit te Groningen. ISBN 90-6466-1324. LCCN 2006364430. OCLC 230137295. OL 31709135M. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2 December 2024. Retrieved 30 December 2024.

ne.se

"Världens 100 största språk 2010" [The world's 100 largest languages in 2010]. Nationalencyklopedin (in Swedish). 2010. Archived from the original on 6 October 2014. Retrieved 12 February 2014.

niederdeutsche-literatur.de

Low German forms follow the dictionary of Reuter, Fritz (1905). Das Fritz-Reuter-Wörterbuch. Digitales Wörterbuch Niederdeutsch (dwn). Archived from the original on 22 October 2021. Retrieved 22 October 2021.

nih.gov

pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov

Wang et al. (2012), p. 657. Wang, Chuan-Chao; Ding, Qi-Liang; Tao, Huan; Li, Hui (2012). "Comment on "Phonemic Diversity Supports a Serial Founder Effect Model of Language Expansion from Africa"". Science. 335 (6069): 657. Bibcode:2012Sci...335..657W. doi:10.1126/science.1207846. ISSN 0036-8075. PMID 22323803.

olcalsace.org

"Office pour la langue et les cultures d'Alsace et de Moselle". olcalsace.org. Archived from the original on 19 January 2023. Retrieved 19 January 2023.

openlibrary.org

Bloemhoff, Henk (2005). Taaltelling Nedersaksisch. Een enquête naar het gebruik en de beheersing van het Nedersaksisch in Nederland [Lower Saxon Language Census. A survey of the use and proficiency of Low Saxon in the Netherlands] (PDF). Nedersaksisch Instituut (Report) (in Dutch). Groningen: Rijksuniversiteit te Groningen. ISBN 90-6466-1324. LCCN 2006364430. OCLC 230137295. OL 31709135M. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2 December 2024. Retrieved 30 December 2024.
Ringe (2006), p. 67. Ringe, Don (2006). From Proto-Indo-European to Proto-Germanic (PDF). A Linguistic History of English (1st ed.). New York City: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-928413-9. OCLC 64554645. OL 7405151M. Wikidata Q131605459.
According to Donald Ringe, cf. Ringe (2006:295) Ringe, Don (2006). From Proto-Indo-European to Proto-Germanic (PDF). A Linguistic History of English (1st ed.). New York City: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-928413-9. OCLC 64554645. OL 7405151M. Wikidata Q131605459.
Ringe (2006). Ringe, Don (2006). From Proto-Indo-European to Proto-Germanic (PDF). A Linguistic History of English (1st ed.). New York City: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-928413-9. OCLC 64554645. OL 7405151M. Wikidata Q131605459.

public.lu

luxembourg.public.lu

"An intro to 'Lëtzebuergesch'". Archived from the original on 12 April 2023. Retrieved 18 April 2023.

rug.nl

let.rug.nl

Dutch-speakers can understand Afrikaans with some difficulty, but Afrikaans-speakers have a harder time understanding Dutch because of the simplified grammar of Afrikaans, compared to that of Dutch, http://www.let.rug.nl/~gooskens/pdf/publ_litlingcomp_2006b.pdf Archived 4 March 2016 at the Wayback Machine

ssb.no

"Befolkningen". ssb.no (in Norwegian). Archived from the original on 23 March 2021. Retrieved 29 November 2018.

statice.is

"Statistics Iceland". Statistics Iceland. Archived from the original on 26 May 2020. Retrieved 18 June 2014.

stellingia.nl

Bloemhoff, Henk (2005). Taaltelling Nedersaksisch. Een enquête naar het gebruik en de beheersing van het Nedersaksisch in Nederland [Lower Saxon Language Census. A survey of the use and proficiency of Low Saxon in the Netherlands] (PDF). Nedersaksisch Instituut (Report) (in Dutch). Groningen: Rijksuniversiteit te Groningen. ISBN 90-6466-1324. LCCN 2006364430. OCLC 230137295. OL 31709135M. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2 December 2024. Retrieved 30 December 2024.

taalunieversum.org

"Feiten en cijfers – Taalunieversum". taalunieversum.org. Archived from the original on 6 October 2022. Retrieved 11 April 2015.
"Nederlands, wereldtaal". Nederlandse Taalunie. 2010. Archived from the original on 21 October 2012. Retrieved 7 April 2011.

telegraph.co.uk

Vasagar, Jeevan (18 June 2013). "German 'should be a working language of EU', says Merkel's party". Archived from the original on 11 January 2022 – via The Telegraph.

thearchaeologist.org

"The Early Germanic Peoples: A Historical Overview from Ancient Sources". The Archaeologist. 18 May 2024. Retrieved 31 March 2025.

utexas.edu

lrc.la.utexas.edu

"1 Cor. 13:1–12". lrc.la.utexas.edu. Archived from the original on 23 March 2021. Retrieved 3 August 2016.

vub.ac.be

homepages.vub.ac.be

van Durme, Luc (2002). "Genesis and Evolution of the Romance-Germanic Language Border in Europe". In Treffers-Daller, Jeanine; Willemyns, Roland (eds.). Language Contact at the Romance–Germanic Language Border (PDF). Multilingual Matters. p. 13. ISBN 9781853596278. Archived (PDF) from the original on 16 September 2020.

web.archive.org

Before Proto-Germanic /x/, /xʷ/ or /r/, but not before Proto-Germanic /z/ (which only merged with /r/ much later in North Germanic). Cf. Old Norse árr (masc.) "messenger" < PG *airuz, ár (fem.) "oar" < PG *airō, vs. eir (fem.) "honor" < PG *aizō, eir (neut.) "bronze" < PG *aizan. (All four become ār in Old English; in Gothic, they become, respectively, airus, (unattested), *aiza, *aiz.) Cf. Köbler, Gerhard. "Altenglisches Wörterbuch" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 18 April 2003.
"Germanic languages - Proto-Germanic, Indo-European, Germanic Dialects | Britannica". Archived from the original on 29 December 2023. Retrieved 29 December 2023.
"Världens 100 största språk 2010" [The world's 100 largest languages in 2010]. Nationalencyklopedin (in Swedish). 2010. Archived from the original on 6 October 2014. Retrieved 12 February 2014.
"Afrikaans". Archived from the original on 3 December 2013. Retrieved 3 August 2016.
Bloemhoff, Henk (2005). Taaltelling Nedersaksisch. Een enquête naar het gebruik en de beheersing van het Nedersaksisch in Nederland [Lower Saxon Language Census. A survey of the use and proficiency of Low Saxon in the Netherlands] (PDF). Nedersaksisch Instituut (Report) (in Dutch). Groningen: Rijksuniversiteit te Groningen. ISBN 90-6466-1324. LCCN 2006364430. OCLC 230137295. OL 31709135M. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2 December 2024. Retrieved 30 December 2024.
Status und Gebrauch des Niederdeutschen 2016 Archived 16 January 2021 at the Wayback Machine, A. Adler, C. Ehlers, R. Goltz, A. Kleene, A. Plewnia (2016)
Saxon, Low Archived 2 January 2018 at the Wayback Machine Ethnologue.
Dovid Katz. "YIDDISH" (PDF). YIVO. Archived from the original (PDF) on 22 March 2012. Retrieved 20 December 2015.
Holmberg, Anders and Christer Platzack (2005). "The Scandinavian languages". In The Comparative Syntax Handbook, eds Guglielmo Cinque and Richard S. Kayne. Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press. Excerpt at Durham University Archived 3 December 2007 at the Wayback Machine.
"1 Cor. 13:1–12". lrc.la.utexas.edu. Archived from the original on 23 March 2021. Retrieved 3 August 2016.
"Germanic". Ethnologue. Archived from the original on 18 July 2013. Retrieved 3 August 2016.
Heine, Matthias (16 November 2017). "Sprache und Mundart: Das Aussterben der deutschen Dialekte". Die Welt. Archived from the original on 23 March 2021. Retrieved 4 October 2018.
"Office pour la langue et les cultures d'Alsace et de Moselle". olcalsace.org. Archived from the original on 19 January 2023. Retrieved 19 January 2023.
Pierre Vogler. "Le dialecte alsacien : vers l'oubli". hal.science. Archived from the original on 19 January 2023. Retrieved 14 July 2021.
"Feiten en cijfers – Taalunieversum". taalunieversum.org. Archived from the original on 6 October 2022. Retrieved 11 April 2015.
Dutch-speakers can understand Afrikaans with some difficulty, but Afrikaans-speakers have a harder time understanding Dutch because of the simplified grammar of Afrikaans, compared to that of Dutch, http://www.let.rug.nl/~gooskens/pdf/publ_litlingcomp_2006b.pdf Archived 4 March 2016 at the Wayback Machine
"A co-oficialização da língua pomerana" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 21 December 2012. Retrieved 11 October 2012.
"List of declarations made with respect to treaty No. 148". Conventions.coe.int. Archived from the original on 9 July 2011. Retrieved 9 September 2012.
"An intro to 'Lëtzebuergesch'". Archived from the original on 12 April 2023. Retrieved 18 April 2023.
Koyfman, Steph (29 April 2018). "How Many People Speak Swedish, And Where Is It Spoken?". Babbel Magazine. Archived from the original on 25 February 2024. Retrieved 11 June 2024.
"Nederlands, wereldtaal". Nederlandse Taalunie. 2010. Archived from the original on 21 October 2012. Retrieved 7 April 2011.
"Afrikaans - Worldwide distribution". Worlddata.info. October 2023 [April 2015]. Archived from the original on 3 April 2024. Retrieved 3 April 2024.
"Danish". ethnologue.com. Archived from the original on 8 February 2021. Retrieved 18 June 2014.
"Befolkningen". ssb.no (in Norwegian). Archived from the original on 23 March 2021. Retrieved 29 November 2018.
"Status und Gebrauch des Niederdeutschen 2016" (PDF). ins-bremen.de. p. 40. Archived from the original (PDF) on 16 January 2021. Retrieved 13 March 2021.
"Scots". Ethnologue. Archived from the original on 27 March 2021. Retrieved 12 March 2015.
"Frisian". Ethnologue. Archived from the original on 22 March 2021. Retrieved 18 June 2014.
"Statistics Iceland". Statistics Iceland. Archived from the original on 26 May 2020. Retrieved 18 June 2014.
"Faroese". ethnologue.com. Archived from the original on 23 March 2021. Retrieved 18 June 2014.
"Germanic languages | Definition, Language Tree, & List | Britannica". www.britannica.com. Archived from the original on 29 December 2023. Retrieved 11 June 2024.
van Durme, Luc (2002). "Genesis and Evolution of the Romance-Germanic Language Border in Europe". In Treffers-Daller, Jeanine; Willemyns, Roland (eds.). Language Contact at the Romance–Germanic Language Border (PDF). Multilingual Matters. p. 13. ISBN 9781853596278. Archived (PDF) from the original on 16 September 2020.
Low German forms follow the dictionary of Reuter, Fritz (1905). Das Fritz-Reuter-Wörterbuch. Digitales Wörterbuch Niederdeutsch (dwn). Archived from the original on 22 October 2021. Retrieved 22 October 2021.

welt.de

Heine, Matthias (16 November 2017). "Sprache und Mundart: Das Aussterben der deutschen Dialekte". Die Welt. Archived from the original on 23 March 2021. Retrieved 4 October 2018.

wikidata.org

Ringe (2006), p. 67. Ringe, Don (2006). From Proto-Indo-European to Proto-Germanic (PDF). A Linguistic History of English (1st ed.). New York City: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-928413-9. OCLC 64554645. OL 7405151M. Wikidata Q131605459.
According to Donald Ringe, cf. Ringe (2006:295) Ringe, Don (2006). From Proto-Indo-European to Proto-Germanic (PDF). A Linguistic History of English (1st ed.). New York City: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-928413-9. OCLC 64554645. OL 7405151M. Wikidata Q131605459.
Ringe (2006). Ringe, Don (2006). From Proto-Indo-European to Proto-Germanic (PDF). A Linguistic History of English (1st ed.). New York City: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-928413-9. OCLC 64554645. OL 7405151M. Wikidata Q131605459.

worldcat.org

search.worldcat.org

Bloemhoff, Henk (2005). Taaltelling Nedersaksisch. Een enquête naar het gebruik en de beheersing van het Nedersaksisch in Nederland [Lower Saxon Language Census. A survey of the use and proficiency of Low Saxon in the Netherlands] (PDF). Nedersaksisch Instituut (Report) (in Dutch). Groningen: Rijksuniversiteit te Groningen. ISBN 90-6466-1324. LCCN 2006364430. OCLC 230137295. OL 31709135M. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2 December 2024. Retrieved 30 December 2024.
Ringe (2006), p. 67. Ringe, Don (2006). From Proto-Indo-European to Proto-Germanic (PDF). A Linguistic History of English (1st ed.). New York City: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-928413-9. OCLC 64554645. OL 7405151M. Wikidata Q131605459.
Wang et al. (2012), p. 657. Wang, Chuan-Chao; Ding, Qi-Liang; Tao, Huan; Li, Hui (2012). "Comment on "Phonemic Diversity Supports a Serial Founder Effect Model of Language Expansion from Africa"". Science. 335 (6069): 657. Bibcode:2012Sci...335..657W. doi:10.1126/science.1207846. ISSN 0036-8075. PMID 22323803.
Harbert, Wayne. (2007). The Germanic languages. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 32–35. ISBN 978-0-511-26991-2. OCLC 252534420.
According to Donald Ringe, cf. Ringe (2006:295) Ringe, Don (2006). From Proto-Indo-European to Proto-Germanic (PDF). A Linguistic History of English (1st ed.). New York City: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-928413-9. OCLC 64554645. OL 7405151M. Wikidata Q131605459.
Ringe (2006). Ringe, Don (2006). From Proto-Indo-European to Proto-Germanic (PDF). A Linguistic History of English (1st ed.). New York City: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-928413-9. OCLC 64554645. OL 7405151M. Wikidata Q131605459.

worlddata.info

"Afrikaans - Worldwide distribution". Worlddata.info. October 2023 [April 2015]. Archived from the original on 3 April 2024. Retrieved 3 April 2024.

yivo.org

Dovid Katz. "YIDDISH" (PDF). YIVO. Archived from the original (PDF) on 22 March 2012. Retrieved 20 December 2015.