Beckwith 2009, p. 86: "The most important and vivid accounts are those of Chang Ch’ien (d. 113 bc), who in 139 bc left on a mission to entice the *Tokwar to return to their previous homeland in the region between Tun-huang and the Ch’i-lien Mountains. Chang was captured by the Hsiung-nu, among whom he lived for ten years before escaping and continuing his journey to the west. He was in Bactria in about 128 and returned home in 122 bc after another, shorter stay among the Hsiung-nu. After being sent out again in 115, he returned and died two years later.". Beckwith, Christopher I. (2009). Empires of the Silk Road: A History of Central Eurasia from the Bronze Age to the Present. Princeton University Press. ISBN978-1-4008-2994-1.
cas.cn
english.igsnrr.cas.cn
"Three Famous Corridors". Institute of Geographic Sciences and Natural Resources Research, Chinese Academy of Sciences. November 2020. Archived from the original on 29 November 2024. Retrieved 29 November 2024.
Dong et al. 2017, p. 627: "The archaeological record during the Neolithic includes painted ceramics which appear in all sites of the Majiayao (4600–4000 BP) and Machang (4300– 4000 BP), but bronze vessels have only been found in two Machang cultural sites, Gaomuxudi and Zhaobitan in the central Hexi Corridor.". Dong, Guanghui; Yang, Yishi; Liu, Xinyi; Li, Haiming; Cui, Yifu; Wang, Hui; Chen, Guoke; Dodson, John; Chen, Fahu (17 October 2017). "Prehistoric trans-continental cultural exchange in the Hexi Corridor, northwest China". The Holocene. 28 (4): 621–628. doi:10.1177/0959683617735585. ISSN0959-6836.
Zhou et al. 2012, p. 42: "After 4200 cal BP, the Qijia and Siba Cultures, which had copper smelting technology, prevailed in this region. Prosperous Bronze Age agriculture in the Hexi Corridor appears to have terminated suddenly around 3500-3400 cal BP". Zhou, Xinying; Li, Xiaoqiang; Dodson, John; Zhao, Keliang; Pia, Atahan; Sun, Nan; Yang, Qing (2012-03-16). "Land degradation during the Bronze Age in Hexi Corridor (Gansu, China)". Quaternary International. Holocene Vegetation Dynamics and Human Impact: Agricultural Activities and Rice Cultivation in East Asia II. 254: 42–48. Bibcode:2012QuInt.254...42X. doi:10.1016/j.quaint.2011.06.046. ISSN1040-6182.
Dong et al. 2017, p. 625: "After the mid-fifth millennium BP, archaeological evidence from the Hexi Corridor suggests that cultural elements from east Asia spread to Central Asia by the way of the Hexi Corridor. For example, patterns of painted pottery spread to Xinjiang and then influenced Chust cultures in south Central Asia in the late Bronze Age. At the same time, the cultural elements of West Asia and the Eurasian steppes spread to east Central Asia and then to northwest China [...]". Dong, Guanghui; Yang, Yishi; Liu, Xinyi; Li, Haiming; Cui, Yifu; Wang, Hui; Chen, Guoke; Dodson, John; Chen, Fahu (17 October 2017). "Prehistoric trans-continental cultural exchange in the Hexi Corridor, northwest China". The Holocene. 28 (4): 621–628. doi:10.1177/0959683617735585. ISSN0959-6836.
Zhang et al. 2017, p. 93-94: Fragmentary bronze artifacts were found in Majiayao (5000–4500 BP) and Machang (4300–4000 BP) late Neolithic cultures sites, but these findings are not reliable and need further validation. The number of bronze artifacts and sites with smelting relics reached a maximum during Xichengyi (4000–3700 BP), Qijia (4000–3500 BP) and Siba (3700–3400 BP) Bronze Age cultures period, but diminished substantially during Shanma (3000–2400 BP) and Shajing (2800–2400 BP) cultures.. Zhang, Shanjia; Yang, Yishi; Storozum, Michael J.; Li, Haiming; Cui, Yifu; Dong, Guanghui (2017). "Copper smelting and sediment pollution in Bronze Age China: A case study in the Hexi corridor, Northwest China". CATENA. 156: 92–101. Bibcode:2017Caten.156...92Z. doi:10.1016/j.catena.2017.04.001. ISSN0341-8162.
Yang et al. 2020, p. 615: "During~2800–2000 BC, people in the Hexi Corridor adopted a sedentary lifestyle, cultivating millet and raising pigs, sheep/goats, cattle, and dogs. Moreover, they began to cultivate wheat and barley beginning ~2000 BC. By ~2000–1000 BC, the strategy had shifted to semi-sedentary agro-pastoral production, based on the utilization of sheep/goats,pigs, cattle, dogs, and horses. During ~1000–200 BC, wheat and naked barley replaced millet as the major crops". Yang, Liu; Shi, Zhilin; Zhang, Shanjia; Lee, Harry F. (5 June 2020). "Climate Change, Geopolitics, and Human Settlements in the Hexi Corridor over the Last 5,000 Years". Acta Geologica Sinica - English Edition. 94 (3): 612–623. Bibcode:2020AcGlS..94..612Y. doi:10.1111/1755-6724.14529. ISSN1000-9515.
Zhou et al. 2012, p. 46-47: "The prosperity of Bronze Age agricultural societies in the Hexi Corridor persisted from ca. 4200 to 3500 cal BP, and was characterised by agro-pastoralist societies that kept livestock including pig, sheep, cattle and horse, while also producing bronze objects of alloyed copper, arsenic and tin". Zhou, Xinying; Li, Xiaoqiang; Dodson, John; Zhao, Keliang; Pia, Atahan; Sun, Nan; Yang, Qing (2012-03-16). "Land degradation during the Bronze Age in Hexi Corridor (Gansu, China)". Quaternary International. Holocene Vegetation Dynamics and Human Impact: Agricultural Activities and Rice Cultivation in East Asia II. 254: 42–48. Bibcode:2012QuInt.254...42X. doi:10.1016/j.quaint.2011.06.046. ISSN1040-6182.
Dong et al. 2017, p. 623: "Charred seeds of wheat, barley, foxtail, and broomcorn millet are all identified from Huoshiliang and other Bronze sites in the central Hexi Corridor. This implies that wheat had been introduced to the Hexi Corridor region by at least the early fourth millennium BP". Dong, Guanghui; Yang, Yishi; Liu, Xinyi; Li, Haiming; Cui, Yifu; Wang, Hui; Chen, Guoke; Dodson, John; Chen, Fahu (17 October 2017). "Prehistoric trans-continental cultural exchange in the Hexi Corridor, northwest China". The Holocene. 28 (4): 621–628. doi:10.1177/0959683617735585. ISSN0959-6836.
Zhou et al. 2012, p. 42: "But the increasing climate aridity between ca. 4000 and 3500 cal BP, which was induced by a weakening of the Asian monsoon, is the underlying cause for the shrinking of arable land and vegetation degradation in Hexi Corridor, and this is the likely cause for the decrease of the agricultural activities and collapse of the Bronze Age societies in Hexi Corridor". Zhou, Xinying; Li, Xiaoqiang; Dodson, John; Zhao, Keliang; Pia, Atahan; Sun, Nan; Yang, Qing (2012-03-16). "Land degradation during the Bronze Age in Hexi Corridor (Gansu, China)". Quaternary International. Holocene Vegetation Dynamics and Human Impact: Agricultural Activities and Rice Cultivation in East Asia II. 254: 42–48. Bibcode:2012QuInt.254...42X. doi:10.1016/j.quaint.2011.06.046. ISSN1040-6182.
Li et al. 2023, p. 4: "Since 4000 a BP, the East Asian monsoon decreases, and its range gradually retreats in the Hexi Corridor climate. In the eastern part of the Hexi Corridor, the cold and dry climate leads to the gradual retreat of ancient lakes and swamps, vegetation degradation, and the environment’s severe aridity... In the Siba culture (3650–3200 a BP), the climate becomes cold and dry, which causes the river systems to shrink and the land to become degraded [...] The sudden disappearance of the Siba culture could be attributed to two reasons. One is the weakening of the Asian monsoon and the extreme dry 3500 BP event, which causes a significant reduction in precipitation.". Li, Yu; Gao, Mingjun; Zhang, Zhansen; Duan, Junjie; Xue, Yaxin (2023-04-01). "Phased human-nature interactions for the past 10 000 years in the Hexi Corridor, China". Environmental Research Letters. 18 (4): 044035. Bibcode:2023ERL....18d4035L. doi:10.1088/1748-9326/acc87b. ISSN1748-9326.
Li et al. 2023, p. 5: "The Shajing culture (2700–2100 BP) is the last prehistoric civilization in the eastern part of the Hexi Corridor. During that period, the Zhuye Lake has been shrinking due to drought caused by the further weakening of the East Asian monsoon [...] Shajing culture is dominated by nomadic production or mixed agriculture and animal husbandry production, and agriculture no longer dominates. With increasing drought levels, agricultural culture gradually declines and collapses, nomadic culture flourishes in the Hexi Corridor basin and animal husbandry prevailed.". Li, Yu; Gao, Mingjun; Zhang, Zhansen; Duan, Junjie; Xue, Yaxin (2023-04-01). "Phased human-nature interactions for the past 10 000 years in the Hexi Corridor, China". Environmental Research Letters. 18 (4): 044035. Bibcode:2023ERL....18d4035L. doi:10.1088/1748-9326/acc87b. ISSN1748-9326.
Li et al. 2023, Abstract: "In contrast, the Shajing Culture flourished along the lower Shiyang River with the retreat of the Zhuye Lake, the Xiongnu Empire established the city of Xiutu along the Hongshui River, which experienced downcutting linked to the arid environment, and a nomadic culture emerged against the backdrop of drought in the Shiyang River Basin". Li, Yu; Zhang, Zhansen; Zhou, Xueru; Gao, Mingjun; Li, Haiye; Xue, Yaxin; Duan, Junjie (2023-05-01). "Paleo-environmental changes and human activities in Shiyang River Basin since the Late Glacial". Chinese Science Bulletin (in Chinese). doi:10.1360/tb-2022-0965. ISSN0023-074X.
Yü 1986, p. 407: "As the first Han envoy to the west, the immediate objective of Chang Ch'ien's mission was to seek a military alliance with the Greater Yueh-chih, who had suffered a humiliating defeat at the hands of the Hsiung-nu in the early years of Mao-tun's reign. However, when Chang Ch'ien and his party eventually arrived in the Yiieh-chih territory, after being captured by the Hsiung-nu and detained by them for ten years, they were disappointed to find that the Yiieh-chih were too well settled to want a war of retaliation against the Hsiung-nu.". Yü, Ying-Shih (1986-12-26), "Han foreign relations", The Cambridge History of China, Cambridge University Press, pp. 377–462, doi:10.1017/chol9780521243278.008, ISBN978-1-139-05473-7, retrieved 2025-01-28
Benjamin 2018, p. 69: "When [Zhang Qian] finally returned to the Han court and presented his report to Wudi, the Han became seriously aware for the first time [...] of the opportunities for imperial Han expansion the western regions presented. Indeed, Zhang Qian’s report explicitly introduced Wudi and the Han court to the diplomatic and strategic opportunities available were they to expand their diplomatic interests into Central Asia, opportunities that as we shall see, Wudi was quick to exploit.". Benjamin, Craig (2018-04-20). Empires of Ancient Eurasia. Cambridge University Press. doi:10.1017/9781316335567. ISBN978-1-316-33556-7.
Yü 1986, p. 407: "Chang Ch'ien's failure turned out, however, to be the beginning of Han China's success in its subsequent western expansion. It was largely owing to the information about the Western Regions brought back by Chang Ch'ien that the Han court later decided to make its first diplomatic overtures toward some of the small states in that area.". Yü, Ying-Shih (1986-12-26), "Han foreign relations", The Cambridge History of China, Cambridge University Press, pp. 377–462, doi:10.1017/chol9780521243278.008, ISBN978-1-139-05473-7, retrieved 2025-01-28
Kim 2017, p. 8: "The story of how Emperor Wu precipitated a war between China and the Xiongnu is told in great detail by Sima Qian. In 134 BCE, the Chinese attempted to trap Gunchen Chanyu (the grandson of Modu) and the Xiongnu army in an ambush. The plot failed, but just five years later in 129 BCE, full-scale war erupted between the two empires and would continue on and off until the final dissolution of the Xiongnu Empire more than two hundred years later in the late 1st century CE.". Kim, Hyun Jin (2017-03-29), "The Xiongnu", Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Asian History, doi:10.1093/acrefore/9780190277727.013.50, ISBN978-0-19-027772-7, retrieved 2025-01-01
Yü 1986, p. 389-390: "But the emperor's decision was apparently made with much reluctance, for a year later (134 B.C.) he reversed the decision, adopting the plot of a frontier merchant to trap the shan-yu in an ambush in the city of Ma-i (in Yen-men commandery, modern Shansi). The plot was discovered by the shan-yu and the ambush came to nothing. [...] Full-scale war did not break out until the autumn of 129 B.C.". Yü, Ying-Shih (1986-12-26), "Han foreign relations", The Cambridge History of China, Cambridge University Press, pp. 377–462, doi:10.1017/chol9780521243278.008, ISBN978-1-139-05473-7, retrieved 2025-01-28
Sneath & Kaplonski 2010, p. 58: "In the spring of the next year (121 BC), the Han dispatched the general of swift cavalry Huo Qubing to lead 10,000 cavalry out of Longxi. [...] In the summer Huo Qubing, accompanied by Gongsun Ao, the Heqi marquis, led a force of 20,000 or 30,000 cavalry some 2,000 li out of Longxi and Beidi to attack the barbarians. They passed Juyan, attacked in the region of the Qilian Mountains, and captured or killed over 30,000 of the enemy, including seventy or more petty kings and their subordinates [...] the Han found itself far less troubled by barbarian invasions in the regions of Longxi, Beidi, and Hexi.". Sneath, David; Kaplonski, Christopher (2010-01-01), "Sima Qian (1993) 'The Account of the Xiongnu'", The History of Mongolia (3 Vols.), BRILL, pp. 43–67, doi:10.1163/9789004216358_004, ISBN978-90-04-21635-8, retrieved 2025-01-30
Yü 1986, p. 391: "In 121 B.C. the Hsiung-nu were dealt another severe blow at the hands of the general Huo Ch'ii-ping, who ranks with Wei Ch'ing among the rare geniuses in Chinese military history. Huo led a force of light cavalry westward out of Lung-hsi and within six days had fought his way through five Hsiung-nu kingdoms, wresting both the Yen-chih and Ch'i-lien mountain ranges from them. The Hsiung-nu Hun-yeh king was forced to surrender with 40,000 men.". Yü, Ying-Shih (1986-12-26), "Han foreign relations", The Cambridge History of China, Cambridge University Press, pp. 377–462, doi:10.1017/chol9780521243278.008, ISBN978-1-139-05473-7, retrieved 2025-01-28
Yü 1986, p. 391: "The lands previously occupied by the Hun-yeh king stretched west from the Kansu corridor to Lop Nor. After the surrender of the Hun-yeh king in 121 B.C., all the Hsiung-nu people moved out of the area, and the Han court may have established the commandery of Chiu-ch'iian there. Later on, three more commanderies Chang-i, Tun-huang, and Wu-wei —were added, which together with Chiu-ch'iian have come to be known in Han history as "the four commanderies west of the [Yellow] River.". Yü, Ying-Shih (1986-12-26), "Han foreign relations", The Cambridge History of China, Cambridge University Press, pp. 377–462, doi:10.1017/chol9780521243278.008, ISBN978-1-139-05473-7, retrieved 2025-01-28
Yü 1986, pp. 391-392: " With the annexation of Ho-hsi the Han succeeded in separating the Hsiung-nu from the Ch'iang peoples to the south and also gained direct access to the whole of the Western Regions. As is amply shown in subsequent history, Ho-hsi became the most important base for Han military operations in the Western Regions [...] The period from 115 to 60 B.C. witnessed two related developments in the history of Han and Hsiung-nu relations. First, during this time Han and Hsiung-nu struggled for mastery over the Western Regions, a contest that ended in a complete triumph for Han.. Yü, Ying-Shih (1986-12-26), "Han foreign relations", The Cambridge History of China, Cambridge University Press, pp. 377–462, doi:10.1017/chol9780521243278.008, ISBN978-1-139-05473-7, retrieved 2025-01-28
Benjamin 2018, p. 86: "Indeed, the Han were now so deeply invested in Central Asia that, in either 60 or 59 BCE, during the reign of Xuandi, the court made a decision to establish a permanent presence deep in the Tarim Basin to protect its various garrisons, commanderies and allied states from the Xiongnu and to reinforce its hegemonic status among the various tributary town-states of the region. Accordingly, the Office of the Protector General of the Western Regions was established, and General Cheng Chi was appointed the first protector general.". Benjamin, Craig (2018-04-20). Empires of Ancient Eurasia. Cambridge University Press. doi:10.1017/9781316335567. ISBN978-1-316-33556-7.
Yü 1986, p. 411: "The establishment of the office of protector-general of the Western Regions in 60 or 59 B.C. marks the start of a new phase in which Han influence became markedly more effective.". Yü, Ying-Shih (1986-12-26), "Han foreign relations", The Cambridge History of China, Cambridge University Press, pp. 377–462, doi:10.1017/chol9780521243278.008, ISBN978-1-139-05473-7, retrieved 2025-01-28
Youli Li; Jingchun Yang; Lihua Tan; Fengjun Duan (July 1999). "Impact of tectonics on alluvial landforms in the Hexi Corridor, Northwest China". Geomorphology. 28 (3–4): 299–308. Bibcode:1999Geomo..28..299L. doi:10.1016/S0169-555X(98)00114-7.
Zhou et al. 2012, p. 42: "After 4200 cal BP, the Qijia and Siba Cultures, which had copper smelting technology, prevailed in this region. Prosperous Bronze Age agriculture in the Hexi Corridor appears to have terminated suddenly around 3500-3400 cal BP". Zhou, Xinying; Li, Xiaoqiang; Dodson, John; Zhao, Keliang; Pia, Atahan; Sun, Nan; Yang, Qing (2012-03-16). "Land degradation during the Bronze Age in Hexi Corridor (Gansu, China)". Quaternary International. Holocene Vegetation Dynamics and Human Impact: Agricultural Activities and Rice Cultivation in East Asia II. 254: 42–48. Bibcode:2012QuInt.254...42X. doi:10.1016/j.quaint.2011.06.046. ISSN1040-6182.
Zhou et al. 2012, p. 46-47: "The prosperity of Bronze Age agricultural societies in the Hexi Corridor persisted from ca. 4200 to 3500 cal BP, and was characterised by agro-pastoralist societies that kept livestock including pig, sheep, cattle and horse, while also producing bronze objects of alloyed copper, arsenic and tin". Zhou, Xinying; Li, Xiaoqiang; Dodson, John; Zhao, Keliang; Pia, Atahan; Sun, Nan; Yang, Qing (2012-03-16). "Land degradation during the Bronze Age in Hexi Corridor (Gansu, China)". Quaternary International. Holocene Vegetation Dynamics and Human Impact: Agricultural Activities and Rice Cultivation in East Asia II. 254: 42–48. Bibcode:2012QuInt.254...42X. doi:10.1016/j.quaint.2011.06.046. ISSN1040-6182.
Zhou et al. 2012, p. 42: "But the increasing climate aridity between ca. 4000 and 3500 cal BP, which was induced by a weakening of the Asian monsoon, is the underlying cause for the shrinking of arable land and vegetation degradation in Hexi Corridor, and this is the likely cause for the decrease of the agricultural activities and collapse of the Bronze Age societies in Hexi Corridor". Zhou, Xinying; Li, Xiaoqiang; Dodson, John; Zhao, Keliang; Pia, Atahan; Sun, Nan; Yang, Qing (2012-03-16). "Land degradation during the Bronze Age in Hexi Corridor (Gansu, China)". Quaternary International. Holocene Vegetation Dynamics and Human Impact: Agricultural Activities and Rice Cultivation in East Asia II. 254: 42–48. Bibcode:2012QuInt.254...42X. doi:10.1016/j.quaint.2011.06.046. ISSN1040-6182.
Zhou et al. 2012, p. 42: "After 4200 cal BP, the Qijia and Siba Cultures, which had copper smelting technology, prevailed in this region. Prosperous Bronze Age agriculture in the Hexi Corridor appears to have terminated suddenly around 3500-3400 cal BP". Zhou, Xinying; Li, Xiaoqiang; Dodson, John; Zhao, Keliang; Pia, Atahan; Sun, Nan; Yang, Qing (2012-03-16). "Land degradation during the Bronze Age in Hexi Corridor (Gansu, China)". Quaternary International. Holocene Vegetation Dynamics and Human Impact: Agricultural Activities and Rice Cultivation in East Asia II. 254: 42–48. Bibcode:2012QuInt.254...42X. doi:10.1016/j.quaint.2011.06.046. ISSN1040-6182.
Zhang et al. 2017, p. 93-94: Fragmentary bronze artifacts were found in Majiayao (5000–4500 BP) and Machang (4300–4000 BP) late Neolithic cultures sites, but these findings are not reliable and need further validation. The number of bronze artifacts and sites with smelting relics reached a maximum during Xichengyi (4000–3700 BP), Qijia (4000–3500 BP) and Siba (3700–3400 BP) Bronze Age cultures period, but diminished substantially during Shanma (3000–2400 BP) and Shajing (2800–2400 BP) cultures.. Zhang, Shanjia; Yang, Yishi; Storozum, Michael J.; Li, Haiming; Cui, Yifu; Dong, Guanghui (2017). "Copper smelting and sediment pollution in Bronze Age China: A case study in the Hexi corridor, Northwest China". CATENA. 156: 92–101. Bibcode:2017Caten.156...92Z. doi:10.1016/j.catena.2017.04.001. ISSN0341-8162.
Yang et al. 2020, p. 615: "During~2800–2000 BC, people in the Hexi Corridor adopted a sedentary lifestyle, cultivating millet and raising pigs, sheep/goats, cattle, and dogs. Moreover, they began to cultivate wheat and barley beginning ~2000 BC. By ~2000–1000 BC, the strategy had shifted to semi-sedentary agro-pastoral production, based on the utilization of sheep/goats,pigs, cattle, dogs, and horses. During ~1000–200 BC, wheat and naked barley replaced millet as the major crops". Yang, Liu; Shi, Zhilin; Zhang, Shanjia; Lee, Harry F. (5 June 2020). "Climate Change, Geopolitics, and Human Settlements in the Hexi Corridor over the Last 5,000 Years". Acta Geologica Sinica - English Edition. 94 (3): 612–623. Bibcode:2020AcGlS..94..612Y. doi:10.1111/1755-6724.14529. ISSN1000-9515.
Zhou et al. 2012, p. 46-47: "The prosperity of Bronze Age agricultural societies in the Hexi Corridor persisted from ca. 4200 to 3500 cal BP, and was characterised by agro-pastoralist societies that kept livestock including pig, sheep, cattle and horse, while also producing bronze objects of alloyed copper, arsenic and tin". Zhou, Xinying; Li, Xiaoqiang; Dodson, John; Zhao, Keliang; Pia, Atahan; Sun, Nan; Yang, Qing (2012-03-16). "Land degradation during the Bronze Age in Hexi Corridor (Gansu, China)". Quaternary International. Holocene Vegetation Dynamics and Human Impact: Agricultural Activities and Rice Cultivation in East Asia II. 254: 42–48. Bibcode:2012QuInt.254...42X. doi:10.1016/j.quaint.2011.06.046. ISSN1040-6182.
Zhou et al. 2012, p. 42: "But the increasing climate aridity between ca. 4000 and 3500 cal BP, which was induced by a weakening of the Asian monsoon, is the underlying cause for the shrinking of arable land and vegetation degradation in Hexi Corridor, and this is the likely cause for the decrease of the agricultural activities and collapse of the Bronze Age societies in Hexi Corridor". Zhou, Xinying; Li, Xiaoqiang; Dodson, John; Zhao, Keliang; Pia, Atahan; Sun, Nan; Yang, Qing (2012-03-16). "Land degradation during the Bronze Age in Hexi Corridor (Gansu, China)". Quaternary International. Holocene Vegetation Dynamics and Human Impact: Agricultural Activities and Rice Cultivation in East Asia II. 254: 42–48. Bibcode:2012QuInt.254...42X. doi:10.1016/j.quaint.2011.06.046. ISSN1040-6182.
Li et al. 2023, p. 4: "Since 4000 a BP, the East Asian monsoon decreases, and its range gradually retreats in the Hexi Corridor climate. In the eastern part of the Hexi Corridor, the cold and dry climate leads to the gradual retreat of ancient lakes and swamps, vegetation degradation, and the environment’s severe aridity... In the Siba culture (3650–3200 a BP), the climate becomes cold and dry, which causes the river systems to shrink and the land to become degraded [...] The sudden disappearance of the Siba culture could be attributed to two reasons. One is the weakening of the Asian monsoon and the extreme dry 3500 BP event, which causes a significant reduction in precipitation.". Li, Yu; Gao, Mingjun; Zhang, Zhansen; Duan, Junjie; Xue, Yaxin (2023-04-01). "Phased human-nature interactions for the past 10 000 years in the Hexi Corridor, China". Environmental Research Letters. 18 (4): 044035. Bibcode:2023ERL....18d4035L. doi:10.1088/1748-9326/acc87b. ISSN1748-9326.
Li et al. 2023, p. 5: "The Shajing culture (2700–2100 BP) is the last prehistoric civilization in the eastern part of the Hexi Corridor. During that period, the Zhuye Lake has been shrinking due to drought caused by the further weakening of the East Asian monsoon [...] Shajing culture is dominated by nomadic production or mixed agriculture and animal husbandry production, and agriculture no longer dominates. With increasing drought levels, agricultural culture gradually declines and collapses, nomadic culture flourishes in the Hexi Corridor basin and animal husbandry prevailed.". Li, Yu; Gao, Mingjun; Zhang, Zhansen; Duan, Junjie; Xue, Yaxin (2023-04-01). "Phased human-nature interactions for the past 10 000 years in the Hexi Corridor, China". Environmental Research Letters. 18 (4): 044035. Bibcode:2023ERL....18d4035L. doi:10.1088/1748-9326/acc87b. ISSN1748-9326.
Youli Li; Jingchun Yang; Lihua Tan; Fengjun Duan (July 1999). "Impact of tectonics on alluvial landforms in the Hexi Corridor, Northwest China". Geomorphology. 28 (3–4): 299–308. Bibcode:1999Geomo..28..299L. doi:10.1016/S0169-555X(98)00114-7.
Li et al. 2023, p. 4: "Since 4000 a BP, the East Asian monsoon decreases, and its range gradually retreats in the Hexi Corridor climate. In the eastern part of the Hexi Corridor, the cold and dry climate leads to the gradual retreat of ancient lakes and swamps, vegetation degradation, and the environment’s severe aridity... In the Siba culture (3650–3200 a BP), the climate becomes cold and dry, which causes the river systems to shrink and the land to become degraded [...] The sudden disappearance of the Siba culture could be attributed to two reasons. One is the weakening of the Asian monsoon and the extreme dry 3500 BP event, which causes a significant reduction in precipitation.". Li, Yu; Gao, Mingjun; Zhang, Zhansen; Duan, Junjie; Xue, Yaxin (2023-04-01). "Phased human-nature interactions for the past 10 000 years in the Hexi Corridor, China". Environmental Research Letters. 18 (4): 044035. Bibcode:2023ERL....18d4035L. doi:10.1088/1748-9326/acc87b. ISSN1748-9326.
Li et al. 2023, p. 5: "The Shajing culture (2700–2100 BP) is the last prehistoric civilization in the eastern part of the Hexi Corridor. During that period, the Zhuye Lake has been shrinking due to drought caused by the further weakening of the East Asian monsoon [...] Shajing culture is dominated by nomadic production or mixed agriculture and animal husbandry production, and agriculture no longer dominates. With increasing drought levels, agricultural culture gradually declines and collapses, nomadic culture flourishes in the Hexi Corridor basin and animal husbandry prevailed.". Li, Yu; Gao, Mingjun; Zhang, Zhansen; Duan, Junjie; Xue, Yaxin (2023-04-01). "Phased human-nature interactions for the past 10 000 years in the Hexi Corridor, China". Environmental Research Letters. 18 (4): 044035. Bibcode:2023ERL....18d4035L. doi:10.1088/1748-9326/acc87b. ISSN1748-9326.
jstor.org
Di Cosmo 2009, p. 197: "When the famous explorer and imperial envoy Chang Ch’ien was sent by Emperor Wu to seek an anti-Hsiung-nu alliance with the Yüeh-chih nomads in 139–138 b.c., he was captured by the Hsiung-nu [...]". Di Cosmo, Nicola (2009). "Han Frontiers: Toward an Integrated View". Journal of the American Oriental Society. 129 (2): 199–214. ISSN0003-0279. JSTOR40593813.
Di Cosmo 2009, section 1: "In 133 b.c.e. Emperor Wu decided to abandon the heqin "appeasement" policy and to endorse a more muscular approach to border defense that may be characterized as "defensive expansionism." This doctrinal shift in foreign relations led in the first place to the military campaigns against the Xiongnu, who were holding sway north of the Great Wall.". Di Cosmo, Nicola (2009). "Han Frontiers: Toward an Integrated View". Journal of the American Oriental Society. 129 (2): 199–214. ISSN0003-0279. JSTOR40593813.
Kim 2017, p. 8: "The story of how Emperor Wu precipitated a war between China and the Xiongnu is told in great detail by Sima Qian. In 134 BCE, the Chinese attempted to trap Gunchen Chanyu (the grandson of Modu) and the Xiongnu army in an ambush. The plot failed, but just five years later in 129 BCE, full-scale war erupted between the two empires and would continue on and off until the final dissolution of the Xiongnu Empire more than two hundred years later in the late 1st century CE.". Kim, Hyun Jin (2017-03-29), "The Xiongnu", Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Asian History, doi:10.1093/acrefore/9780190277727.013.50, ISBN978-0-19-027772-7, retrieved 2025-01-01
Dong et al. 2017, p. 627: "The archaeological record during the Neolithic includes painted ceramics which appear in all sites of the Majiayao (4600–4000 BP) and Machang (4300– 4000 BP), but bronze vessels have only been found in two Machang cultural sites, Gaomuxudi and Zhaobitan in the central Hexi Corridor.". Dong, Guanghui; Yang, Yishi; Liu, Xinyi; Li, Haiming; Cui, Yifu; Wang, Hui; Chen, Guoke; Dodson, John; Chen, Fahu (17 October 2017). "Prehistoric trans-continental cultural exchange in the Hexi Corridor, northwest China". The Holocene. 28 (4): 621–628. doi:10.1177/0959683617735585. ISSN0959-6836.
Dong et al. 2017, p. 625: "After the mid-fifth millennium BP, archaeological evidence from the Hexi Corridor suggests that cultural elements from east Asia spread to Central Asia by the way of the Hexi Corridor. For example, patterns of painted pottery spread to Xinjiang and then influenced Chust cultures in south Central Asia in the late Bronze Age. At the same time, the cultural elements of West Asia and the Eurasian steppes spread to east Central Asia and then to northwest China [...]". Dong, Guanghui; Yang, Yishi; Liu, Xinyi; Li, Haiming; Cui, Yifu; Wang, Hui; Chen, Guoke; Dodson, John; Chen, Fahu (17 October 2017). "Prehistoric trans-continental cultural exchange in the Hexi Corridor, northwest China". The Holocene. 28 (4): 621–628. doi:10.1177/0959683617735585. ISSN0959-6836.
Dong et al. 2017, p. 623: "Charred seeds of wheat, barley, foxtail, and broomcorn millet are all identified from Huoshiliang and other Bronze sites in the central Hexi Corridor. This implies that wheat had been introduced to the Hexi Corridor region by at least the early fourth millennium BP". Dong, Guanghui; Yang, Yishi; Liu, Xinyi; Li, Haiming; Cui, Yifu; Wang, Hui; Chen, Guoke; Dodson, John; Chen, Fahu (17 October 2017). "Prehistoric trans-continental cultural exchange in the Hexi Corridor, northwest China". The Holocene. 28 (4): 621–628. doi:10.1177/0959683617735585. ISSN0959-6836.
"Three Famous Corridors". Institute of Geographic Sciences and Natural Resources Research, Chinese Academy of Sciences. November 2020. Archived from the original on 29 November 2024. Retrieved 29 November 2024.
Yang et al. 2020, p. 615: "During~2800–2000 BC, people in the Hexi Corridor adopted a sedentary lifestyle, cultivating millet and raising pigs, sheep/goats, cattle, and dogs. Moreover, they began to cultivate wheat and barley beginning ~2000 BC. By ~2000–1000 BC, the strategy had shifted to semi-sedentary agro-pastoral production, based on the utilization of sheep/goats,pigs, cattle, dogs, and horses. During ~1000–200 BC, wheat and naked barley replaced millet as the major crops". Yang, Liu; Shi, Zhilin; Zhang, Shanjia; Lee, Harry F. (5 June 2020). "Climate Change, Geopolitics, and Human Settlements in the Hexi Corridor over the Last 5,000 Years". Acta Geologica Sinica - English Edition. 94 (3): 612–623. Bibcode:2020AcGlS..94..612Y. doi:10.1111/1755-6724.14529. ISSN1000-9515.
Dong et al. 2017, p. 627: "The archaeological record during the Neolithic includes painted ceramics which appear in all sites of the Majiayao (4600–4000 BP) and Machang (4300– 4000 BP), but bronze vessels have only been found in two Machang cultural sites, Gaomuxudi and Zhaobitan in the central Hexi Corridor.". Dong, Guanghui; Yang, Yishi; Liu, Xinyi; Li, Haiming; Cui, Yifu; Wang, Hui; Chen, Guoke; Dodson, John; Chen, Fahu (17 October 2017). "Prehistoric trans-continental cultural exchange in the Hexi Corridor, northwest China". The Holocene. 28 (4): 621–628. doi:10.1177/0959683617735585. ISSN0959-6836.
Zhou et al. 2012, p. 42: "After 4200 cal BP, the Qijia and Siba Cultures, which had copper smelting technology, prevailed in this region. Prosperous Bronze Age agriculture in the Hexi Corridor appears to have terminated suddenly around 3500-3400 cal BP". Zhou, Xinying; Li, Xiaoqiang; Dodson, John; Zhao, Keliang; Pia, Atahan; Sun, Nan; Yang, Qing (2012-03-16). "Land degradation during the Bronze Age in Hexi Corridor (Gansu, China)". Quaternary International. Holocene Vegetation Dynamics and Human Impact: Agricultural Activities and Rice Cultivation in East Asia II. 254: 42–48. Bibcode:2012QuInt.254...42X. doi:10.1016/j.quaint.2011.06.046. ISSN1040-6182.
Dong et al. 2017, p. 625: "After the mid-fifth millennium BP, archaeological evidence from the Hexi Corridor suggests that cultural elements from east Asia spread to Central Asia by the way of the Hexi Corridor. For example, patterns of painted pottery spread to Xinjiang and then influenced Chust cultures in south Central Asia in the late Bronze Age. At the same time, the cultural elements of West Asia and the Eurasian steppes spread to east Central Asia and then to northwest China [...]". Dong, Guanghui; Yang, Yishi; Liu, Xinyi; Li, Haiming; Cui, Yifu; Wang, Hui; Chen, Guoke; Dodson, John; Chen, Fahu (17 October 2017). "Prehistoric trans-continental cultural exchange in the Hexi Corridor, northwest China". The Holocene. 28 (4): 621–628. doi:10.1177/0959683617735585. ISSN0959-6836.
Zhang et al. 2017, p. 93-94: Fragmentary bronze artifacts were found in Majiayao (5000–4500 BP) and Machang (4300–4000 BP) late Neolithic cultures sites, but these findings are not reliable and need further validation. The number of bronze artifacts and sites with smelting relics reached a maximum during Xichengyi (4000–3700 BP), Qijia (4000–3500 BP) and Siba (3700–3400 BP) Bronze Age cultures period, but diminished substantially during Shanma (3000–2400 BP) and Shajing (2800–2400 BP) cultures.. Zhang, Shanjia; Yang, Yishi; Storozum, Michael J.; Li, Haiming; Cui, Yifu; Dong, Guanghui (2017). "Copper smelting and sediment pollution in Bronze Age China: A case study in the Hexi corridor, Northwest China". CATENA. 156: 92–101. Bibcode:2017Caten.156...92Z. doi:10.1016/j.catena.2017.04.001. ISSN0341-8162.
Yang et al. 2020, p. 615: "During~2800–2000 BC, people in the Hexi Corridor adopted a sedentary lifestyle, cultivating millet and raising pigs, sheep/goats, cattle, and dogs. Moreover, they began to cultivate wheat and barley beginning ~2000 BC. By ~2000–1000 BC, the strategy had shifted to semi-sedentary agro-pastoral production, based on the utilization of sheep/goats,pigs, cattle, dogs, and horses. During ~1000–200 BC, wheat and naked barley replaced millet as the major crops". Yang, Liu; Shi, Zhilin; Zhang, Shanjia; Lee, Harry F. (5 June 2020). "Climate Change, Geopolitics, and Human Settlements in the Hexi Corridor over the Last 5,000 Years". Acta Geologica Sinica - English Edition. 94 (3): 612–623. Bibcode:2020AcGlS..94..612Y. doi:10.1111/1755-6724.14529. ISSN1000-9515.
Zhou et al. 2012, p. 46-47: "The prosperity of Bronze Age agricultural societies in the Hexi Corridor persisted from ca. 4200 to 3500 cal BP, and was characterised by agro-pastoralist societies that kept livestock including pig, sheep, cattle and horse, while also producing bronze objects of alloyed copper, arsenic and tin". Zhou, Xinying; Li, Xiaoqiang; Dodson, John; Zhao, Keliang; Pia, Atahan; Sun, Nan; Yang, Qing (2012-03-16). "Land degradation during the Bronze Age in Hexi Corridor (Gansu, China)". Quaternary International. Holocene Vegetation Dynamics and Human Impact: Agricultural Activities and Rice Cultivation in East Asia II. 254: 42–48. Bibcode:2012QuInt.254...42X. doi:10.1016/j.quaint.2011.06.046. ISSN1040-6182.
Dong et al. 2017, p. 623: "Charred seeds of wheat, barley, foxtail, and broomcorn millet are all identified from Huoshiliang and other Bronze sites in the central Hexi Corridor. This implies that wheat had been introduced to the Hexi Corridor region by at least the early fourth millennium BP". Dong, Guanghui; Yang, Yishi; Liu, Xinyi; Li, Haiming; Cui, Yifu; Wang, Hui; Chen, Guoke; Dodson, John; Chen, Fahu (17 October 2017). "Prehistoric trans-continental cultural exchange in the Hexi Corridor, northwest China". The Holocene. 28 (4): 621–628. doi:10.1177/0959683617735585. ISSN0959-6836.
Zhou et al. 2012, p. 42: "But the increasing climate aridity between ca. 4000 and 3500 cal BP, which was induced by a weakening of the Asian monsoon, is the underlying cause for the shrinking of arable land and vegetation degradation in Hexi Corridor, and this is the likely cause for the decrease of the agricultural activities and collapse of the Bronze Age societies in Hexi Corridor". Zhou, Xinying; Li, Xiaoqiang; Dodson, John; Zhao, Keliang; Pia, Atahan; Sun, Nan; Yang, Qing (2012-03-16). "Land degradation during the Bronze Age in Hexi Corridor (Gansu, China)". Quaternary International. Holocene Vegetation Dynamics and Human Impact: Agricultural Activities and Rice Cultivation in East Asia II. 254: 42–48. Bibcode:2012QuInt.254...42X. doi:10.1016/j.quaint.2011.06.046. ISSN1040-6182.
Li et al. 2023, p. 4: "Since 4000 a BP, the East Asian monsoon decreases, and its range gradually retreats in the Hexi Corridor climate. In the eastern part of the Hexi Corridor, the cold and dry climate leads to the gradual retreat of ancient lakes and swamps, vegetation degradation, and the environment’s severe aridity... In the Siba culture (3650–3200 a BP), the climate becomes cold and dry, which causes the river systems to shrink and the land to become degraded [...] The sudden disappearance of the Siba culture could be attributed to two reasons. One is the weakening of the Asian monsoon and the extreme dry 3500 BP event, which causes a significant reduction in precipitation.". Li, Yu; Gao, Mingjun; Zhang, Zhansen; Duan, Junjie; Xue, Yaxin (2023-04-01). "Phased human-nature interactions for the past 10 000 years in the Hexi Corridor, China". Environmental Research Letters. 18 (4): 044035. Bibcode:2023ERL....18d4035L. doi:10.1088/1748-9326/acc87b. ISSN1748-9326.
Li et al. 2023, p. 5: "The Shajing culture (2700–2100 BP) is the last prehistoric civilization in the eastern part of the Hexi Corridor. During that period, the Zhuye Lake has been shrinking due to drought caused by the further weakening of the East Asian monsoon [...] Shajing culture is dominated by nomadic production or mixed agriculture and animal husbandry production, and agriculture no longer dominates. With increasing drought levels, agricultural culture gradually declines and collapses, nomadic culture flourishes in the Hexi Corridor basin and animal husbandry prevailed.". Li, Yu; Gao, Mingjun; Zhang, Zhansen; Duan, Junjie; Xue, Yaxin (2023-04-01). "Phased human-nature interactions for the past 10 000 years in the Hexi Corridor, China". Environmental Research Letters. 18 (4): 044035. Bibcode:2023ERL....18d4035L. doi:10.1088/1748-9326/acc87b. ISSN1748-9326.
Li et al. 2023, Abstract: "In contrast, the Shajing Culture flourished along the lower Shiyang River with the retreat of the Zhuye Lake, the Xiongnu Empire established the city of Xiutu along the Hongshui River, which experienced downcutting linked to the arid environment, and a nomadic culture emerged against the backdrop of drought in the Shiyang River Basin". Li, Yu; Zhang, Zhansen; Zhou, Xueru; Gao, Mingjun; Li, Haiye; Xue, Yaxin; Duan, Junjie (2023-05-01). "Paleo-environmental changes and human activities in Shiyang River Basin since the Late Glacial". Chinese Science Bulletin (in Chinese). doi:10.1360/tb-2022-0965. ISSN0023-074X.
Di Cosmo 2009, p. 197: "When the famous explorer and imperial envoy Chang Ch’ien was sent by Emperor Wu to seek an anti-Hsiung-nu alliance with the Yüeh-chih nomads in 139–138 b.c., he was captured by the Hsiung-nu [...]". Di Cosmo, Nicola (2009). "Han Frontiers: Toward an Integrated View". Journal of the American Oriental Society. 129 (2): 199–214. ISSN0003-0279. JSTOR40593813.
Di Cosmo 2009, section 1: "In 133 b.c.e. Emperor Wu decided to abandon the heqin "appeasement" policy and to endorse a more muscular approach to border defense that may be characterized as "defensive expansionism." This doctrinal shift in foreign relations led in the first place to the military campaigns against the Xiongnu, who were holding sway north of the Great Wall.". Di Cosmo, Nicola (2009). "Han Frontiers: Toward an Integrated View". Journal of the American Oriental Society. 129 (2): 199–214. ISSN0003-0279. JSTOR40593813.
