Gluten-free diet (English Wikipedia)
Analysis of information sources in references of the Wikipedia article "Gluten-free diet" in English language version.
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- "Rotulagem de alimentos Alergênicos" (in Portuguese). Agência Nacional de Vigilância Sanitária (ANVISA). June 7, 2017. Retrieved April 7, 2018.
bobsredmill.com
- "Bob's Red Mill". Easy Gluten Free Pizza Recipe. Retrieved April 9, 2022.
books.google.com
- O'Brian T, Ford R, Kupper C, Celiac Disease and Non-Celiac Gluten Sensitivity: The evolving spectrum, pp. 305–330. In: Ingrid Kohlstadt (December 10, 2012). Advancing Medicine with Food and Nutrients, Second Edition. CRC Press. p. 318. ISBN 978-1-4398-8774-5.
cbsnews.com
- "Gluten-free diet fad: Are celiac disease rates actually rising?". CBS News. July 31, 2012. Retrieved December 6, 2013.
celiac.ca
- "Canadian Celiac Association". Archived from the original on December 1, 2013. Retrieved August 10, 2014.
chicagotribune.com
- Roe S. "Children at risk in food roulette". Chicagotribune.com. Retrieved September 20, 2009.
- Roe S. "Whole Foods pulls 'gluten-free' products from shelves after Tribune story". Chicagotribune.com. Retrieved September 20, 2009.
codexalimentarius.org
- "Codex Standard For "Gluten-Free Foods" CODEX STAN 118-1981" (PDF). Codex Alimentarius. February 22, 2006.
doi.org
- Biesiekierski JR (March 2017). "What is gluten?". Journal of Gastroenterology and Hepatology (Review). 32 (Suppl 1): 78–81. doi:10.1111/jgh.13703. PMID 28244676.
Similar proteins to the gliadin found in wheat exist as secalin in rye, hordein in barley, and avenins in oats and are collectively referred to as 'gluten.' Derivatives of these grains such as triticale and malt and other ancient wheat varieties such as spelt and kamut also contain gluten. The gluten found in all of these grains has been identified as the component capable of triggering the immune-mediated disorder, coeliac disease.
- Ciacci C, Ciclitira P, Hadjivassiliou M, Kaukinen K, Ludvigsson JF, McGough N, et al. (April 2015). "The gluten-free diet and its current application in coeliac disease and dermatitis herpetiformis". United European Gastroenterology Journal (Review). 3 (2): 121–35. doi:10.1177/2050640614559263. PMC 4406897. PMID 25922672.
- Comino I, Moreno MD, Sousa C (November 2015). "Role of oats in celiac disease". World Journal of Gastroenterology. 21 (41): 11825–31. doi:10.3748/wjg.v21.i41.11825. PMC 4631980. PMID 26557006.
It is necessary to consider that oats include many varieties, containing various amino acid sequences and showing different immunoreactivities associated with toxic prolamins. As a result, several studies have shown that the immunogenicity of oats varies depending on the cultivar consumed. Thus, it is essential to thoroughly study the variety of oats used in a food ingredient before including it in a gluten-free diet.
- Penagini F, Dilillo D, Meneghin F, Mameli C, Fabiano V, Zuccotti GV (November 2013). "Gluten-free diet in children: an approach to a nutritionally adequate and balanced diet". Nutrients. 5 (11): 4553–65. doi:10.3390/nu5114553. PMC 3847748. PMID 24253052.
For CD patients on GFD, the nutritional complications are likely to be caused by the poor nutritional quality of the GFPs mentioned above and by the incorrect alimentary choices of CD patients. (...) the limited choice of food products in the diet of children with CD induces a high consumption of packaged GFPs, such as snacks like biscuits. (..) It has been shown that some commercially available GFPs have a lower content of folates, iron and B vitamins or are not consistently enriched/fortified compared to their gluten containing counterparts. (...) Within the range of naturally GF foods, it is preferable to consume those rich in iron and folic acid, such as leafy vegetables, legumes, fish and meat.
- de Souza MC, Deschênes ME, Laurencelle S, Godet P, Roy CC, Djilali-Saiah I (2016). "Pure Oats as Part of the Canadian Gluten-Free Diet in Celiac Disease: The Need to Revisit the Issue". Canadian Journal of Gastroenterology & Hepatology (Review). 2016: 1576360. doi:10.1155/2016/1576360. PMC 4904650. PMID 27446824.
- Ludvigsson JF, Leffler DA, Bai JC, Biagi F, Fasano A, Green PH, et al. (January 2013). "The Oslo definitions for coeliac disease and related terms". Gut. 62 (1): 43–52. doi:10.1136/gutjnl-2011-301346. PMC 3440559. PMID 22345659.
- Mulder CJ, van Wanrooij RL, Bakker SF, Wierdsma N, Bouma G (2013). "Gluten-free diet in gluten-related disorders". Digestive Diseases (Review). 31 (1): 57–62. doi:10.1159/000347180. PMID 23797124. S2CID 14124370.
The only treatment for CD, dermatitis herpetiformis (DH) and gluten ataxia is lifelong adherence to a GFD.
- Hischenhuber C, Crevel R, Jarry B, Mäki M, Moneret-Vautrin DA, Romano A, et al. (March 2006). "Review article: safe amounts of gluten for patients with wheat allergy or coeliac disease". Alimentary Pharmacology & Therapeutics. 23 (5): 559–75. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2036.2006.02768.x. PMID 16480395. S2CID 9970042.
For both wheat allergy and coeliac disease the dietary avoidance of wheat and other gluten-containing cereals is the only effective treatment.
- Volta U, Caio G, De Giorgio R, Henriksen C, Skodje G, Lundin KE (June 2015). "Non-celiac gluten sensitivity: a work-in-progress entity in the spectrum of wheat-related disorders". Best Practice & Research. Clinical Gastroenterology. 29 (3): 477–91. doi:10.1016/j.bpg.2015.04.006. PMID 26060112.
A recently proposed approach to NCGS diagnosis is an objective improvement of gastrointestinal symptoms and extra-intestinal manifestations assessed through a rating scale before and after GFD. Although a standardized symptom rating scale is not yet applied worldwide, a recent study indicated that a decrease of the global symptom score higher than 50% after GFD can be regarded as confirmatory of NCGS (Table 1) [53]. (…) After the confirmation of NCGS diagnosis, according to the previously mentioned work-up, patients are advized to start with a GFD [49].
- See JA, Kaukinen K, Makharia GK, Gibson PR, Murray JA (October 2015). "Practical insights into gluten-free diets". Nature Reviews. Gastroenterology & Hepatology (Review). 12 (10): 580–91. doi:10.1038/nrgastro.2015.156. PMID 26392070. S2CID 20270743.
- Mulder CJ, van Wanrooij RL, Bakker SF, Wierdsma N, Bouma G (2013). "Gluten-free diet in gluten-related disorders". Digestive Diseases (Review). 31 (1): 57–62. doi:10.1159/000347180. PMID 23797124. S2CID 14124370.
- El-Chammas K, Danner E (June 2011). "Gluten-free diet in nonceliac disease". Nutrition in Clinical Practice (Review). 26 (3): 294–9. doi:10.1177/0884533611405538. PMID 21586414.
The prescription of a GFD has been recommended for patients with IBS-like symptoms without histologic evidence of CD and who have positive IgA tTG antibodies or have the at-risk haplotypes DQ2 or DQ8.46 (...) Historically, a GFD was occasionally used in the management of multiple sclerosis (MS), because anecdotal reports indicated a positive effect (reversal of symptoms) of a GFD in MS patients. (…) what has been demonstrated so far is that a glutenfree vegan diet for 1 year significantly reduced disease activity and levels of antibodies to β-lactoglobulin and gliadin in patients with RA. (...) The beneficial effect of a GFD on diarrhea and weight gain in patients with HIV enteropathy has been demonstrated in a few case series. Treatment with a GFD has been observed to decrease the frequency of diarrhea and thus allow weight gain.84 (IBS=irritable bowel syndrome; RA=rheumatoid arthritis; GFD=gluten-free diet)
- Marí-Bauset S, Zazpe I, Mari-Sanchis A, Llopis-González A, Morales-Suárez-Varela M (December 2014). "Evidence of the gluten-free and casein-free diet in autism spectrum disorders: a systematic review". Journal of Child Neurology. 29 (12): 1718–27. doi:10.1177/0883073814531330. hdl:10171/37087. PMID 24789114. S2CID 19874518.
- Buie T (May 2013). "The relationship of autism and gluten". Clinical Therapeutics (Review). 35 (5): 578–83. doi:10.1016/j.clinthera.2013.04.011. PMID 23688532.
At this time, the studies attempting to treat symptoms of autism with diet have not been sufficient to support the general institution of a gluten-free or other diet for all children with autism. ...There may be a subgroup of patients who might benefit from a gluten-free diet, but the symptom or testing profile of these candidates remains unclear.
- Millward C, Ferriter M, Calver S, Connell-Jones G (April 2008). Ferriter M (ed.). "Gluten- and casein-free diets for autistic spectrum disorder". The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews (2): CD003498. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD003498.pub3. PMC 4164915. PMID 18425890.
- Lamacchia C, Camarca A, Picascia S, Di Luccia A, Gianfrani C (January 2014). "Cereal-based gluten-free food: how to reconcile nutritional and technological properties of wheat proteins with safety for celiac disease patients". Nutrients (Review). 6 (2): 575–90. doi:10.3390/nu6020575. PMC 3942718. PMID 24481131.
- Saturni L, Ferretti G, Bacchetti T (January 2010). "The gluten-free diet: safety and nutritional quality". Nutrients (Review). 2 (1): 16–34. doi:10.3390/nu2010016. PMC 3257612. PMID 22253989.. See Table 2 and page 21.
- Caeiro, Carolina; Pragosa, Caroline; Cruz, Marisa Carreira; Pereira, Cidália Daniela; Pereira, Sónia Gonçalves (2022). Huerta, José María (ed.). "The Role of Pseudocereals in Celiac Disease: Reducing Nutritional Deficiencies to Improve Well-Being and Health". Journal of Nutrition and Metabolism. 2022: 1–8. doi:10.1155/2022/8502169. ISSN 2090-0732. PMC 8850039. PMID 35186332.
- Akobeng AK, Thomas AG (June 2008). "Systematic review: tolerable amount of gluten for people with coeliac disease". Alimentary Pharmacology & Therapeutics. 27 (11): 1044–52. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2036.2008.03669.x. PMID 18315587. S2CID 20539463.
- Moreno ML, Rodríguez-Herrera A, Sousa C, Comino I (January 2017). "Biomarkers to Monitor Gluten-Free Diet Compliance in Celiac Patients". Nutrients (Review). 9 (1): 46. doi:10.3390/nu9010046. PMC 5295090. PMID 28067823.
- Volta U, Caio G, De Giorgio R, Henriksen C, Skodje G, Lundin KE (June 2015). "Non-celiac gluten sensitivity: a work-in-progress entity in the spectrum of wheat-related disorders". Best Practice & Research. Clinical Gastroenterology. 29 (3): 477–91. doi:10.1016/j.bpg.2015.04.006. PMID 26060112.
- Hadjivassiliou M, Grünewald RA, Davies-Jones GA (May 2002). "Gluten sensitivity as a neurological illness". Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery, and Psychiatry (Review). 72 (5): 560–3. doi:10.1136/jnnp.72.5.560. PMC 1737870. PMID 11971034.
Incomplete elimination of gluten from the diet may be enough to abolish gastrointestinal symptoms with recovery of the small bowel mucosa but is insufficient to arrest the state of heightened immunological responsiveness resulting in neuronal injury. There is a group of patients with CD 'resistant' to gluten-free diet. This may reflect hypersensitivity to the minute amounts of gluten present in most 'gluten-free' products.
- Antiga E, Caproni M (2015). "The diagnosis and treatment of dermatitis herpetiformis". Clinical, Cosmetic and Investigational Dermatology (Review). 8: 257–65. doi:10.2147/CCID.S69127. PMC 4435051. PMID 25999753.
- Fasano A, Catassi C (December 2012). "Clinical practice. Celiac disease". The New England Journal of Medicine. 367 (25): 2419–26. doi:10.1056/NEJMcp1113994. PMID 23252527.
- Lundin KE, Wijmenga C (September 2015). "Coeliac disease and autoimmune disease-genetic overlap and screening". Nature Reviews. Gastroenterology & Hepatology. 12 (9): 507–15. doi:10.1038/nrgastro.2015.136. PMID 26303674. S2CID 24533103.
- Lionetti E, Gatti S, Pulvirenti A, Catassi C (June 2015). "Celiac disease from a global perspective". Best Practice & Research. Clinical Gastroenterology (Review). 29 (3): 365–79. doi:10.1016/j.bpg.2015.05.004. PMID 26060103.
- Fasano A (April 2005). "Clinical presentation of celiac disease in the pediatric population". Gastroenterology. 128 (4 Suppl 1): S68-73. doi:10.1053/j.gastro.2005.02.015. PMID 15825129.
- Elli L, Branchi F, Tomba C, Villalta D, Norsa L, Ferretti F, et al. (June 2015). "Diagnosis of gluten related disorders: Celiac disease, wheat allergy and non-celiac gluten sensitivity". World Journal of Gastroenterology. 21 (23): 7110–9. doi:10.3748/wjg.v21.i23.7110. PMC 4476872. PMID 26109797.
- Ludvigsson JF, Card T, Ciclitira PJ, Swift GL, Nasr I, Sanders DS, Ciacci C (April 2015). "Support for patients with celiac disease: A literature review". United European Gastroenterology Journal (Review). 3 (2): 146–59. doi:10.1177/2050640614562599. PMC 4406900. PMID 25922674.
- Saccone G, Berghella V, Sarno L, Maruotti GM, Cetin I, Greco L, et al. (February 2016). "Celiac disease and obstetric complications: a systematic review and metaanalysis". American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology. 214 (2): 225–234. doi:10.1016/j.ajog.2015.09.080. hdl:11369/330101. PMID 26432464.
- Lebwohl B, Ludvigsson JF, Green PH (October 2015). "Celiac disease and non-celiac gluten sensitivity". BMJ (Review). 351: h4347. doi:10.1136/bmj.h4347. PMC 4596973. PMID 26438584.
Some population groups seem to be especially wed to the gluten-free diet, with nearly 50% of 910 athletes (including world class and Olympic medalists) adhering to a gluten-free diet, mainly because of the perceived health and energy benefits.
- Vriezinga SL, Schweizer JJ, Koning F, Mearin ML (September 2015). "Coeliac disease and gluten-related disorders in childhood". Nature Reviews. Gastroenterology & Hepatology (Review). 12 (9): 527–36. doi:10.1038/nrgastro.2015.98. PMID 26100369. S2CID 2023530.
- De Palma G, Nadal I, Collado MC, Sanz Y (October 2009). "Effects of a gluten-free diet on gut microbiota and immune function in healthy adult human subjects". The British Journal of Nutrition. 102 (8): 1154–60. doi:10.1017/S0007114509371767. hdl:10261/15885. PMID 19445821.
- Mooney PD, Aziz I, Sanders DS (November 2013). "Non-celiac gluten sensitivity: clinical relevance and recommendations for future research". Neurogastroenterology and Motility. 25 (11): 864–71. doi:10.1111/nmo.12216. PMID 23937528. S2CID 9277897.
- Elli L, Roncoroni L, Bardella MT (July 2015). "Non-celiac gluten sensitivity: Time for sifting the grain". World Journal of Gastroenterology (Review). 21 (27): 8221–6. doi:10.3748/wjg.v21.i27.8221. PMC 4507091. PMID 26217073.
- Catassi C, Bai JC, Bonaz B, Bouma G, Calabrò A, Carroccio A, et al. (September 2013). "Non-Celiac Gluten sensitivity: the new frontier of gluten related disorders". Nutrients. 5 (10): 3839–53. doi:10.3390/nu5103839. PMC 3820047. PMID 24077239.
- Fasano A, Sapone A, Zevallos V, Schuppan D (May 2015). "Nonceliac gluten sensitivity". Gastroenterology (Review). 148 (6): 1195–204. doi:10.1053/j.gastro.2014.12.049. PMID 25583468.
- Catassi C, Bai JC, Bonaz B, Bouma G, Calabrò A, Carroccio A, et al. (September 2013). "Non-Celiac Gluten sensitivity: the new frontier of gluten related disorders". Nutrients (Review). 5 (10): 3839–53. doi:10.3390/nu5103839. PMC 3820047. PMID 24077239.
- Aziz I, Hadjivassiliou M, Sanders DS (September 2015). "The spectrum of noncoeliac gluten sensitivity". Nature Reviews. Gastroenterology & Hepatology (Review). 12 (9): 516–26. doi:10.1038/nrgastro.2015.107. PMID 26122473. S2CID 2867448.
- Fasano A, Sapone A, Zevallos V, Schuppan D (May 2015). "Nonceliac gluten sensitivity". Gastroenterology (Review). 148 (6): 1195–204. doi:10.1053/j.gastro.2014.12.049. PMID 25583468.
One of the most controversial and highly debated discussions concerns the role of gluten in causing NCGS. Recent reports have indicated that gluten might not be the cause of NCGS, and some investigators still question whether NCGS as a real clinical entity. (...) Cereals such as wheat and rye, when consumed in normal quantities, are only minor sources of FODMAPs in the daily diet (Table 1). Therefore, gluten-containing grains are not likely to induce IBS exclusively via FODMAPs. In contrast, there is growing evidence that other proteins that are unique to gluten-containing cereals can elicit an innate immune response that leads to NCGS, raising a nomenclature issue. For this reason, wheat sensitivity, rather than gluten sensitivity, seems to be a more appropriate term, keeping in mind that other gluten-containing grains such as barley and rye also can trigger the symptoms.
- Verbeke K (February 2018). "Nonceliac Gluten Sensitivity: What Is the Culprit?". Gastroenterology. 154 (3): 471–473. doi:10.1053/j.gastro.2018.01.013. PMID 29337156.
Although intolerance to fructans and other FODMAPs may contribute to NCGS, they may only explain gastrointestinal symptoms and not the extraintestinal symptoms observed in NCGS patients, such as neurologic dysfunction, psychological disturbances, fibromyalgia, and skin rash.15 Therefore, it is unlikely that they are the sole cause of NCGS.
- Volta U, Caio G, Tovoli F, De Giorgio R (September 2013). "Non-celiac gluten sensitivity: questions still to be answered despite increasing awareness". Cellular & Molecular Immunology (Review). 10 (5): 383–92. doi:10.1038/cmi.2013.28. PMC 4003198. PMID 23934026.
- Ontiveros N, Hardy MY, Cabrera-Chavez F (2015). "Assessing of Celiac Disease and Nonceliac Gluten Sensitivity". Gastroenterology Research and Practice (Review). 2015: 723954. doi:10.1155/2015/723954. PMC 4429206. PMID 26064097.
- Volta U, De Giorgio R, Caio G, Uhde M, Manfredini R, Alaedini A (March 2019). "Nonceliac Wheat Sensitivity: An Immune-Mediated Condition with Systemic Manifestations". Gastroenterology Clinics of North America (Review). 48 (1): 165–182. doi:10.1016/j.gtc.2018.09.012. PMC 6364564. PMID 30711208.
Furthermore, a role for the FODMAP (eg, fructans) component of wheat as the sole trigger for symptoms is somewhat doubtful, because many patients with NCWS report resolution of symptoms after the withdrawal of wheat and related cereals, while continuing to ingest vegetables and fruits with high FODMAP content in their diets.59 On the whole, it is conceivable that more than one culprit may be involved in symptoms of NCWS (as they are currently defined), including gluten, other wheat proteins, and FODMAPs.60–62
- Mansueto P, Seidita A, D'Alcamo A, Carroccio A (2014). "Non-celiac gluten sensitivity: literature review". Journal of the American College of Nutrition (Review). 33 (1): 39–54. doi:10.1080/07315724.2014.869996. hdl:10447/90208. PMID 24533607. S2CID 22521576.
- Genuis SJ, Lobo RA (2014). "Gluten sensitivity presenting as a neuropsychiatric disorder". Gastroenterology Research and Practice (Review). 2014: 293206. doi:10.1155/2014/293206. PMC 3944951. PMID 24693281.
- Molina-Infante J, Santolaria S, Sanders DS, Fernández-Bañares F (May 2015). "Systematic review: noncoeliac gluten sensitivity". Alimentary Pharmacology & Therapeutics (Review). 41 (9): 807–20. doi:10.1111/apt.13155. PMID 25753138. S2CID 207050854.
- Scherf KA, Brockow K, Biedermann T, Koehler P, Wieser H (January 2016). "Wheat-dependent exercise-induced anaphylaxis". Clinical and Experimental Allergy. 46 (1): 10–20. doi:10.1111/cea.12640. PMID 26381478. S2CID 25066563.
Wheat-dependent exercise-induced anaphylaxis (WDEIA) is a rare, but potentially severe food allergy exclusively occurring when wheat ingestion is accompanied by augmenting cofactors. (...) The most reliable prophylaxis of WDEIA is a gluten-free diet. In less severe cases, a strict limitation of wheat ingestion before exercise and avoidance of other cofactors may be sufficient.
- Pietzak M (January 2012). "Celiac disease, wheat allergy, and gluten sensitivity: when gluten free is not a fad". Journal of Parenteral and Enteral Nutrition. 36 (1 Suppl): 68S – 75S. doi:10.1177/0148607111426276. PMID 22237879.
- Sapone A, Bai JC, Ciacci C, Dolinsek J, Green PH, Hadjivassiliou M, et al. (February 2012). "Spectrum of gluten-related disorders: consensus on new nomenclature and classification". BMC Medicine (Review). 10: 13. doi:10.1186/1741-7015-10-13. PMC 3292448. PMID 22313950.
- Hadjivassiliou M, Sanders DD, Aeschlimann DP (2015). "Gluten-related disorders: gluten ataxia". Digestive Diseases (Review). 33 (2): 264–8. doi:10.1159/000369509. PMID 25925933. S2CID 207673823.
- Mitoma H, Adhikari K, Aeschlimann D, Chattopadhyay P, Hadjivassiliou M, Hampe CS, et al. (April 2016). "Consensus Paper: Neuroimmune Mechanisms of Cerebellar Ataxias". Cerebellum (Review). 15 (2): 213–32. doi:10.1007/s12311-015-0664-x. PMC 4591117. PMID 25823827.
- Hadjivassiliou M, Grünewald R, Sharrack B, Sanders D, Lobo A, Williamson C, et al. (March 2003). "Gluten ataxia in perspective: epidemiology, genetic susceptibility and clinical characteristics". Brain. 126 (Pt 3): 685–91. doi:10.1093/brain/awg050. PMID 12566288.
- Volta U, Caio G, Karunaratne TB, Alaedini A, De Giorgio R (January 2017). "Non-coeliac gluten/wheat sensitivity: advances in knowledge and relevant questions". Expert Review of Gastroenterology & Hepatology (Review). 11 (1): 9–18. doi:10.1080/17474124.2017.1260003. PMID 27852116. S2CID 34881689.
- Nash DT, Slutzky AR (October 2014). "Gluten sensitivity: new epidemic or new myth?". Proceedings. 27 (4): 377–8. doi:10.1080/08998280.2014.11929164. PMC 4255872. PMID 25484517.
- Shewry PR, Hey SJ (March 2016). "Do we need to worry about eating wheat?". Nutrition Bulletin. 41 (1): 6–13. doi:10.1111/nbu.12186. PMC 4760426. PMID 26941586.
- Jones AL (May 2017). "The Gluten-Free Diet: Fad or Necessity?". Diabetes Spectrum. 30 (2): 118–123. doi:10.2337/ds16-0022. PMC 5439366. PMID 28588378.
- Reilly NR (August 2016). "The Gluten-Free Diet: Recognizing Fact, Fiction, and Fad". The Journal of Pediatrics. 175: 206–10. doi:10.1016/j.jpeds.2016.04.014. PMID 27185419.
- Gaesser GA, Angadi SS (September 2012). "Gluten-free diet: imprudent dietary advice for the general population?". Journal of the Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics. 112 (9): 1330–1333. doi:10.1016/j.jand.2012.06.009. PMID 22939437.
- Fasano A, Sapone A, Zevallos V, Schuppan D (May 2015). "Nonceliac gluten sensitivity". Gastroenterology. 148 (6): 1195–204. doi:10.1053/j.gastro.2014.12.049. PMID 25583468.
Although there is clearly a fad component to the popularity of the GFD, there is also undisputable and increasing evidence for NCGS.
- Elli L, Branchi F, Tomba C, Villalta D, Norsa L, Ferretti F, et al. (June 2015). "Diagnosis of gluten related disorders: Celiac disease, wheat allergy and non-celiac gluten sensitivity". World Journal of Gastroenterology (Review). 21 (23): 7110–9. doi:10.3748/wjg.v21.i23.7110. PMC 4476872. PMID 26109797.
- Haboubi NY, Taylor S, Jones S (October 2006). "Coeliac disease and oats: a systematic review". Postgraduate Medical Journal (Review). 82 (972): 672–8. doi:10.1136/pgmj.2006.045443. PMC 2653911. PMID 17068278.
- Comino I, Moreno MD, Real A, Rodríguez-Herrera A, Barro F, Sousa C (October 2013). "The gluten-free diet: testing alternative cereals tolerated by celiac patients". Nutrients. 5 (10): 4250–68. doi:10.3390/nu5104250. PMC 3820072. PMID 24152755.
- Verma AK, Gatti S, Galeazzi T, Monachesi C, Padella L, Baldo GD, et al. (February 2017). "Gluten Contamination in Naturally or Labeled Gluten-Free Products Marketed in Italy". Nutrients. 9 (2): 115. doi:10.3390/nu9020115. PMC 5331546. PMID 28178205.
- Mistry A, Tosto-Sheppard L (June 1, 2020). "Food Allergen and Gluten Training and Awareness Among Restaurant Workers Serving Gluten-Free Foods". Current Developments in Nutrition. 4 (Supplement_2): 719. doi:10.1093/cdn/nzaa051_016. ISSN 2475-2991. PMC 7257391.
- Falcomer AL, Santos Araújo L, Farage P, Santos Monteiro J, Yoshio Nakano E, Puppin Zandonadi R (February 4, 2020). "Gluten contamination in food services and industry: A systematic review". Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition. 60 (3): 479–493. doi:10.1080/10408398.2018.1541864. PMID 30582343. S2CID 58582062.
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Similar proteins to the gliadin found in wheat exist as secalin in rye, hordein in barley, and avenins in oats and are collectively referred to as 'gluten.' Derivatives of these grains such as triticale and malt and other ancient wheat varieties such as spelt and kamut also contain gluten. The gluten found in all of these grains has been identified as the component capable of triggering the immune-mediated disorder, coeliac disease.
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It is necessary to consider that oats include many varieties, containing various amino acid sequences and showing different immunoreactivities associated with toxic prolamins. As a result, several studies have shown that the immunogenicity of oats varies depending on the cultivar consumed. Thus, it is essential to thoroughly study the variety of oats used in a food ingredient before including it in a gluten-free diet.
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For CD patients on GFD, the nutritional complications are likely to be caused by the poor nutritional quality of the GFPs mentioned above and by the incorrect alimentary choices of CD patients. (...) the limited choice of food products in the diet of children with CD induces a high consumption of packaged GFPs, such as snacks like biscuits. (..) It has been shown that some commercially available GFPs have a lower content of folates, iron and B vitamins or are not consistently enriched/fortified compared to their gluten containing counterparts. (...) Within the range of naturally GF foods, it is preferable to consume those rich in iron and folic acid, such as leafy vegetables, legumes, fish and meat.
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The only treatment for CD, dermatitis herpetiformis (DH) and gluten ataxia is lifelong adherence to a GFD.
- Hischenhuber C, Crevel R, Jarry B, Mäki M, Moneret-Vautrin DA, Romano A, et al. (March 2006). "Review article: safe amounts of gluten for patients with wheat allergy or coeliac disease". Alimentary Pharmacology & Therapeutics. 23 (5): 559–75. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2036.2006.02768.x. PMID 16480395. S2CID 9970042.
For both wheat allergy and coeliac disease the dietary avoidance of wheat and other gluten-containing cereals is the only effective treatment.
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A recently proposed approach to NCGS diagnosis is an objective improvement of gastrointestinal symptoms and extra-intestinal manifestations assessed through a rating scale before and after GFD. Although a standardized symptom rating scale is not yet applied worldwide, a recent study indicated that a decrease of the global symptom score higher than 50% after GFD can be regarded as confirmatory of NCGS (Table 1) [53]. (…) After the confirmation of NCGS diagnosis, according to the previously mentioned work-up, patients are advized to start with a GFD [49].
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The prescription of a GFD has been recommended for patients with IBS-like symptoms without histologic evidence of CD and who have positive IgA tTG antibodies or have the at-risk haplotypes DQ2 or DQ8.46 (...) Historically, a GFD was occasionally used in the management of multiple sclerosis (MS), because anecdotal reports indicated a positive effect (reversal of symptoms) of a GFD in MS patients. (…) what has been demonstrated so far is that a glutenfree vegan diet for 1 year significantly reduced disease activity and levels of antibodies to β-lactoglobulin and gliadin in patients with RA. (...) The beneficial effect of a GFD on diarrhea and weight gain in patients with HIV enteropathy has been demonstrated in a few case series. Treatment with a GFD has been observed to decrease the frequency of diarrhea and thus allow weight gain.84 (IBS=irritable bowel syndrome; RA=rheumatoid arthritis; GFD=gluten-free diet)
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At this time, the studies attempting to treat symptoms of autism with diet have not been sufficient to support the general institution of a gluten-free or other diet for all children with autism. ...There may be a subgroup of patients who might benefit from a gluten-free diet, but the symptom or testing profile of these candidates remains unclear.
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Incomplete elimination of gluten from the diet may be enough to abolish gastrointestinal symptoms with recovery of the small bowel mucosa but is insufficient to arrest the state of heightened immunological responsiveness resulting in neuronal injury. There is a group of patients with CD 'resistant' to gluten-free diet. This may reflect hypersensitivity to the minute amounts of gluten present in most 'gluten-free' products.
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Some population groups seem to be especially wed to the gluten-free diet, with nearly 50% of 910 athletes (including world class and Olympic medalists) adhering to a gluten-free diet, mainly because of the perceived health and energy benefits.
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- Catassi C, Bai JC, Bonaz B, Bouma G, Calabrò A, Carroccio A, et al. (September 2013). "Non-Celiac Gluten sensitivity: the new frontier of gluten related disorders". Nutrients (Review). 5 (10): 3839–53. doi:10.3390/nu5103839. PMC 3820047. PMID 24077239.
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One of the most controversial and highly debated discussions concerns the role of gluten in causing NCGS. Recent reports have indicated that gluten might not be the cause of NCGS, and some investigators still question whether NCGS as a real clinical entity. (...) Cereals such as wheat and rye, when consumed in normal quantities, are only minor sources of FODMAPs in the daily diet (Table 1). Therefore, gluten-containing grains are not likely to induce IBS exclusively via FODMAPs. In contrast, there is growing evidence that other proteins that are unique to gluten-containing cereals can elicit an innate immune response that leads to NCGS, raising a nomenclature issue. For this reason, wheat sensitivity, rather than gluten sensitivity, seems to be a more appropriate term, keeping in mind that other gluten-containing grains such as barley and rye also can trigger the symptoms.
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Although intolerance to fructans and other FODMAPs may contribute to NCGS, they may only explain gastrointestinal symptoms and not the extraintestinal symptoms observed in NCGS patients, such as neurologic dysfunction, psychological disturbances, fibromyalgia, and skin rash.15 Therefore, it is unlikely that they are the sole cause of NCGS.
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Furthermore, a role for the FODMAP (eg, fructans) component of wheat as the sole trigger for symptoms is somewhat doubtful, because many patients with NCWS report resolution of symptoms after the withdrawal of wheat and related cereals, while continuing to ingest vegetables and fruits with high FODMAP content in their diets.59 On the whole, it is conceivable that more than one culprit may be involved in symptoms of NCWS (as they are currently defined), including gluten, other wheat proteins, and FODMAPs.60–62
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Wheat-dependent exercise-induced anaphylaxis (WDEIA) is a rare, but potentially severe food allergy exclusively occurring when wheat ingestion is accompanied by augmenting cofactors. (...) The most reliable prophylaxis of WDEIA is a gluten-free diet. In less severe cases, a strict limitation of wheat ingestion before exercise and avoidance of other cofactors may be sufficient.
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Although there is clearly a fad component to the popularity of the GFD, there is also undisputable and increasing evidence for NCGS.
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It is necessary to consider that oats include many varieties, containing various amino acid sequences and showing different immunoreactivities associated with toxic prolamins. As a result, several studies have shown that the immunogenicity of oats varies depending on the cultivar consumed. Thus, it is essential to thoroughly study the variety of oats used in a food ingredient before including it in a gluten-free diet.
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For CD patients on GFD, the nutritional complications are likely to be caused by the poor nutritional quality of the GFPs mentioned above and by the incorrect alimentary choices of CD patients. (...) the limited choice of food products in the diet of children with CD induces a high consumption of packaged GFPs, such as snacks like biscuits. (..) It has been shown that some commercially available GFPs have a lower content of folates, iron and B vitamins or are not consistently enriched/fortified compared to their gluten containing counterparts. (...) Within the range of naturally GF foods, it is preferable to consume those rich in iron and folic acid, such as leafy vegetables, legumes, fish and meat.
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Incomplete elimination of gluten from the diet may be enough to abolish gastrointestinal symptoms with recovery of the small bowel mucosa but is insufficient to arrest the state of heightened immunological responsiveness resulting in neuronal injury. There is a group of patients with CD 'resistant' to gluten-free diet. This may reflect hypersensitivity to the minute amounts of gluten present in most 'gluten-free' products.
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Some population groups seem to be especially wed to the gluten-free diet, with nearly 50% of 910 athletes (including world class and Olympic medalists) adhering to a gluten-free diet, mainly because of the perceived health and energy benefits.
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Furthermore, a role for the FODMAP (eg, fructans) component of wheat as the sole trigger for symptoms is somewhat doubtful, because many patients with NCWS report resolution of symptoms after the withdrawal of wheat and related cereals, while continuing to ingest vegetables and fruits with high FODMAP content in their diets.59 On the whole, it is conceivable that more than one culprit may be involved in symptoms of NCWS (as they are currently defined), including gluten, other wheat proteins, and FODMAPs.60–62
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