Gladiator (English Wikipedia)

Analysis of information sources in references of the Wikipedia article "Gladiator" in English language version.

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David Potter, "Constantine and the Gladiators", The Classical Quarterly, Vol. 60, No. 2 (December 2010), p. 602

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"Ancient Graffiti Project". ancientgraffiti.org. Retrieved 7 April 2022.

ancientrome.ru

Codex Theodosianus, 9.40.8 and 15.9.1; Symmachus. Relatio, 8.3.

archaeology.org

Curry 2008. Marks on the bones of several gladiators suggest a sword thrust into the base of the throat and down towards the heart. Curry, Andrew (November–December 2008). "The Gladiator Diet". Archaeology. 61 (6). Archived from the original on 5 June 2011. Retrieved 21 March 2009.

archive.org

Fox 2006, p. 576. Fox is citing Pliny. Fox, Robin Lane (2006). The Classical World: An Epic History from Homer to Hadrian. New York: Basic Books. ISBN 0465024963.
Hopkins & Beard 2005, pp. 92–94. Hopkins, Keith; Beard, Mary (2005). The Colosseum. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press. ISBN 0674018958.

bbc.co.uk

Coleman, Kathleen (17 February 2011). "Gladiators: Heroes of the Roman Amphitheatre". BBC. Retrieved 21 April 2017.

books.google.com

Welch 2007, p. 17; Kyle 1998, p. 82. Welch, Katherine E. (2007). The Roman Amphitheatre: From Its Origins to the Colosseum. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0521809443. Kyle, Donald G. (1998). Spectacles of Death in Ancient Rome. London: Routledge. ISBN 0415096782.
Welch 2007, pp. 16–17. Nicolaus cites Posidonius's support for a Celtic origin and Hermippus' for a Mantinean (therefore Greek) origin. Welch, Katherine E. (2007). The Roman Amphitheatre: From Its Origins to the Colosseum. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0521809443.
Futrell 2006, pp. 4–7. Futrell is citing Livy, 9.40.17. Futrell, Alison (2006). A Sourcebook on the Roman Games. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing. ISBN 1405115688.
Futrell 2006, pp. 14–15. Futrell, Alison (2006). A Sourcebook on the Roman Games. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing. ISBN 1405115688.
Welch 2007, p. 11. Welch, Katherine E. (2007). The Roman Amphitheatre: From Its Origins to the Colosseum. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0521809443.
Welch 2007, p. 18; Futrell 2006, pp. 3–5. Welch, Katherine E. (2007). The Roman Amphitheatre: From Its Origins to the Colosseum. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0521809443. Futrell, Alison (2006). A Sourcebook on the Roman Games. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing. ISBN 1405115688.
Futrell 2006, p. 4; Potter & Mattingly 1999, p. 226. Futrell, Alison (2006). A Sourcebook on the Roman Games. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing. ISBN 1405115688. Potter, David Stone; Mattingly, D. J. (1999). Life, Death, and Entertainment in the Roman Empire. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press. ISBN 0472109243.
Potter & Mattingly 1999, p. 226. Paestum was colonized by Rome in 273 BC. Potter, David Stone; Mattingly, D. J. (1999). Life, Death, and Entertainment in the Roman Empire. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press. ISBN 0472109243.
Welch 2007, pp. 15, 18. Welch, Katherine E. (2007). The Roman Amphitheatre: From Its Origins to the Colosseum. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0521809443.
Welch 2007, pp. 18–19. Livy's account (summary 16) places beast-hunts and gladiatorial munera within this single munus. Welch, Katherine E. (2007). The Roman Amphitheatre: From Its Origins to the Colosseum. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0521809443.
A single, later source describes the gladiator type involved as Thracian. See Welch 2007, p. 19. Welch is citing Ausanius: Seneca simply says they were "war captives". Welch, Katherine E. (2007). The Roman Amphitheatre: From Its Origins to the Colosseum. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0521809443.
Wiedemann 1992, p. 33; Kyle 1998, p. 2; Kyle 2007, p. 273. Evidence of "Samnite" as an insult in earlier writings fades as Samnium is absorbed into the republic. Wiedemann, Thomas (1992). Emperors and Gladiators. London: Routledge. ISBN 0415121647. Kyle, Donald G. (1998). Spectacles of Death in Ancient Rome. London: Routledge. ISBN 0415096782. Kyle, Donald G. (2007). Sport and Spectacle in the Ancient World. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing. ISBN 978-0631229704.
Livy 9.40. Quoted in Futrell 2006, pp. 4–5. Futrell, Alison (2006). A Sourcebook on the Roman Games. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing. ISBN 1405115688.
Kyle 1998, p. 67 (Note #84). Livy's published works are often embellished with illustrative rhetorical detail. Kyle, Donald G. (1998). Spectacles of Death in Ancient Rome. London: Routledge. ISBN 0415096782.
Kyle 1998, pp. 80–81. Kyle, Donald G. (1998). Spectacles of Death in Ancient Rome. London: Routledge. ISBN 0415096782.
Welch 2007, p. 21. Welch is citing Livy, 23.30.15. The Aemilii Lepidii were one of the most important families in Rome at the time, and probably owned a gladiator school (ludus). Welch, Katherine E. (2007). The Roman Amphitheatre: From Its Origins to the Colosseum. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0521809443.
Futrell 2006, pp. 8–9. Futrell, Alison (2006). A Sourcebook on the Roman Games. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing. ISBN 1405115688.
Futrell 2006, p. 30. Futrell, Alison (2006). A Sourcebook on the Roman Games. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing. ISBN 1405115688.
Silius Italicus quoted in Futrell 2006, pp. 4–5. Futrell, Alison (2006). A Sourcebook on the Roman Games. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing. ISBN 1405115688.
Welch 2007, p. 21. Welch, Katherine E. (2007). The Roman Amphitheatre: From Its Origins to the Colosseum. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0521809443.
Livy, Annal for the Year 174 BC (cited in Welch 2007, p. 21). Welch, Katherine E. (2007). The Roman Amphitheatre: From Its Origins to the Colosseum. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0521809443.
Wiedemann 1992, pp. 6–7. Wiedemann is citing Valerius Maximus, 2.3.2. Wiedemann, Thomas (1992). Emperors and Gladiators. London: Routledge. ISBN 0415121647.
Lintott 2004, p. 183. Lintott, Andrew (2004). The Constitution of the Roman Republic. Oxford, UK: Clarendon Press. ISBN 0199261083.
Kyle 2007, p. 287; Mouritsen 2001, pp. 32, 109–111. Approximately 12% of Rome's adult male population could actually vote; but these were the wealthiest and most influential among ordinary citizens, well worth cultivation by any politician. Kyle, Donald G. (2007). Sport and Spectacle in the Ancient World. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing. ISBN 978-0631229704. Mouritsen, Henrik (2001). Plebs and Politics in the Late Roman Republic. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0521791006.
Kyle 2007, p. 285. Kyle, Donald G. (2007). Sport and Spectacle in the Ancient World. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing. ISBN 978-0631229704.
Kyle 2007, p. 287; such as Caesar's Capua-based gladiators, brought to Rome as a private army to impress and overawe. Kyle, Donald G. (2007). Sport and Spectacle in the Ancient World. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing. ISBN 978-0631229704.
Futrell 2006, p. 24. Gladiator gangs were used by Caesar and others to overawe and "persuade". Futrell, Alison (2006). A Sourcebook on the Roman Games. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing. ISBN 1405115688.
Kyle 2007, pp. 285–287. See also Pliny's Historia Naturalis, 33.16.53. Kyle, Donald G. (2007). Sport and Spectacle in the Ancient World. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing. ISBN 978-0631229704.
Kyle 2007, pp. 280, 287 Kyle, Donald G. (2007). Sport and Spectacle in the Ancient World. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing. ISBN 978-0631229704.
Wiedemann 1992, pp. 8–10. Wiedemann, Thomas (1992). Emperors and Gladiators. London: Routledge. ISBN 0415121647.
Welch 2007, p. 21. Antiochus IV Epiphanes of Greece was keen to upstage his Roman allies, but gladiators were becoming increasingly expensive, and to save costs, all of his were local volunteers. Welch, Katherine E. (2007). The Roman Amphitheatre: From Its Origins to the Colosseum. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0521809443.
Kyle 2007, p. 280. Kyle is citing Cicero's Lex Tullia Ambitu. Kyle, Donald G. (2007). Sport and Spectacle in the Ancient World. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing. ISBN 978-0631229704.
Richlin 1992, Shelby Brown, "Death as Decoration: Scenes of the Arena on Roman Domestic Mosaics", p. 184. Richlin, Amy (1992). "Death As Decoration: Scenes of the Arena on Roman Domestic Mosaics (Shelby Brown)". Pornography and Representation in Greece and Rome. New York: Oxford University Press. pp. 180–211. ISBN 0195067231.
Wiedemann 1992, p. 45. Wiedemann is citing Cassius Dio, 54.2.3–4. Wiedemann, Thomas (1992). Emperors and Gladiators. London: Routledge. ISBN 0415121647.
Auguet 1994, p. 30. Each of Augustus's games involved an average of 625 gladiator pairs. Auguet, Roland (1994). Cruelty and Civilization: The Roman Games. New York: Routledge. ISBN 0415104521.
Richlin 1992, Shelby Brown, "Death as Decoration: Scenes of the Arena on Roman Domestic Mosaics", p. 181. Brown is citing Dio Cassius, 68.15. Richlin, Amy (1992). "Death As Decoration: Scenes of the Arena on Roman Domestic Mosaics (Shelby Brown)". Pornography and Representation in Greece and Rome. New York: Oxford University Press. pp. 180–211. ISBN 0195067231.
Futrell 2006, p. 48. Futrell, Alison (2006). A Sourcebook on the Roman Games. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing. ISBN 1405115688.
Mattern 2002, pp. 130–131. Mattern, Susan P. (2002). Rome and the Enemy: Imperial Strategy in the Principate. Berkeley: University of California Press. ISBN 0520236831.
Auguet 1994, pp. 30, 32. Auguet, Roland (1994). Cruelty and Civilization: The Roman Games. New York: Routledge. ISBN 0415104521.
Kyle 1998, p. 78. Compared to "pagan" noxii, Christian deaths in the arena would have been few. Kyle, Donald G. (1998). Spectacles of Death in Ancient Rome. London: Routledge. ISBN 0415096782.
Kyle 1998, p. 80. Kyle, Donald G. (1998). Spectacles of Death in Ancient Rome. London: Routledge. ISBN 0415096782.
Futrell 2006, p. 43. Futrell, Alison (2006). A Sourcebook on the Roman Games. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing. ISBN 1405115688.
Wiedemann 1992, pp. 440–446. Wiedemann, Thomas (1992). Emperors and Gladiators. London: Routledge. ISBN 0415121647.
Kyle 2007, p. 313 Kyle, Donald G. (2007). Sport and Spectacle in the Ancient World. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing. ISBN 978-0631229704.
Green, Thomas, Martial Arts of the World: R–Z, [1] Greenwood Publishing Group, 2001, pp 45, 149, ISBN 978-1576071502
Josephus. The Jewish War, 6.418, 7.37–40; Kyle 1998, p. 93. noxii were the most obnoxious of criminal categories in Roman law. Kyle, Donald G. (1998). Spectacles of Death in Ancient Rome. London: Routledge. ISBN 0415096782.
Futrell 2006, pp. 120–125. Futrell, Alison (2006). A Sourcebook on the Roman Games. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing. ISBN 1405115688.
Futrell 2006, p. 124. See also Cassius Dio's accusation of entrapment by informers to provide "arena slaves" under Claudius; Futrell 2006, p. 103. "the best gladiators", Futrell citing Petronius's Satyricon, 45. Futrell, Alison (2006). A Sourcebook on the Roman Games. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing. ISBN 1405115688. Futrell, Alison (2006). A Sourcebook on the Roman Games. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing. ISBN 1405115688.
Futrell 2006, p. 129. Futrell is citing Cassius Dio. Futrell, Alison (2006). A Sourcebook on the Roman Games. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing. ISBN 1405115688.
Futrell 2006, pp. 153–156. Futrell, Alison (2006). A Sourcebook on the Roman Games. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing. ISBN 1405115688.
Wiedemann 1992, p. 112; Jacobelli 2003, p. 17, citing Cassius Dio, 62.3.1. Wiedemann, Thomas (1992). Emperors and Gladiators. London: Routledge. ISBN 0415121647. Jacobelli, Luciana (2003). Gladiators at Pompeii. Los Angeles: Getty Publications. ISBN 0892367318.
Jacobelli 2003, p. 17, citing Juvenal's Saturae, 1.22–1.23. Jacobelli, Luciana (2003). Gladiators at Pompeii. Los Angeles: Getty Publications. ISBN 0892367318.
Jacobelli 2003, p. 18, citing Petronius's Satyricon, 45.7. Jacobelli, Luciana (2003). Gladiators at Pompeii. Los Angeles: Getty Publications. ISBN 0892367318.
Jacobelli 2003, p. 18, citing Dio Cassius 67.8.4, Suetonius's Domitianus 4.2, and Statius's Silvae 1.8.51–1.8.56: see also Brunet (2014) p. 480. Jacobelli, Luciana (2003). Gladiators at Pompeii. Los Angeles: Getty Publications. ISBN 0892367318.
Jacobelli 2003, p. 18; Potter 2010, p. 408. Jacobelli, Luciana (2003). Gladiators at Pompeii. Los Angeles: Getty Publications. ISBN 0892367318. Potter, David Stone (2010). A Companion to the Roman Empire. West Sussex, UK: Blackwell Publishing Limited (John Wiley and Sons). ISBN 978-1405199186.
Potter 2010, p. 408. Potter, David Stone (2010). A Companion to the Roman Empire. West Sussex, UK: Blackwell Publishing Limited (John Wiley and Sons). ISBN 978-1405199186.
Potter 2010, p. 407. Potter, David Stone (2010). A Companion to the Roman Empire. West Sussex, UK: Blackwell Publishing Limited (John Wiley and Sons). ISBN 978-1405199186.
Jacobelli 2003, p. 18, citing Dio Cassius 75.16. Jacobelli, Luciana (2003). Gladiators at Pompeii. Los Angeles: Getty Publications. ISBN 0892367318.
Potter 2010, p. 407, citing Dio Cassius 75.16.1. Potter, David Stone (2010). A Companion to the Roman Empire. West Sussex, UK: Blackwell Publishing Limited (John Wiley and Sons). ISBN 978-1405199186.
Barton 1993, p. 66. Barton, Carlin A. (1993). The Sorrows of the Ancient Romans: The Gladiator and the Monster. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press. ISBN 069105696X.
Futrell 2006, p. 158. Futrell, Alison (2006). A Sourcebook on the Roman Games. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing. ISBN 1405115688.
Gibbon & Womersley 2000, p. 118. Gibbon, Edward; Womersley, David (2000). The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire. New York: Penguin. ISBN 0140437649.
Futrell 2006, pp. 85, 101, 110. Based on fragmentary Pompeian remains and citing of Pliny's Historia Naturalis, 19.23–25. Futrell, Alison (2006). A Sourcebook on the Roman Games. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing. ISBN 1405115688.
Plutarch. Moral Essays, 1099B (fully cited in Futrell 2006, pp. 86–87): "Even among the gladiators, I see those who...find greater pleasure in freeing their slaves, and commending their wives to their friends, than in satisfying their appetites." Futrell, Alison (2006). A Sourcebook on the Roman Games. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing. ISBN 1405115688.
Potter & Mattingly 1999, p. 313. Potter, David Stone; Mattingly, D. J. (1999). Life, Death, and Entertainment in the Roman Empire. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press. ISBN 0472109243.
Futrell 2006, p. 86. Gladiatorial banquet on mosaic, El Djem. Futrell, Alison (2006). A Sourcebook on the Roman Games. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing. ISBN 1405115688.
Welch 2007, p. 23; Futrell 2006, p. 84. Welch, Katherine E. (2007). The Roman Amphitheatre: From Its Origins to the Colosseum. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0521809443. Futrell, Alison (2006). A Sourcebook on the Roman Games. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing. ISBN 1405115688.
Futrell 2006, p. 85. See pompa circensis for the similar procession before games were held in the circus. Futrell, Alison (2006). A Sourcebook on the Roman Games. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing. ISBN 1405115688.
Sometimes beasts were simply exhibited, and left unharmed; see Futrell 2006, p. 88. Futrell, Alison (2006). A Sourcebook on the Roman Games. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing. ISBN 1405115688.
Futrell 2006, p. 91. Futrell, Alison (2006). A Sourcebook on the Roman Games. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing. ISBN 1405115688.
Futrell 2006, pp. 94–95. Futrell is citing Seneca's On Providence, 3.4. Futrell, Alison (2006). A Sourcebook on the Roman Games. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing. ISBN 1405115688.
Wisdom & McBride 2001, p. 18. Author's drawing. Wisdom, Stephen; McBride, Angus (2001). Gladiators: 100 BC – AD 200. Oxford: Osprey Publishing. ISBN 1841762997.
Futrell 2006, pp. 99–100; Wiedemann 1992, p. 14. Futrell, Alison (2006). A Sourcebook on the Roman Games. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing. ISBN 1405115688. Wiedemann, Thomas (1992). Emperors and Gladiators. London: Routledge. ISBN 0415121647.
Potter & Mattingly 1999, p. 313 Potter, David Stone; Mattingly, D. J. (1999). Life, Death, and Entertainment in the Roman Empire. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press. ISBN 0472109243.
Kyle 2007, pp. 313–314 Kyle, Donald G. (2007). Sport and Spectacle in the Ancient World. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing. ISBN 978-0631229704.
Futrell 2006, p. 101; based on mosaics and a Pompeian tomb relief. Futrell, Alison (2006). A Sourcebook on the Roman Games. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing. ISBN 1405115688.
Wiedemann 1992, pp. 15–16. Wiedemann, Thomas (1992). Emperors and Gladiators. London: Routledge. ISBN 0415121647.
Wiedemann 1992, p. 15. Wiedemann is citing Kraus and von Matt's Pompei and Herculaneum, New York, 1975, Fig. 53. Wiedemann, Thomas (1992). Emperors and Gladiators. London: Routledge. ISBN 0415121647.
Kyle 2007, p. 112. Kyle is citing Robert. Kyle, Donald G. (2007). Sport and Spectacle in the Ancient World. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing. ISBN 978-0631229704.
Futrell 2006, p. 101 Futrell, Alison (2006). A Sourcebook on the Roman Games. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing. ISBN 1405115688.
Futrell 2006, p. 141. Futrell, Alison (2006). A Sourcebook on the Roman Games. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing. ISBN 1405115688.
Futrell 2006, pp. 144–145. Futrell is citing Suetonius's Lives, "Augustus", 45, "Caligula", 30, "Claudius", 34. Futrell, Alison (2006). A Sourcebook on the Roman Games. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing. ISBN 1405115688.
Futrell 2006, p. 85. This is evidenced on a roughly inscribed libellus. Futrell, Alison (2006). A Sourcebook on the Roman Games. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing. ISBN 1405115688.
Futrell 2006, p. 101. Futrell, Alison (2006). A Sourcebook on the Roman Games. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing. ISBN 1405115688.
Futrell 2006, p. 102 (The evidence is on a stylised mosaic from Symmachus; the spectators praise the editor for "doing the right thing"). Futrell, Alison (2006). A Sourcebook on the Roman Games. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing. ISBN 1405115688.
Futrell 2006, p. 140. Futrell is citing Cicero's Tuscullan Disputations, 2.17. Futrell, Alison (2006). A Sourcebook on the Roman Games. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing. ISBN 1405115688.
Wiedemann 1992, pp. 38–39. Wiedemann, Thomas (1992). Emperors and Gladiators. London: Routledge. ISBN 0415121647.
Edwards 2007, pp. 66–67. Edwards, Catherine (2007). Death in Ancient Rome. New Haven, Connecticut: Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0300112085.
By Tertullian's time, Mercury was identified with Greek Hermes psychopompos, who led souls into the underworld. Tertullian describes these events as examples of hollow impiety, in which Rome's false deities are acceptably impersonated by low and murderous persons for the purposes of human sacrifice and evil entertainment. See Kyle 1998, pp. 155–168. Kyle, Donald G. (1998). Spectacles of Death in Ancient Rome. London: Routledge. ISBN 0415096782.
Kyle 1998, pp. 40, 155–168. Dis Pater and Jupiter Latiaris rituals in Tertullian's Ad Nationes, 1.10.47: Tertullian describes the offering of a fallen gladiator's blood to Jupiter Latiaris by an officiating priest—a travesty of the offering of the blood of martyrs—but places this within a munus (or a festival) dedicated to Jupiter Latiaris; no such practice is otherwise recorded, and Tertullian may have mistaken or reinterpreted what he saw. Kyle, Donald G. (1998). Spectacles of Death in Ancient Rome. London: Routledge. ISBN 0415096782.
Kyle 1998, p. 14 (including note #74). Kyle contextualises Juvenal's panem et circenses—bread and games as a sop to the politically apathetic plebs (Satires, 4.10)—within an account of the death and damnatio of Sejanus, whose body was torn to pieces by the crowd and left unburied. Kyle, Donald G. (1998). Spectacles of Death in Ancient Rome. London: Routledge. ISBN 0415096782.
Kyle 1998, pp. 128–159. Kyle, Donald G. (1998). Spectacles of Death in Ancient Rome. London: Routledge. ISBN 0415096782.
Futrell 2006, pp. 133, 149–153. The single name form on a gladiator memorial usually indicates a slave, two a freedman or discharged auctoratus and, very rare among gladiators, three ("tria nomina") a freedman or a full Roman citizen. See also vroma.org Archived 12 January 2011 at the Wayback Machine on Roman names. Futrell, Alison (2006). A Sourcebook on the Roman Games. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing. ISBN 1405115688.
Futrell 2006, p. 149. Futrell is citing Robert, #12, #24, and #109. Futrell, Alison (2006). A Sourcebook on the Roman Games. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing. ISBN 1405115688.
Futrell 2006, p. 149. Futrell is citing Robert, #34. Futrell, Alison (2006). A Sourcebook on the Roman Games. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing. ISBN 1405115688.
Futrell 2006, p. 145 Futrell, Alison (2006). A Sourcebook on the Roman Games. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing. ISBN 1405115688.
Futrell 2006, p. 144 Futrell, Alison (2006). A Sourcebook on the Roman Games. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing. ISBN 1405115688.
Futrell 2006, p. 144. Futrell is citing George Ville. Futrell, Alison (2006). A Sourcebook on the Roman Games. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing. ISBN 1405115688.
Junkelmann 2000, p. 145. Junkelmann, Marcus (2000). Das Spiel mit dem Tod: So Kämpften Roms Gladiatoren. Mainz: Verlag Philipp von Zabern. ISBN 3805325630.
Kyle 2007, p. 238. Kyle, Donald G. (2007). Sport and Spectacle in the Ancient World. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing. ISBN 978-0631229704.
Futrell 2006, pp. 85, 149; Auguet 1994, p. 31. Futrell, Alison (2006). A Sourcebook on the Roman Games. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing. ISBN 1405115688. Auguet, Roland (1994). Cruelty and Civilization: The Roman Games. New York: Routledge. ISBN 0415104521.
Ulpian. Edict, Book 6; Futrell 2006, pp. 137–138. Futrell is citing Digest, 3.1.1.6. Futrell, Alison (2006). A Sourcebook on the Roman Games. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing. ISBN 1405115688.
Kyle 2007, pp. 285–287, 312. This had probably began under Augustus. Kyle, Donald G. (2007). Sport and Spectacle in the Ancient World. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing. ISBN 978-0631229704.
Futrell 2006, p. 103. Futrell is citing Petronius's Satyricon, 45.133. Futrell, Alison (2006). A Sourcebook on the Roman Games. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing. ISBN 1405115688.
Futrell 2006, p. 133. See also Tiberius's inducement to re-enlist. Futrell, Alison (2006). A Sourcebook on the Roman Games. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing. ISBN 1405115688.
Futrell 2006, p. 138. Futrell, Alison (2006). A Sourcebook on the Roman Games. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing. ISBN 1405115688.
Futrell 2006, p. 137. Futrell is citing Quintilian's Oratorical Institute, 5.13.54; Futrell 2006, p. 140. Futrell is citing Cicero's Tuscullan Disputations, 2.17; Futrell 2006, p. 139. Futrell is citing Epictetus's Discourse, 3.15. Futrell, Alison (2006). A Sourcebook on the Roman Games. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing. ISBN 1405115688. Futrell, Alison (2006). A Sourcebook on the Roman Games. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing. ISBN 1405115688. Futrell, Alison (2006). A Sourcebook on the Roman Games. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing. ISBN 1405115688.
Futrell 2006, p. 142. Futrell is citing Juvenal's Satire, 6 [Oxford Fragment 7.13], in the translation of Peter Green. Futrell, Alison (2006). A Sourcebook on the Roman Games. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing. ISBN 1405115688.
Welch 2007, p. 17. The burning alive of a soldier who refused to become an auctoratus at a Spanish school in 43 BC is exceptional only because he was a citizen, technically exempt from such compulsion and penalty. Welch, Katherine E. (2007). The Roman Amphitheatre: From Its Origins to the Colosseum. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0521809443.
Futrell 2006, pp. 148–149. Futrell, Alison (2006). A Sourcebook on the Roman Games. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing. ISBN 1405115688.
Futrell 2006, pp. 141–142; Carter 2004, pp. 41–68. Futrell, Alison (2006). A Sourcebook on the Roman Games. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing. ISBN 1405115688. Carter, Michael (2004). "Archiereis and Asiarchs: A Gladiatorial Perspective" (PDF). Greek, Roman and Byzantine Studies. 44: 41–68. Archived from the original (PDF) on 26 February 2009.
Borkowski & du Plessis 2005, p. 80 Borkowski, J. Andrew; du Plessis, Paul J. (2005). Textbook on Roman Law. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0199276072.^{[permanent dead link‍]}
Borkowski & du Plessis 2005. Manumission was seldom absolute. Terms of release were negotiated between master and slave; Digests 28.3.6.5–6 and 48.19.8.11–12. Borkowski, J. Andrew; du Plessis, Paul J. (2005). Textbook on Roman Law. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0199276072.^{[permanent dead link‍]}
Futrell 2006, p. 123. Futrell is citing Ulpian's 8th book of Proconsular Functions, CMRL, 11.7. Futrell, Alison (2006). A Sourcebook on the Roman Games. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing. ISBN 1405115688.
Richlin 1992, Shelby Brown, "Death as Decoration: Scenes of the Arena on Roman Domestic Mosaics", p. 185. Richlin, Amy (1992). "Death As Decoration: Scenes of the Arena on Roman Domestic Mosaics (Shelby Brown)". Pornography and Representation in Greece and Rome. New York: Oxford University Press. pp. 180–211. ISBN 0195067231.
Borkowski & du Plessis 2005, Preface, p. 81. Borkowski, J. Andrew; du Plessis, Paul J. (2005). Textbook on Roman Law. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0199276072.^{[permanent dead link‍]}
Wiedemann 1992, pp. 40–46. Wiedemann, Thomas (1992). Emperors and Gladiators. London: Routledge. ISBN 0415121647.
Apuleius. Metamorphoses, 4.13; Coleman 1990, p. 71; Richlin 1992, Shelby Brown, "Death as Decoration: Scenes of the Arena on Roman Domestic Mosaics", p. 185. Coleman, K. M. (1990). "Fatal Charades: Roman Executions Staged as Mythological Enactments". The Journal of Roman Studies. 80: 44–73. doi:10.2307/300280. JSTOR 300280. S2CID 163071557. Richlin, Amy (1992). "Death As Decoration: Scenes of the Arena on Roman Domestic Mosaics (Shelby Brown)". Pornography and Representation in Greece and Rome. New York: Oxford University Press. pp. 180–211. ISBN 0195067231.
Kyle 1998, p. 94. Survival and "promotion" would have been extremely rare for damnati—and unheard of for noxii—notwithstanding Aulus Gellius's moral tale of Androcles. Kyle, Donald G. (1998). Spectacles of Death in Ancient Rome. London: Routledge. ISBN 0415096782.
Richlin 1992, Shelby Brown, "Death as Decoration: Scenes of the Arena on Roman Domestic Mosaics", p. 186. Richlin, Amy (1992). "Death As Decoration: Scenes of the Arena on Roman Domestic Mosaics (Shelby Brown)". Pornography and Representation in Greece and Rome. New York: Oxford University Press. pp. 180–211. ISBN 0195067231.
D.38.1.38 pr in Borkowski & du Plessis 2005, p. 95. Borkowski, J. Andrew; du Plessis, Paul J. (2005). Textbook on Roman Law. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0199276072.^{[permanent dead link‍]}
Futrell 2006, p. 157. Futrell, Alison (2006). A Sourcebook on the Roman Games. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing. ISBN 1405115688.
Futrell 2006, p. 131. Futrell is citing Tertullian's De Spectaculis, 22. Futrell, Alison (2006). A Sourcebook on the Roman Games. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing. ISBN 1405115688.
Futrell 2006, pp. 86–87. Futrell is citing Plutarch's Moral Essays, 1099B. Futrell, Alison (2006). A Sourcebook on the Roman Games. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing. ISBN 1405115688.
Barton 1993, p. 25. Barton is citing Cassius Dio, 43.23.4–5; Suetonius, in Caesar 39.1, adds the two Senators. Barton, Carlin A. (1993). The Sorrows of the Ancient Romans: The Gladiator and the Monster. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press. ISBN 069105696X.
Barton 1993, p. 25. Barton is citing Cassius Dio, 56.25.7. Barton, Carlin A. (1993). The Sorrows of the Ancient Romans: The Gladiator and the Monster. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press. ISBN 069105696X.
Futrell 2006, p. 153. Futrell is citing Cassius Dio, 62.17.3; see Cassius Dio, 59.10 and 13–14 for Caligula's extraordinary behaviour as editor; Valentinian/Theodosius, 15.9.1; Symmachus, Relatio, 8.3. Futrell, Alison (2006). A Sourcebook on the Roman Games. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing. ISBN 1405115688.
Kyle 1998, pp. 115–116 (Note #102) Kyle, Donald G. (1998). Spectacles of Death in Ancient Rome. London: Routledge. ISBN 0415096782.
Futrell 2006, pp. 153, 156 Futrell, Alison (2006). A Sourcebook on the Roman Games. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing. ISBN 1405115688.
Barton 1993, p. 26. Barton is citing Juvenal, 8.199ff. Barton, Carlin A. (1993). The Sorrows of the Ancient Romans: The Gladiator and the Monster. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press. ISBN 069105696X.
Futrell 2006, p. 136. Futrell is citing Martial's Epigrams, 5.24. Futrell, Alison (2006). A Sourcebook on the Roman Games. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing. ISBN 1405115688.
Welch 2007, p. 197. Welch is citing CIL, X.852. Welch, Katherine E. (2007). The Roman Amphitheatre: From Its Origins to the Colosseum. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0521809443.
Potter & Mattingly 1999, p. 226. Potter and Mattingly are citing Pliny the Elder, 36.117. Potter, David Stone; Mattingly, D. J. (1999). Life, Death, and Entertainment in the Roman Empire. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press. ISBN 0472109243.
Potter & Mattingly 1999, p. 226 (see also Pliny's Natural History, 36.113–115). The amphitheatre was commissioned by T. Statilius Taurus. According to Pliny, its three storeys were marble-clad, housed 3,000 bronze statues and seated 80,000 spectators. It was probably wooden-framed in part. Potter, David Stone; Mattingly, D. J. (1999). Life, Death, and Entertainment in the Roman Empire. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press. ISBN 0472109243.
Mattern 2002, pp. 151–152. Mattern, Susan P. (2002). Rome and the Enemy: Imperial Strategy in the Principate. Berkeley: University of California Press. ISBN 0520236831.
Richlin 1992, Shelby Brown, "Death As Decoration: Scenes of the Arena on Roman Domestic Mosaics", pp. 184–185. Even emperors who disliked munera were thus obliged to attend them. Richlin, Amy (1992). "Death As Decoration: Scenes of the Arena on Roman Domestic Mosaics (Shelby Brown)". Pornography and Representation in Greece and Rome. New York: Oxford University Press. pp. 180–211. ISBN 0195067231.
Futrell 2006, pp. 37–42, 105. Futrell, Alison (2006). A Sourcebook on the Roman Games. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing. ISBN 1405115688.
Kyle 1998, p. 3. Kyle, Donald G. (1998). Spectacles of Death in Ancient Rome. London: Routledge. ISBN 0415096782.
Futrell 2006, p. 105 Futrell, Alison (2006). A Sourcebook on the Roman Games. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing. ISBN 1405115688.
Futrell 2006, pp. 96, 104–105. Futrell, Alison (2006). A Sourcebook on the Roman Games. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing. ISBN 1405115688.
Kyle 1998, p. 111. Kyle, Donald G. (1998). Spectacles of Death in Ancient Rome. London: Routledge. ISBN 0415096782.
Futrell 2006, pp. 107–108. See also Tacitus's Annals, 14.17. Futrell, Alison (2006). A Sourcebook on the Roman Games. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing. ISBN 1405115688.
Wiedemann 1992, pp. 11–12. Wiedemann, Thomas (1992). Emperors and Gladiators. London: Routledge. ISBN 0415121647.
Kyle 1998, p. 81. It was notably fulfilled and celebrated in the battlefield devotio of two consular Decii; firstly by the father and later by his son. Kyle, Donald G. (1998). Spectacles of Death in Ancient Rome. London: Routledge. ISBN 0415096782.
Edwards 2007, pp. 19–45; Livy, 22.51.5–8, has wounded Romans at Cannae stretch out their necks for the death blow by comrades: cf Cicero's death in Seneca's Suasoriae, 6.17. Edwards, Catherine (2007). Death in Ancient Rome. New Haven, Connecticut: Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0300112085.
Welch 2007, p. 17. Welch, Katherine E. (2007). The Roman Amphitheatre: From Its Origins to the Colosseum. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0521809443.
Barton 1993, p. 15; Kyle 2007, p. 274. Barton, Carlin A. (1993). The Sorrows of the Ancient Romans: The Gladiator and the Monster. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press. ISBN 069105696X. Kyle, Donald G. (2007). Sport and Spectacle in the Ancient World. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing. ISBN 978-0631229704.
Wiedemann 1992, p. 45. Wiedemann, Thomas (1992). Emperors and Gladiators. London: Routledge. ISBN 0415121647.
Mattern 2002, pp. 126–128. Mattern is citing Tacitus's Annals, 1.17. Mattern, Susan P. (2002). Rome and the Enemy: Imperial Strategy in the Principate. Berkeley: University of California Press. ISBN 0520236831.
Mattern 2002, p. 87. Mattern is citing Cassius Dio, 72, 73.2.3. Mattern, Susan P. (2002). Rome and the Enemy: Imperial Strategy in the Principate. Berkeley: University of California Press. ISBN 0520236831.
Mattern 2002, p. 87. Mattern, Susan P. (2002). Rome and the Enemy: Imperial Strategy in the Principate. Berkeley: University of California Press. ISBN 0520236831.
Futrell 2006, p. 16. Futrell is citing Cicero's Letters to Friends, 2.3. Futrell, Alison (2006). A Sourcebook on the Roman Games. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing. ISBN 1405115688.
Barton 1993, p. 39. Barton is citing Seneca's Suasoriae, 6.17 for Cicero's death. Barton, Carlin A. (1993). The Sorrows of the Ancient Romans: The Gladiator and the Monster. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press. ISBN 069105696X.
Kyle 2007, p. 273. For bustuarius, with reference to Clodius's alleged impious disturbance at the funeral of Marius, see Cicero's In Pisonem (Against Piso). See Bagnani 1956, p. 26, for the bustuarius as a lower class of gladiator than one employed in the public munus. Cicero's unflattering references to Marcus Antonius as gladiator are in his 2nd Philippic. Kyle, Donald G. (2007). Sport and Spectacle in the Ancient World. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing. ISBN 978-0631229704. Bagnani, Gilbert (January 1956). "Encolpius Gladiator Obscenus". Classical Philology. 51 (1): 24–27. doi:10.1086/363980. S2CID 162196829.
Silius Italicus, 11.51 (cited in Welch 2007, p. 3). Welch, Katherine E. (2007). The Roman Amphitheatre: From Its Origins to the Colosseum. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0521809443.
Richlin 1992, Shelby Brown, "Death As Decoration: Scenes of the Arena on Roman Domestic Mosaics", p. 185. Tacitus, in Annals 15.44, describes the public repugnance towards Nero's punishment of Christians, which seemed based on his appetite for cruelty, rather than a desire for the public good. Richlin, Amy (1992). "Death As Decoration: Scenes of the Arena on Roman Domestic Mosaics (Shelby Brown)". Pornography and Representation in Greece and Rome. New York: Oxford University Press. pp. 180–211. ISBN 0195067231.
Futrell 2006, p. 4. Roman commentators associated munera with Capua's proverbial luxury and excess. Futrell, Alison (2006). A Sourcebook on the Roman Games. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing. ISBN 1405115688.
Barton 1993, p. 16; Futrell 2006, p. 154. Futrell is citing Lucian's Toxaris, 58–59. Barton, Carlin A. (1993). The Sorrows of the Ancient Romans: The Gladiator and the Monster. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press. ISBN 069105696X. Futrell, Alison (2006). A Sourcebook on the Roman Games. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing. ISBN 1405115688.
Kyle 1998, p. 85. This should be considered scandalous and noteworthy, rather than common. Kyle, Donald G. (1998). Spectacles of Death in Ancient Rome. London: Routledge. ISBN 0415096782.
Futrell 2006, p. 146. Futrell is citing ''CIL IV, 4342 and CIL IV, 4345. Futrell, Alison (2006). A Sourcebook on the Roman Games. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing. ISBN 1405115688.
Tertullian. De Spectaculis, 22; Kyle 1998, p. 80. Bustuarius is found in Tertullian's De Spectaculis, 11. Kyle, Donald G. (1998). Spectacles of Death in Ancient Rome. London: Routledge. ISBN 0415096782.
Richlin 1992, Shelby Brown, "Death As Decoration: Scenes of the Arena on Roman Domestic Mosaics", p. 181. Richlin, Amy (1992). "Death As Decoration: Scenes of the Arena on Roman Domestic Mosaics (Shelby Brown)". Pornography and Representation in Greece and Rome. New York: Oxford University Press. pp. 180–211. ISBN 0195067231.
Welch 2007, p. 2. Welch, Katherine E. (2007). The Roman Amphitheatre: From Its Origins to the Colosseum. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0521809443.
Christesen, Paul; Kyle, Donald G. (2014). A Companion to Sport and Spectacle in Greek and Roman Antiquity. John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-1444339529.
Pliny. Natural History, 30.32 (cited in Welch 2007, p. 21). Welch, Katherine E. (2007). The Roman Amphitheatre: From Its Origins to the Colosseum. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0521809443.

doi.org

Mouritsen 2001, p. 97; Coleman 1990, p. 50. Mouritsen, Henrik (2001). Plebs and Politics in the Late Roman Republic. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0521791006. Coleman, K. M. (1990). "Fatal Charades: Roman Executions Staged as Mythological Enactments". The Journal of Roman Studies. 80: 44–73. doi:10.2307/300280. JSTOR 300280. S2CID 163071557.
Barton, Carlin A. (1989). "The Scandal of the Arena". Representations (27): 27, 28, note 33. doi:10.2307/2928482. JSTOR 2928482. (subscription required)
Grossschmidt & Kanz 2006, pp. 207–216. Grossschmidt, K.; Kanz, Fabian (July 2006). "Head Injuries of Roman Gladiators". Forensic Science International. 160 (2–3). Vienna: Center of Anatomy and Cell-biology, Medical University of Vienna and Austrian Archaeological Institute: 207–216. doi:10.1016/j.forsciint.2005.10.010. PMID 16289900.
Hope, Valerie (January 2000). "Fighting for identity: The funerary commemoration of Italian gladiators". Bulletin of the Institute of Classical Studies. 44 (S73): 93–113. doi:10.1111/j.2041-5370.2000.tb01940.x.
Garrett G. Fagan, Gladiators, combatants at games, Oxford Classical Dictionary online, Jul 2015 doi:10.1093/acrefore/9780199381135.013.2845: "This refusal to concede honest defeat in the face of superior skill again speaks to professional pride and a certain braggadocio that is still operative today in combat sports."[2] (accessed 2 April 2017)
Jones 1987, pp. 139–155. Facial stigmata represented extreme social degradation. Jones, C. P. (1987). ""Stigma": Tattooing and Branding in Graeco-Roman Antiquity". Journal of Roman Studies. 77: 139–155. doi:10.2307/300578. JSTOR 300578. S2CID 162719864.
Kanz, Fabian; Risser, Daniele U.; Grossschmidt, Karl; Moghaddam, Negahnaz; Lösch, Sandra (15 October 2014). "Stable Isotope and Trace Element Studies on Gladiators and Contemporary Romans from Ephesus (Turkey, 2nd and 3rd Ct. AD) – Implications for Differences in Diet". PLOS ONE. 9 (10): e110489. Bibcode:2014PLoSO...9k0489L. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0110489. ISSN 1932-6203. PMC 4198250. PMID 25333366.
Coleman 1990, p. 46. Coleman, K. M. (1990). "Fatal Charades: Roman Executions Staged as Mythological Enactments". The Journal of Roman Studies. 80: 44–73. doi:10.2307/300280. JSTOR 300280. S2CID 163071557.
Apuleius. Metamorphoses, 4.13; Coleman 1990, p. 71; Richlin 1992, Shelby Brown, "Death as Decoration: Scenes of the Arena on Roman Domestic Mosaics", p. 185. Coleman, K. M. (1990). "Fatal Charades: Roman Executions Staged as Mythological Enactments". The Journal of Roman Studies. 80: 44–73. doi:10.2307/300280. JSTOR 300280. S2CID 163071557. Richlin, Amy (1992). "Death As Decoration: Scenes of the Arena on Roman Domestic Mosaics (Shelby Brown)". Pornography and Representation in Greece and Rome. New York: Oxford University Press. pp. 180–211. ISBN 0195067231.
Cerutti, Steven M.; Richardson, L. (1989). "The Retiarius Tunicatus of Suetonius, Juvenal, and Petronius". The American Journal of Philology. 110 (4): 589. doi:10.2307/295282. JSTOR 295282.
Kyle 2007, p. 273. For bustuarius, with reference to Clodius's alleged impious disturbance at the funeral of Marius, see Cicero's In Pisonem (Against Piso). See Bagnani 1956, p. 26, for the bustuarius as a lower class of gladiator than one employed in the public munus. Cicero's unflattering references to Marcus Antonius as gladiator are in his 2nd Philippic. Kyle, Donald G. (2007). Sport and Spectacle in the Ancient World. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing. ISBN 978-0631229704. Bagnani, Gilbert (January 1956). "Encolpius Gladiator Obscenus". Classical Philology. 51 (1): 24–27. doi:10.1086/363980. S2CID 162196829.

duke.edu

Carter 2004, pp. 43, 46–49. In the Eastern provinces of the later Empire the state archiereis combined the roles of editor, Imperial cult priest and lanista, giving gladiatoria munera in which the use of sharp weapons seems an exceptional honour. Carter, Michael (2004). "Archiereis and Asiarchs: A Gladiatorial Perspective" (PDF). Greek, Roman and Byzantine Studies. 44: 41–68. Archived from the original (PDF) on 26 February 2009.
Futrell 2006, pp. 141–142; Carter 2004, pp. 41–68. Futrell, Alison (2006). A Sourcebook on the Roman Games. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing. ISBN 1405115688. Carter, Michael (2004). "Archiereis and Asiarchs: A Gladiatorial Perspective" (PDF). Greek, Roman and Byzantine Studies. 44: 41–68. Archived from the original (PDF) on 26 February 2009.
Carter 2004, pp. 52–56. Carter, Michael (2004). "Archiereis and Asiarchs: A Gladiatorial Perspective" (PDF). Greek, Roman and Byzantine Studies. 44: 41–68. Archived from the original (PDF) on 26 February 2009.

edcs.eu

db.edcs.eu

Futrell 2006, p. 146. Futrell is citing ''CIL IV, 4342 and CIL IV, 4345. Futrell, Alison (2006). A Sourcebook on the Roman Games. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing. ISBN 1405115688.

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Suetonius. Lives, "Tiberius", 7 Archived 10 January 2011 at the Wayback Machine.
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Kanz, Fabian; Risser, Daniele U.; Grossschmidt, Karl; Moghaddam, Negahnaz; Lösch, Sandra (15 October 2014). "Stable Isotope and Trace Element Studies on Gladiators and Contemporary Romans from Ephesus (Turkey, 2nd and 3rd Ct. AD) – Implications for Differences in Diet". PLOS ONE. 9 (10): e110489. Bibcode:2014PLoSO...9k0489L. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0110489. ISSN 1932-6203. PMC 4198250. PMID 25333366.

jstor.org

Mouritsen 2001, p. 97; Coleman 1990, p. 50. Mouritsen, Henrik (2001). Plebs and Politics in the Late Roman Republic. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0521791006. Coleman, K. M. (1990). "Fatal Charades: Roman Executions Staged as Mythological Enactments". The Journal of Roman Studies. 80: 44–73. doi:10.2307/300280. JSTOR 300280. S2CID 163071557.
Rescript of Constantine quoted by David Potter, "Constantine and the Gladiators", The Classical Quarterly, Vol. 60, No. 2 (December 2010), p. 597
Barton, Carlin A. (1989). "The Scandal of the Arena". Representations (27): 27, 28, note 33. doi:10.2307/2928482. JSTOR 2928482. (subscription required)
Its name was coined in the modern era, by Theodore Mommsen: in the Roman military, it marked the death of a soldier. See Mednikarova, Iveta (2001). "The Use of Θ in Latin Funerary Inscriptions". Zeitschrift für Papyrologie und Epigraphik. 136: 267–276. JSTOR 20190914.
Jones 1987, pp. 139–155. Facial stigmata represented extreme social degradation. Jones, C. P. (1987). ""Stigma": Tattooing and Branding in Graeco-Roman Antiquity". Journal of Roman Studies. 77: 139–155. doi:10.2307/300578. JSTOR 300578. S2CID 162719864.
Coleman 1990, p. 46. Coleman, K. M. (1990). "Fatal Charades: Roman Executions Staged as Mythological Enactments". The Journal of Roman Studies. 80: 44–73. doi:10.2307/300280. JSTOR 300280. S2CID 163071557.
Apuleius. Metamorphoses, 4.13; Coleman 1990, p. 71; Richlin 1992, Shelby Brown, "Death as Decoration: Scenes of the Arena on Roman Domestic Mosaics", p. 185. Coleman, K. M. (1990). "Fatal Charades: Roman Executions Staged as Mythological Enactments". The Journal of Roman Studies. 80: 44–73. doi:10.2307/300280. JSTOR 300280. S2CID 163071557. Richlin, Amy (1992). "Death As Decoration: Scenes of the Arena on Roman Domestic Mosaics (Shelby Brown)". Pornography and Representation in Greece and Rome. New York: Oxford University Press. pp. 180–211. ISBN 0195067231.
Cerutti, Steven M.; Richardson, L. (1989). "The Retiarius Tunicatus of Suetonius, Juvenal, and Petronius". The American Journal of Philology. 110 (4): 589. doi:10.2307/295282. JSTOR 295282.

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Plutarch. Caius Gracchus, 12.3–4.

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Grossschmidt & Kanz 2006, pp. 207–216. Grossschmidt, K.; Kanz, Fabian (July 2006). "Head Injuries of Roman Gladiators". Forensic Science International. 160 (2–3). Vienna: Center of Anatomy and Cell-biology, Medical University of Vienna and Austrian Archaeological Institute: 207–216. doi:10.1016/j.forsciint.2005.10.010. PMID 16289900.
Longo, Umile Giuseppe; Spiezia, Filippo; Maffulli, Nicola; Denaro, Vincenzo (1 December 2008). "The Best Athletes in Ancient Rome were Vegetarian!". Journal of Sports Science & Medicine. 7 (4): 565. ISSN 1303-2968. PMC 3761927. PMID 24137094.
Kanz, Fabian; Risser, Daniele U.; Grossschmidt, Karl; Moghaddam, Negahnaz; Lösch, Sandra (15 October 2014). "Stable Isotope and Trace Element Studies on Gladiators and Contemporary Romans from Ephesus (Turkey, 2nd and 3rd Ct. AD) – Implications for Differences in Diet". PLOS ONE. 9 (10): e110489. Bibcode:2014PLoSO...9k0489L. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0110489. ISSN 1932-6203. PMC 4198250. PMID 25333366.

ncbi.nlm.nih.gov

Longo, Umile Giuseppe; Spiezia, Filippo; Maffulli, Nicola; Denaro, Vincenzo (1 December 2008). "The Best Athletes in Ancient Rome were Vegetarian!". Journal of Sports Science & Medicine. 7 (4): 565. ISSN 1303-2968. PMC 3761927. PMID 24137094.
Kanz, Fabian; Risser, Daniele U.; Grossschmidt, Karl; Moghaddam, Negahnaz; Lösch, Sandra (15 October 2014). "Stable Isotope and Trace Element Studies on Gladiators and Contemporary Romans from Ephesus (Turkey, 2nd and 3rd Ct. AD) – Implications for Differences in Diet". PLOS ONE. 9 (10): e110489. Bibcode:2014PLoSO...9k0489L. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0110489. ISSN 1932-6203. PMC 4198250. PMID 25333366.

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Garrett G. Fagan, Gladiators, combatants at games, Oxford Classical Dictionary online, Jul 2015 doi:10.1093/acrefore/9780199381135.013.2845: "This refusal to concede honest defeat in the face of superior skill again speaks to professional pride and a certain braggadocio that is still operative today in combat sports."[2] (accessed 2 April 2017)

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Mouritsen 2001, p. 97; Coleman 1990, p. 50. Mouritsen, Henrik (2001). Plebs and Politics in the Late Roman Republic. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0521791006. Coleman, K. M. (1990). "Fatal Charades: Roman Executions Staged as Mythological Enactments". The Journal of Roman Studies. 80: 44–73. doi:10.2307/300280. JSTOR 300280. S2CID 163071557.
Jones 1987, pp. 139–155. Facial stigmata represented extreme social degradation. Jones, C. P. (1987). ""Stigma": Tattooing and Branding in Graeco-Roman Antiquity". Journal of Roman Studies. 77: 139–155. doi:10.2307/300578. JSTOR 300578. S2CID 162719864.
Coleman 1990, p. 46. Coleman, K. M. (1990). "Fatal Charades: Roman Executions Staged as Mythological Enactments". The Journal of Roman Studies. 80: 44–73. doi:10.2307/300280. JSTOR 300280. S2CID 163071557.
Apuleius. Metamorphoses, 4.13; Coleman 1990, p. 71; Richlin 1992, Shelby Brown, "Death as Decoration: Scenes of the Arena on Roman Domestic Mosaics", p. 185. Coleman, K. M. (1990). "Fatal Charades: Roman Executions Staged as Mythological Enactments". The Journal of Roman Studies. 80: 44–73. doi:10.2307/300280. JSTOR 300280. S2CID 163071557. Richlin, Amy (1992). "Death As Decoration: Scenes of the Arena on Roman Domestic Mosaics (Shelby Brown)". Pornography and Representation in Greece and Rome. New York: Oxford University Press. pp. 180–211. ISBN 0195067231.
Kyle 2007, p. 273. For bustuarius, with reference to Clodius's alleged impious disturbance at the funeral of Marius, see Cicero's In Pisonem (Against Piso). See Bagnani 1956, p. 26, for the bustuarius as a lower class of gladiator than one employed in the public munus. Cicero's unflattering references to Marcus Antonius as gladiator are in his 2nd Philippic. Kyle, Donald G. (2007). Sport and Spectacle in the Ancient World. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing. ISBN 978-0631229704. Bagnani, Gilbert (January 1956). "Encolpius Gladiator Obscenus". Classical Philology. 51 (1): 24–27. doi:10.1086/363980. S2CID 162196829.

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Follain, John (15 December 2002). "The dying game: How did the gladiators really live?". Times Online. Archived from the original on 29 April 2011. Retrieved 24 March 2009.

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perseus.tufts.edu

Ludus meant both a game and a school – see entries 1 to 2.C, at Lewis and Short (Perseus Project).

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Prices in denarii cited in "Venationes," Encyclopaedia Romana.
Cassius Dio. Commodus, 73 (Epitome)
Cassius Dio. Commodus, 73 (Epitome). Commodus was assassinated and posthumously declared a public enemy but was later deified.
Marcus Aurelius encouraged the use of blunted weapons: see Cassius Dio's Roman History, 71.29.4.
Smith, William. A Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities. London: John Murray, 1875, "Roman Law – Infamia".

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vroma.org

Futrell 2006, pp. 133, 149–153. The single name form on a gladiator memorial usually indicates a slave, two a freedman or discharged auctoratus and, very rare among gladiators, three ("tria nomina") a freedman or a full Roman citizen. See also vroma.org Archived 12 January 2011 at the Wayback Machine on Roman names. Futrell, Alison (2006). A Sourcebook on the Roman Games. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing. ISBN 1405115688.

web.archive.org

Suetonius. Lives, "Tiberius", 7 Archived 10 January 2011 at the Wayback Machine.
Suetonius. Lives, "Nero", 30 Archived 10 January 2011 at the Wayback Machine.
Carter 2004, pp. 43, 46–49. In the Eastern provinces of the later Empire the state archiereis combined the roles of editor, Imperial cult priest and lanista, giving gladiatoria munera in which the use of sharp weapons seems an exceptional honour. Carter, Michael (2004). "Archiereis and Asiarchs: A Gladiatorial Perspective" (PDF). Greek, Roman and Byzantine Studies. 44: 41–68. Archived from the original (PDF) on 26 February 2009.
Curry 2008. Marks on the bones of several gladiators suggest a sword thrust into the base of the throat and down towards the heart. Curry, Andrew (November–December 2008). "The Gladiator Diet". Archaeology. 61 (6). Archived from the original on 5 June 2011. Retrieved 21 March 2009.
Futrell 2006, pp. 133, 149–153. The single name form on a gladiator memorial usually indicates a slave, two a freedman or discharged auctoratus and, very rare among gladiators, three ("tria nomina") a freedman or a full Roman citizen. See also vroma.org Archived 12 January 2011 at the Wayback Machine on Roman names. Futrell, Alison (2006). A Sourcebook on the Roman Games. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing. ISBN 1405115688.
Follain, John (15 December 2002). "The dying game: How did the gladiators really live?". Times Online. Archived from the original on 29 April 2011. Retrieved 24 March 2009.
Futrell 2006, pp. 141–142; Carter 2004, pp. 41–68. Futrell, Alison (2006). A Sourcebook on the Roman Games. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing. ISBN 1405115688. Carter, Michael (2004). "Archiereis and Asiarchs: A Gladiatorial Perspective" (PDF). Greek, Roman and Byzantine Studies. 44: 41–68. Archived from the original (PDF) on 26 February 2009.
Carter 2004, pp. 52–56. Carter, Michael (2004). "Archiereis and Asiarchs: A Gladiatorial Perspective" (PDF). Greek, Roman and Byzantine Studies. 44: 41–68. Archived from the original (PDF) on 26 February 2009.
David Potter (trans.), "The Senatus Consultum from Larinium Archived 15 March 2011 at the Wayback Machine". Bronze tablet found at Larino, Italy, and published in 1978.

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Longo, Umile Giuseppe; Spiezia, Filippo; Maffulli, Nicola; Denaro, Vincenzo (1 December 2008). "The Best Athletes in Ancient Rome were Vegetarian!". Journal of Sports Science & Medicine. 7 (4): 565. ISSN 1303-2968. PMC 3761927. PMID 24137094.
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