History of Palestine (English Wikipedia)

Jacobson 2001, pp. 44–45: commonly viewed as a move intended to sever the connection of the Jews to their historical homeland. ... Hadrian's choice of Syria Palaestina may be more correctly seen as a rationalization of the name of the new province, in accordance with its area being far larger than geographical Judea. Foster 2017, pp. 95–110: the name change had little to do with Jew hatred ... he called the place what it was called. ... The decision to change the name to Palestine may have been a banal bureaucratic choice. ... If the administrative reorganization was indeed banal, then we might have expected both names to have persisted after the change, which is exactly what happened. Jacobson, David (2001), "When Palestine Meant Israel", Biblical Archaeology Review, 27 (3), archived from the original on 25 July 2011 Foster, Zachary (2017). The Invention of Palestine (thesis). Princeton University. p. 278. ISBN 978-0-355-48023-8. Docket 10634618. Archived from the original on 29 July 2021. Retrieved 9 February 2018.
Lendering: Fiscus Judaicus: those paying the fiscus Judaicus would not be forced to sacrifice to the emperor. Bibliowicz 2019, p. 40: They were Jewish ... and would have paid the "Jewish tax" (Fiscus Judaicus). Being Jews, they would be exempt from sacrificing to the Roman Gods Lendering, Jona (28 April 2020). "Fiscus Judaicus". Livius. Archived from the original on 27 November 2022. Retrieved 31 December 2020. Bibliowicz, Abel M. (2019). Jewish-Christian Relations-The First Centuries. WA: Mascarat. ISBN 978-1-5136-1648-3. Archived from the original on 16 November 2021. Retrieved 31 December 2020.

alarabiya.net

english.alarabiya.net

Ateeq 2012. Ateeq, Mounir (31 July 2012). "Report of possible Gaza independence stirs debate". Al Arabiya. Archived from the original on 14 October 2012. Retrieved 26 November 2012.
Sawafta 2012. Sawafta, Ali (4 August 2012). "Palestinians to renew U.N. statehood drive in September". Al Arabiya. Reuters. Archived from the original on 1 March 2013. Retrieved 26 November 2012.

aljazeera.com

Al-Tahhan 2018. Al-Tahhan, Zena (2 November 2018). "More than a century on: The Balfour Declaration explained". Al Jazeera. Archived from the original on 7 November 2023. Retrieved 7 June 2022.
Al Jazeera 2013. "Palestine: What is in a name (change)?". Inside Story. Al Jazeera. 8 January 2013. Archived from the original on 21 March 2020. Retrieved 22 June 2022.

antiquity.ac.uk

Škerlj 1960, pp. 90–99. Škerlj, B. (1960). "Human Evolution and Neanderthal Man" (PDF). Antiquity. 34 (134): 90–99. doi:10.1017/S0003598X00035377. S2CID 163810659. Archived from the original on 19 December 2023. Retrieved 14 March 2011.

archive.org

The independent Canaanite city-states of the early Bronze age (3000–2200 BCE) were situated mostly in plains or coastal regions, surrounded by defensive walls built of mud brick and guarded by watchtowers. Most of the cities were surrounded by agricultural hamlets, which supplied their food needs (Shahin 2005, p. 4). Shahin, Mariam (2005). Palestine: A Guide. Interlink Books. ISBN 1-56656-557-X – via Internet Archive.
The commerce-minded Philistines introduced new ways to ferment wine, as well as tools and weapons and chariots made with iron (Shahin 2005, p. 6). Shahin, Mariam (2005). Palestine: A Guide. Interlink Books. ISBN 1-56656-557-X – via Internet Archive.
by the time the Assyrians ruled Palestine in 722 BCE, the Philistine had become part and parcel of the local population and the "kingdom of Israel" had been destroyed (Shahin 2005, p. 6). Shahin, Mariam (2005). Palestine: A Guide. Interlink Books. ISBN 1-56656-557-X – via Internet Archive.
Shahin 2005, p. 4. Shahin, Mariam (2005). Palestine: A Guide. Interlink Books. ISBN 1-56656-557-X – via Internet Archive.
Tubb 1998, pp. 13–14. Tubb, Jonathan N. (1998). Canaanites. University of Oklahoma Press. p. 40. ISBN 0-8061-3108-X – via Internet Archive. The Canaanites and Their Land.
Shahin 2005, p. 6. Shahin, Mariam (2005). Palestine: A Guide. Interlink Books. ISBN 1-56656-557-X – via Internet Archive.
Shahin 2005, p. 6: the Nabataenas (400 BCE–160 CE), with their capital in Petra (Jordan), made inroads into southern Palestine and built a separate and flourishing civilization in the Negev. Wenning 2007, p. 26: Beside the establishment of Idumaea, which meant the loss of a large territory, the Qedarites obviously lost of their privileges of the frankincense trade. It can be assumed that they were replaced by the Nabataeans. Masalha 2018, p. 153 Shahin, Mariam (2005). Palestine: A Guide. Interlink Books. ISBN 1-56656-557-X – via Internet Archive. Wenning, Robert (2007). "The Nabataeans in History (Before AD 106)". In Politis, Konstantinos D. (ed.). The World of the Nabataeans. Vol. 2 of the International Conference, The World of the Herods and the Nabataeans, Held at the British Museum, 17–19 April 2001. Franz Steiner Verlag. ISBN 978-3-515-08816-9. Archived from the original on 19 December 2023. Retrieved 13 December 2020. Masalha, Nur (2018). Palestine: A Four Thousand Year History. Bloomsbury Academic. ISBN 978-1-78699-274-1.
Har-El 1977, pp. 68–95. Har-El, Menashe (1977). This Is Jerusalem. Canaan Publishing House. pp. 68–95. ISBN 0-86628-002-2.
Grabbe 2010, p. 25; Gabba 2008, p. 130: His ethnarchy was transformed into a Roman province of the equestrian rank; Shahin 2005, p. 7; Haensch 2010, p. 2: It was only after the expulsion of Archelaus in 6 CE that direct Roman rule was established in Judaea and Samaria. Grabbe, Lester L. (2010). An Introduction to Second Temple Judaism: History and Religion of the Jews in the Time of Nehemiah, the Maccabees, Hillel, and Jesus. A&C Black. ISBN 978-0-567-55248-8. Archived from the original on 19 December 2023. Retrieved 18 December 2020. Gabba, Emilio (2008). "The social, economic and political history of Palestine 63 BCE – CE 70". In Davies, William David; Finkelstein, Louis; Horbury, William (eds.). The Cambridge History of Judaism: The early Roman period. Cambridge University Press. pp. 94–167. ISBN 978-0-521-24377-3. Shahin, Mariam (2005). Palestine: A Guide. Interlink Books. ISBN 1-56656-557-X – via Internet Archive. Haensch, Rudolf (2010). "The Roman Provincial Administration". In Hezser, Catherine (ed.). The Oxford Handbook of Jewish Daily Life in Roman Palestine. OUP Oxford. pp. 1–13. ISBN 978-0-19-921643-7.
Dio's Roman History 1925, pp. 449–451. "Dio's Roman History (books 61–70)". Translated by Earnest Cary. London: Loeb Classical Library. 1925. pp. 449–451 – via Internet Archive.
Shahin 2005, p. 7: new cities were founded at Eleutheropolis (Beit Jibrin), Diospolis (Lydd), and Nicopolis (Emmaus). Britannica: Palestine – Roman Palestine Shahin, Mariam (2005). Palestine: A Guide. Interlink Books. ISBN 1-56656-557-X – via Internet Archive. "Palestine – Roman Palestine". Encyclopædia Britannica. Archived from the original on 30 October 2023. Retrieved 24 December 2020.
Shahin 2005, p. 8. Shahin, Mariam (2005). Palestine: A Guide. Interlink Books. ISBN 1-56656-557-X – via Internet Archive.
Shahin 2005, p. 8; Britannica: Palestine – Roman Palestine: The emperor ... built a ... church on the site of the Holy Sepulchre, the most sacred of Christian holy places; his mother, Saint Helena, built two others – at the place of the Nativity at Bethlehem and of the Ascension in Jerusalem – and his mother-in-law, Eutropia, built a church at Mamre. Shahin, Mariam (2005). Palestine: A Guide. Interlink Books. ISBN 1-56656-557-X – via Internet Archive. "Palestine – Roman Palestine". Encyclopædia Britannica. Archived from the original on 30 October 2023. Retrieved 24 December 2020.
Shahin 2005, p. 8: Thus Palestine became the world's greatest pilgrimage site. It became the center for ascetic life for men and women from all over the world, who came to the Palestinian wilderness to become hermits. Soon it was dotted with monasteries, many of which can still be visited today. They include St. George Monastery in Wadi al-Qilt, Deir Quruntul and Deir Hijle next to Jericho, and Deir Mar Saba and Deir Theodosius east of Bethlehem, as well as the remains of many others in the Negev and Gaza. Masalha 2018, p. 99 Shahin, Mariam (2005). Palestine: A Guide. Interlink Books. ISBN 1-56656-557-X – via Internet Archive. Masalha, Nur (2018). Palestine: A Four Thousand Year History. Bloomsbury Academic. ISBN 978-1-78699-274-1.
Lewis 2011, p. 155; Britannica: Palestine – Roman Palestine: At the end of the 4th century, an enlarged Palestine was divided into three provinces: Prima, with its capital at Caesarea; Secunda, with its capital at Scythopolis (Bet Sheʾan); and Salutaris, with its capital at Petra or possibly for a time at Elusa. Shahin 2005, p. 8 Lewis, Bernard (2011). Islam in History: Ideas, People, and Events in the Middle East. Open Court. ISBN 978-0-8126-9757-5. Archived from the original on 19 December 2023. Retrieved 2 January 2021. "Palestine – Roman Palestine". Encyclopædia Britannica. Archived from the original on 30 October 2023. Retrieved 24 December 2020. Shahin, Mariam (2005). Palestine: A Guide. Interlink Books. ISBN 1-56656-557-X – via Internet Archive.
Shahin 2005, p. 10: Jews were allowed to return to Jerusalem after a 500-year ban stipulated by the Romans and maintained by the Christian rulers. Gil 1997, pp. 68–69: The Jews felt that the injunction against their entry into Jerusalem, not to speak of their settling there-...-had come to an end. Slavik 2001, p. 33: Jews were even allowed back into the city to live. Shahin, Mariam (2005). Palestine: A Guide. Interlink Books. ISBN 1-56656-557-X – via Internet Archive. Gil, Moshe (1997). A History of Palestine, 634–1099. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-59984-9. Slavik, Diane (2001). Daily Life in Ancient and Modern Jerusalem. Lerner Publications. ISBN 978-0-8225-3218-7. Archived from the original on 19 December 2023. Retrieved 8 January 2021.
Gil 1997, p. 145: Palestine was, during the entire period we are dealing with, a sort of gold mine for the central government, whether headquartered in Damascus, Baghdad or Cairo. Shahin 2005, p. 10: historians of the period noted that Palestine was among the most prosperous and fertile regions of the Muslim empire at this juncture. Gil, Moshe (1997). A History of Palestine, 634–1099. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-59984-9. Shahin, Mariam (2005). Palestine: A Guide. Interlink Books. ISBN 1-56656-557-X – via Internet Archive.
Shahin 2005, p. 11: Spices, silks, soap, olive oil, glassware, and sugar were traded for European products. Gil 1997, pp. 230–239 Shahin, Mariam (2005). Palestine: A Guide. Interlink Books. ISBN 1-56656-557-X – via Internet Archive. Gil, Moshe (1997). A History of Palestine, 634–1099. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-59984-9.
Gil 1997, p. 107: The Umayyads invested great efforts in developing a Muslim fleet and in renovating seaports in Palestine and Syria. Restoration and fortification works were carried out in Tyre, Acre, Caesarea, Jaffa and Ascalon. Arab army units were garrisoned at these ports. Masalha 2018, p. 166: new Arab naval bases and shipyards were established in Palestine; Shahin 2005, p. 11 Gil, Moshe (1997). A History of Palestine, 634–1099. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-59984-9. Masalha, Nur (2018). Palestine: A Four Thousand Year History. Bloomsbury Academic. ISBN 978-1-78699-274-1. Shahin, Mariam (2005). Palestine: A Guide. Interlink Books. ISBN 1-56656-557-X – via Internet Archive.
Peters 1985, p. 188. Peters, F. E. (1985). Jerusalem: The Holy City in the Eyes of Chroniclers, Visitors, Pilgrims, and Prophets from the Days of Abraham to the Beginnings of Modern Times. Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-1-4008-8616-6 – via Internet Archive.
Peters 1985, p. 189. Peters, F. E. (1985). Jerusalem: The Holy City in the Eyes of Chroniclers, Visitors, Pilgrims, and Prophets from the Days of Abraham to the Beginnings of Modern Times. Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-1-4008-8616-6 – via Internet Archive.
Shahin 2005, p. 10; Slavik 2001, p. 60; Britannica: Dome of the Rock Shahin, Mariam (2005). Palestine: A Guide. Interlink Books. ISBN 1-56656-557-X – via Internet Archive. Slavik, Diane (2001). Daily Life in Ancient and Modern Jerusalem. Lerner Publications. ISBN 978-0-8225-3218-7. Archived from the original on 19 December 2023. Retrieved 8 January 2021. "Dome of the Rock". Encyclopædia Britannica. Archived from the original on 15 June 2008. Retrieved 8 January 2021.
Kennedy 2004, p. 92: As late as the nineteenth century, battles were still being fought in Palestine between groups calling themselves Qays and Yaman. Al-Salim 2015, p. 61; Shahin 2005, p. 11: This division continued to be a significant factor in Palestine's political life until the 20th century. Kennedy, Hugh N. (2004). The Prophet and the Age of the Caliphates: The Islamic Near East from the 6th to the 11th Century (2nd ed.). Harlow: Pearson Education Limited. ISBN 0-582-40525-4. Al-Salim, Farid (2015). Palestine and the Decline of the Ottoman Empire: Modernization and the Path to Palestinian Statehood. Bloomsbury Publishing. ISBN 978-1-78673-967-4. Archived from the original on 19 December 2023. Retrieved 14 January 2021. Shahin, Mariam (2005). Palestine: A Guide. Interlink Books. ISBN 1-56656-557-X – via Internet Archive.
Britannica: Crusades: By September 1187 he and his lieutenants had occupied most of the major strongholds in the kingdom and all the ports south of Tripoli Jubayl and Botron (Al-Batrūn) in the county of Tripoli and Tyre in the kingdom. Shahin 2005, p. 12 "Crusades". Encyclopædia Britannica. 2020. Archived from the original on 17 August 2020. Retrieved 24 January 2021. Shahin, Mariam (2005). Palestine: A Guide. Interlink Books. ISBN 1-56656-557-X – via Internet Archive.
Shahin 2005, p. 11. Shahin, Mariam (2005). Palestine: A Guide. Interlink Books. ISBN 1-56656-557-X – via Internet Archive.
Shahin 2005, p. 12. Shahin, Mariam (2005). Palestine: A Guide. Interlink Books. ISBN 1-56656-557-X – via Internet Archive.
Edward Ekshaw 1741, p. 206. The London Magazine, and Monthly Chronologer. Edward Ekshaw. 1741. p. 206 – via Internet Archive.
Trisdam, 1865, p. 112.
Macalister and Masterman, 1906, p. 287
Kitchener, H.H (7 September 1877). "Journal of the Survey" (PDF). Palestine Exploration Quarterly. 10: 11. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 May 2015. Retrieved 10 December 2023.
Macalister and Masterman, 1906, p. 289.
Thomas 1999, p. 9. Thomas, Baylis (1999). How Israel was Won: A Concise History of the Arab-Israeli Conflict. Lexington Books. p. 9. ISBN 978-0-7391-0064-6 – via Internet Archive.

archive.today

Avalon Project n.d. "The Palestine Mandate". Yale Law School – The Avalon Project. n.d. Archived from the original on 25 April 2019. Retrieved 24 August 2010.
The Jerusalem Post: Jericho Declaration 1948, Front page. "Jericho Declaration". The Palestine Post. AP, Reuters and UP. 14 December 1948. Front page. Archived from the original on 10 July 2012. Retrieved 25 May 2013.{{cite news}}: CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown (link)

baslibrary.org

The Israelites' aversion to decorated pottery goes back to the very origins of Israelite ethnicity, when the Iron Age I hill-country settlers were distinguishing themselves from their neighbors. Among the groups that bordered the hill country were the Philistines, who crafted elaborate vessels (Faust 2009, p. 69) Faust, Avraham (2009). "How Did Israel Become a People?". Biblical Archaeology Review. 35 (6): 62–69. Archived from the original on 19 December 2023. Retrieved 29 August 2021.
Patterns of behavior and material items that seem meaningful during Iron Age II include the avoidance of pork, a tradition of not decorating pottery, avoiding imported pottery, male circumcision and use of the four-room house (Faust 2009, p. 68). Faust, Avraham (2009). "How Did Israel Become a People?". Biblical Archaeology Review. 35 (6): 62–69. Archived from the original on 19 December 2023. Retrieved 29 August 2021.
Faust 2009, p. 69. Faust, Avraham (2009). "How Did Israel Become a People?". Biblical Archaeology Review. 35 (6): 62–69. Archived from the original on 19 December 2023. Retrieved 29 August 2021.
Faust 2009, p. 68. Faust, Avraham (2009). "How Did Israel Become a People?". Biblical Archaeology Review. 35 (6): 62–69. Archived from the original on 19 December 2023. Retrieved 29 August 2021.

bbc.co.uk

news.bbc.co.uk

BBC Notes for journalists 2006. "Israel and the Palestinians: Key terms". BBC. 12 October 2006. Archived from the original on 22 October 2009.

biblicalarchaeology.org

library.biblicalarchaeology.org

Cohen, Rudolph (1983). "The Mysterious MBI People". Biblical Archaeology Society. Archived from the original on 14 March 2024.

biblicalstudies.org.uk

Kitchener, H.H (7 September 1877). "Journal of the Survey" (PDF). Palestine Exploration Quarterly. 10: 11. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 May 2015. Retrieved 10 December 2023.

biu.ac.il

faculty.biu.ac.il

Bar-Ilan 2013. Bar-Ilan, Meir (2013). "Major trends in Jewish Society in the Land of Israel: From the 5th century BCE till the 7th century CE". Bar-Ilan University. Archived from the original on 21 May 2022. Retrieved 30 June 2022.

books.google.com

The entire population of these hill country villages at the peak of the settlement process, around 1000 BCE, could not have been much more than forty-five thousand (Finkelstein & Silberman 2002, p. 103). Finkelstein, Israel; Silberman, Neil Asher (2002). The Bible Unearthed: Archaeology's New Vision of Ancient Israel and the Origin of Sacred Texts. Simon and Schuster. ISBN 978-0-7432-2338-6. Archived from the original on 1 July 2023. Retrieved 15 November 2020.
Though the early Israelites did not eat pork, the Philistines clearly did (Finkelstein & Silberman 2002, p. 113) Finkelstein, Israel; Silberman, Neil Asher (2002). The Bible Unearthed: Archaeology's New Vision of Ancient Israel and the Origin of Sacred Texts. Simon and Schuster. ISBN 978-0-7432-2338-6. Archived from the original on 1 July 2023. Retrieved 15 November 2020.
Put simply, while Judah was still economically marginal and backward, Israel was booming. ... In the next chapter we will see how the northern kingdom suddenly appeared on the ancient Near Eastern stage as a major regional power (Finkelstein & Silberman 2002, pp. 146–147) Finkelstein, Israel; Silberman, Neil Asher (2002). The Bible Unearthed: Archaeology's New Vision of Ancient Israel and the Origin of Sacred Texts. Simon and Schuster. ISBN 978-0-7432-2338-6. Archived from the original on 1 July 2023. Retrieved 15 November 2020.
By the high point of this settlement wave in the eighth century BCE, after the establishment of the kingdoms of Judah and Israel, it encompassed over five hundred sites, with a population of about 160,000 (Finkelstein & Silberman 2002, p. 106). Finkelstein, Israel; Silberman, Neil Asher (2002). The Bible Unearthed: Archaeology's New Vision of Ancient Israel and the Origin of Sacred Texts. Simon and Schuster. ISBN 978-0-7432-2338-6. Archived from the original on 1 July 2023. Retrieved 15 November 2020.
The kingdom of Israel under the Omrides stretched from the vicinity of Damascus throughout the central highlands and valleys of Israel, all the way to the southern territory of Moab, ruling over considerable populations of non-Israelites (Finkelstein & Silberman 2002, pp. 162–163). Finkelstein, Israel; Silberman, Neil Asher (2002). The Bible Unearthed: Archaeology's New Vision of Ancient Israel and the Origin of Sacred Texts. Simon and Schuster. ISBN 978-0-7432-2338-6. Archived from the original on 1 July 2023. Retrieved 15 November 2020.
In the year 853 BCE, Shalmaneser led a major Assyrian invasion force westward to intimidate and possibly conquer the smaller states of Syria, Phoenicia, and Israel. His advancing armies were confronted by an anti-Assyrian coalition near Qarqar ... Ahab was the strongest member of the anti-Assyrian coalition. ... Shalmaneser quickly returned to Assyria, and at least for a while the Assyrian march to the west was blocked (Finkelstein & Silberman 2002, p. 163). Finkelstein, Israel; Silberman, Neil Asher (2002). The Bible Unearthed: Archaeology's New Vision of Ancient Israel and the Origin of Sacred Texts. Simon and Schuster. ISBN 978-0-7432-2338-6. Archived from the original on 1 July 2023. Retrieved 15 November 2020.
The events recorded in the inscription took place in the ninth century BCE ... The inscription goes on to relate how Mesha gradually expanded his territory in rebellion against Israel, destroying the main settlements of the Israelites east of the Jordan, while fortifying and embellishing his own capital (Finkelstein & Silberman 2002, p. 162). Finkelstein, Israel; Silberman, Neil Asher (2002). The Bible Unearthed: Archaeology's New Vision of Ancient Israel and the Origin of Sacred Texts. Simon and Schuster. ISBN 978-0-7432-2338-6. Archived from the original on 1 July 2023. Retrieved 15 November 2020.
Hazael's incursion into the territory formerly controlled by Israel was clearly devastating and did much to weaken the power of the northern kingdom. ... Hazael's prime target was control of the fertile and strategic borderland between the two kingdoms, and he apparently not only conquered the Aramean lands formerly taken by the Omrides but also devastated some of Israel's most fertile agricultural region (Finkelstein & Silberman 2002, pp. 182–183) Finkelstein, Israel; Silberman, Neil Asher (2002). The Bible Unearthed: Archaeology's New Vision of Ancient Israel and the Origin of Sacred Texts. Simon and Schuster. ISBN 978-0-7432-2338-6. Archived from the original on 1 July 2023. Retrieved 15 November 2020.
And while Jehu, ..., the famous "black obelisk" of Shalmaneser shows him bowing low to the ground at the feet of the great Assyrian king. Shalmaneser also notes: "The tribute of Jehu, son of Omri; ..." (Finkelstein & Silberman 2002, pp. 187–188) Finkelstein, Israel; Silberman, Neil Asher (2002). The Bible Unearthed: Archaeology's New Vision of Ancient Israel and the Origin of Sacred Texts. Simon and Schuster. ISBN 978-0-7432-2338-6. Archived from the original on 1 July 2023. Retrieved 15 November 2020.
This new king, Tiglathpileser III ..., began ... a thorough revamping of the Assyrian empire – primarily in its relations to its former vassals, which would now be much more directly controlled. ... In the era of Assyrian imperialism that Tiglath pileser had inaugurated, vassaldom would soon give way to conquest and annexation (Finkelstein & Silberman 2002, p. 194) Finkelstein, Israel; Silberman, Neil Asher (2002). The Bible Unearthed: Archaeology's New Vision of Ancient Israel and the Origin of Sacred Texts. Simon and Schuster. ISBN 978-0-7432-2338-6. Archived from the original on 1 July 2023. Retrieved 15 November 2020.
Tiglath-pileser conquered the strongest and largest kingdoms in the region, inflicting heavy damage. He deported large parts of the populations, replacing them with exiles from remote regions, and annexed their territory to Assyria, turning them into Assyrian provinces (Lipschits 2006, p. 19). Lipschits, Oded (2006). "Achaemenid Imperial Policy and the Status of Jerusalem". In Lipschits, Oded; Oeming, Manfred (eds.). Judah and the Judeans in the Persian Period. Pennsylvania State University Press. pp. 19–52. ISBN 978-1-57506-250-1. Archived from the original on 19 December 2023. Retrieved 8 December 2020.
There is some debate on whether Ashurbanipal died in 631 or 627, see Lipschits 2005, p. 13 for details. Lipschits, Oled (2005). The Fall and Rise of Jerusalem: Judah under Babylonian Rule. Winona Lake: Eisenbrauns. ISBN 978-1-57506-095-8. Archived from the original on 19 December 2023. Retrieved 8 December 2020.
When Assurbanipal died in 627 BCE, ... struggles over succession led to a weakening of centralized power. ... Babylon revolted and went on the offensive against Assyria. ... All of the nations of Syria-Israel had become colonies of the Neo-Babylonian Empire by 601 BCE (Perdue & Carter 2015, p. 69). Perdue, Leo G.; Carter, Warren (2015). Israel and Empire: A Postcolonial History of Israel and Early Judaism. Bloomsbury Publishing. ISBN 978-0-567-28051-0. Archived from the original on 19 December 2023. Retrieved 15 November 2020.
Egypt decided to intervene on the side of the Assyrians, and in 616 its army marched to the north. But this move did not stop the Assyrian collapse. The great Assyrian capital of Nineveh fell in 612, ..., in 610, ... the Babylonians took Haran (Finkelstein & Silberman 2002, p. 259). Finkelstein, Israel; Silberman, Neil Asher (2002). The Bible Unearthed: Archaeology's New Vision of Ancient Israel and the Origin of Sacred Texts. Simon and Schuster. ISBN 978-0-7432-2338-6. Archived from the original on 1 July 2023. Retrieved 15 November 2020.
In 605 BCE, the Babylonian crown prince later known as Nebuchadnezzar crushed the Egyptian army at Carchemish in Syria (an event recorded in Jeremiah 46:2), causing the Egyptian forces to flee (Finkelstein & Silberman 2002, pp. 260–261) Finkelstein, Israel; Silberman, Neil Asher (2002). The Bible Unearthed: Archaeology's New Vision of Ancient Israel and the Origin of Sacred Texts. Simon and Schuster. ISBN 978-0-7432-2338-6. Archived from the original on 1 July 2023. Retrieved 15 November 2020.
In the year 604 BCE, the Philistines cities of Ashdod, Ekron, Ashkelon and Gaza were destroyed by Nebuchadnezzar (Ben-Shlomo 2010, p. 17) Ben-Shlomo, David (2010). Philistine Iconography: A Wealth of Style and Symbolism. Saint-Paul. ISBN 978-3-525-54360-3. Archived from the original on 19 December 2023. Retrieved 16 November 2020.
it seems that Nebuchadrezzar used the destruction of the region as a lever for rebuilding the parts of Babylonia that had been damaged during the long years of war, devastation, and deportation inflicted by the Assyrians. Large groups of exiles from the ruling, economic, and religious elite of the local kingdoms were sent to Babylon and settled in the devastated areas to develop them (Lipschits 2005, p. 24). Lipschits, Oled (2005). The Fall and Rise of Jerusalem: Judah under Babylonian Rule. Winona Lake: Eisenbrauns. ISBN 978-1-57506-095-8. Archived from the original on 19 December 2023. Retrieved 8 December 2020.
The semi-independent kingdoms in southern Palestine (Judah and the Philistine kingdoms of Gaza, Ashkelon, Ashdod and Ekron) ... were dissolved during Nebuchadnezzar's reign and they too were incorporated into the Chaldaean provinces (Ephal 2000, p. 142) Ephal, Israel (2000). "Syria-Palestine under Achaemenid Rule". The Cambridge Ancient History. Vol. 11. Cambridge University Press. pp. 139–. ISBN 978-0-521-22804-6. Archived from the original on 19 December 2023. Retrieved 16 November 2020.
a province with its capital at Mizpah, just north of Jerusalem. ... Throughout this era, the province was called Yehud (Noll 2013, p. 338) Noll, K. L. (2013). Canaan and Israel in Antiquity: A Textbook on History and Religion. Bloomsbury Publishing. pp. 340–. ISBN 978-0-567-18258-6. Archived from the original on 19 December 2023. Retrieved 16 November 2020.
Cyrus' Edict ... indicate that Cyrus and his successors maintained a policy of repatriation for some 80 years (Ephal 2000, p. 151). Ephal, Israel (2000). "Syria-Palestine under Achaemenid Rule". The Cambridge Ancient History. Vol. 11. Cambridge University Press. pp. 139–. ISBN 978-0-521-22804-6. Archived from the original on 19 December 2023. Retrieved 16 November 2020.
One developing consensus of the past couple of decades is that ancient Israel was basically a polytheistic society, though Yhwh functioned in some way as a national/ethnic god (much as Chemosh did for the Moabites and Qaus/Qos for the Edomites) for both Israel and Judah (Grabbe 2006). Grabbe, Lester L. (2006). A History of the Jews and Judaism in the Second Temple Period (vol. 1): The Persian Period (539–331BCE). Bloomsbury Academic. pp. 85–. ISBN 978-0-567-04352-8. Archived from the original on 19 December 2023. Retrieved 13 December 2020.
The Samaritans are known from the Gospel of Luke's parable of the Good Samaritan which depicts the "Good" Samaritan as a hated foreigner (Lynwood Smith 2015, p. 133). Lynwood Smith, Daniel (2015). Into the World of the New Testament: Greco-Roman and Jewish Texts and Contexts. Bloomsbury Publishing. pp. 133–. ISBN 978-0-567-65742-8.
Furthermore, the temple rested on foundations ... from a temple built no later than the mid-fifth century BCE (Hjelm 2010, p. 26). Hjelm, Ingrid (2010). "Mt. Gerizim and Samaritans in Recent Research". In Winkler, Waltraud (ed.). Samaritans: Past and Present: Current Studies. Walter de Gruyter. pp. 25–44. ISBN 978-3-11-019497-5. Archived from the original on 19 December 2023. Retrieved 25 December 2020.
which he had received from the king of Persia ("the lord of Kings") as a reward for "the important deeds which I did" (Ephal 2000, p. 144) Ephal, Israel (2000). "Syria-Palestine under Achaemenid Rule". The Cambridge Ancient History. Vol. 11. Cambridge University Press. pp. 139–. ISBN 978-0-521-22804-6. Archived from the original on 19 December 2023. Retrieved 16 November 2020.
We may also accept the Idea that in the early fifth century BCE. the Achaemenids granted Upper Galilee and the area east of Tyre to the Tyrians (Lipschits 2006, p. 27). Lipschits, Oded (2006). "Achaemenid Imperial Policy and the Status of Jerusalem". In Lipschits, Oded; Oeming, Manfred (eds.). Judah and the Judeans in the Persian Period. Pennsylvania State University Press. pp. 19–52. ISBN 978-1-57506-250-1. Archived from the original on 19 December 2023. Retrieved 8 December 2020.
around the middle of the fourth century, Phoenicians were occupying the entire coast ... as far as Ascalon in southern Palestine (Ephal 2000, p. 150) Ephal, Israel (2000). "Syria-Palestine under Achaemenid Rule". The Cambridge Ancient History. Vol. 11. Cambridge University Press. pp. 139–. ISBN 978-0-521-22804-6. Archived from the original on 19 December 2023. Retrieved 16 November 2020.
All that can be said with certainty is that the Nabataeans are known in the sources since the fourth century B.C. Up to that time the Qedarites, the dominant Arab tribe of the Persian period, controlled the south from the Hejaz and all of the Negev (Wenning 2007, p. 26) Wenning, Robert (2007). "The Nabataeans in History (Before AD 106)". In Politis, Konstantinos D. (ed.). The World of the Nabataeans. Vol. 2 of the International Conference, The World of the Herods and the Nabataeans, Held at the British Museum, 17–19 April 2001. Franz Steiner Verlag. ISBN 978-3-515-08816-9. Archived from the original on 19 December 2023. Retrieved 13 December 2020.
The earliest coins found in Palestine are of Greek origin: archaic and early classicial coinage of the late sixth and early fifth centuries BCE (Hübner 2014, p. 161) Hübner, Ulrich (2014). "The development of monetary systems in Palestine during the Achaemenid and Hellenistic Eras". In Hagen, Jürgen von; Welker, Michael (eds.). Money as God?: The Monetisation of the Market and its Impact on Religion, Politics, Law and Ethics. Cambridge University Press. pp. 164–. ISBN 978-1-107-04300-8. Archived from the original on 19 December 2023. Retrieved 16 November 2020.
it did not take long for local potters to imitate those fine wares, though they could not duplicate the high quality of manufacture for which the Greeks were known (Meyers & Chancey 2012, pp. 3–4) Meyers, Eric M.; Chancey, Mark A. (2012). Alexander to Constantine: Archaeology of the Land of the Bible. Vol. III. Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-14179-5. Archived from the original on 19 December 2023. Retrieved 15 December 2020.
The so-called Philisto-Arabian coins are among the oldest in Palestine. The mints were located in Gaza, Ashkelon, and Ashdod (Hübner 2014, p. 162). Hübner, Ulrich (2014). "The development of monetary systems in Palestine during the Achaemenid and Hellenistic Eras". In Hagen, Jürgen von; Welker, Michael (eds.). Money as God?: The Monetisation of the Market and its Impact on Religion, Politics, Law and Ethics. Cambridge University Press. pp. 164–. ISBN 978-1-107-04300-8. Archived from the original on 19 December 2023. Retrieved 16 November 2020.
Since the second quarter of the fourth century, coins were also minted in the province of Judah (Hübner 2014, p. 165) Hübner, Ulrich (2014). "The development of monetary systems in Palestine during the Achaemenid and Hellenistic Eras". In Hagen, Jürgen von; Welker, Michael (eds.). Money as God?: The Monetisation of the Market and its Impact on Religion, Politics, Law and Ethics. Cambridge University Press. pp. 164–. ISBN 978-1-107-04300-8. Archived from the original on 19 December 2023. Retrieved 16 November 2020.
in the eyes of his Jewish subjects, he was a usurper who had destroyed the legitimate dynasty of the Hasmoneans in order to grab power for himself (Schäfer 2003, p. 99) Schäfer, Peter (2003). The History of the Jews in the Greco-Roman World. Psychology Press. ISBN 978-0-415-30585-3.
As soon as Herod the Great died in 4 BCE, a wave of unrest surged through Palestine. Herod's son Archelaus quickly put down the demonstrations, with the aid of Roman troops as well as Herod's army (Grabbe 2010, p. 71). Grabbe, Lester L. (2010). An Introduction to Second Temple Judaism: History and Religion of the Jews in the Time of Nehemiah, the Maccabees, Hillel, and Jesus. A&C Black. ISBN 978-0-567-55248-8. Archived from the original on 19 December 2023. Retrieved 18 December 2020.
It is not known whether Judea was a Roman province in the full sense of its meaning or only a part of the province of Syria with separate administration. Current knowledge of so-called "equestrian administration" points towards the second possibility (Haensch 2010, p. 2). Haensch, Rudolf (2010). "The Roman Provincial Administration". In Hezser, Catherine (ed.). The Oxford Handbook of Jewish Daily Life in Roman Palestine. OUP Oxford. pp. 1–13. ISBN 978-0-19-921643-7.
He does not mention Galilee, and there is little to no physical or literary evidence for the war in the north, though recent archaeology in the region has hinted that it may have reached that far (Meyers & Chancey 2012, p. 169). Meyers, Eric M.; Chancey, Mark A. (2012). Alexander to Constantine: Archaeology of the Land of the Bible. Vol. III. Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-14179-5. Archived from the original on 19 December 2023. Retrieved 15 December 2020.
"It seems clear that by choosing a seemingly neutral name – one juxtaposing that of a neighboring province with the revived name of an ancient geographical entity (Palestine), already known from the writings of Herodotus – Hadrian was intending to suppress any connection between the Jewish people and that land." Lewin 2005, p. 33 Lewin, Ariel (2005). The Archaeology of Ancient Judea and Palestine. Getty Publications. ISBN 978-0-89236-800-6. Archived from the original on 19 December 2023. Retrieved 23 December 2020.
Even Geva's minimalist estimate of a population of 4,000 or fewer for Aelia Capitolina may be high (Seligman 2017, p. 116) Seligman, Jon (2017). "'Absence of Evidence' or 'Evidence of Absence' Was Jerusalem the Legionary Camp and Where Was Civilian Aelia Capitolina?". In Avni, Gideon; Stiebel, Guy (eds.). Roman Jerusalem: A New Old City. Journal of Roman Archaeology. pp. 107–116. ISBN 978-0-9913730-9-3. Archived from the original on 19 December 2023. Retrieved 24 December 2020.
Christian and Rabbinic sources claim that Roman law now forbade Jews to resettle the area around Jerusalem – an area that covered almost the entire historic district of Judaea (Schwartz 2016, p. 248). Schwartz, Seth (2016). "The Impact of the Jewish Rebellions, 66–135 CE: Destruction or Provincialization?". Revolt and Resistance in the Ancient Classical World and the Near East: In the Crucible of Empire. Brill. pp. 234–252. ISBN 978-90-04-33018-4. Archived from the original on 19 December 2023. Retrieved 17 December 2020.
At Antioch and at Emesa he scored a decisive victory against the Palmyrene army and in 272 he forced Palmyra to surrender (Dignas & Winter 2007, p. 161). Dignas, Beate; Winter, Engelbert (2007) [First published 2001]. Rome and Persia in Late Antiquity: Neighbours and Rivals. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-84925-8. Archived from the original on 19 December 2023. Retrieved 25 December 2020.
The main activity in the temple was blood sacrifice. ... the sources suggest that many and perhaps even most male Jews in Palestine came up one or more times a year to the temple (Grabbe 2010, p. 40). Grabbe, Lester L. (2010). An Introduction to Second Temple Judaism: History and Religion of the Jews in the Time of Nehemiah, the Maccabees, Hillel, and Jesus. A&C Black. ISBN 978-0-567-55248-8. Archived from the original on 19 December 2023. Retrieved 18 December 2020.
In late February of 303, the emperor Diocletian and his imperial colleagues issued an edict ordering churches to be destroyed, scriptures to be burned, and Christians to be dismissed from government service and stripped of civil rights. ... This marked the formal opening of the Great Persecution, the last and most brutal assault on Christians by the pagan Roman state (Gaddis 1999, p. 29). Gaddis, Michael (1999). There is No Crime for Those who Have Christ: Religious Violence in the Christian Roman Empire. Princeton University. ISBN 978-0-520-24104-6. Archived from the original on 19 December 2023. Retrieved 5 January 2021.
Theodosius's great contribution to the empire came when he made Roman Christianity the official state religion in 380 (Middleton 2015, p. 937). Middleton, John (2015). World Monarchies and Dynasties. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-317-45158-7.
in the fourth century, when it seems likely that more than half the inhabitants of the Roman world converted to Christianity (Mitchell 2014, p. 242) Mitchell, Stephen (2014). A History of the Later Roman Empire, AD 284–641. Wiley. ISBN 978-1-118-34106-3.
no fewer than 140 Byzantine monasteries flourished within the relatively small area of Palestine (McGuckin 2008, p. 614) McGuckin, John (2008). "Monasticism and Monasteries". In Jeffreys, Elizabeth; Haldon, John F.; Cormack, Robin (eds.). The Oxford Handbook of Byzantine Studies. Oxford University Press. pp. 611–620. ISBN 978-0-19-925246-6.
Membership in the exclusive club of Pentarchy provided the Church of All Palestine with an added international prestige and further clout at home (Masalha 2018, p. 111). Masalha, Nur (2018). Palestine: A Four Thousand Year History. Bloomsbury Academic. ISBN 978-1-78699-274-1.
towns increasingly acquired new civic basilicas and porticoed streets with spaces for shops. ... a vigorous boost from the erection of many churches and other religious buildings (Lewin 2005, p. 41). Lewin, Ariel (2005). The Archaeology of Ancient Judea and Palestine. Getty Publications. ISBN 978-0-89236-800-6. Archived from the original on 19 December 2023. Retrieved 23 December 2020.
in effect, Caesarea-Palaestina and Gaza superseded and replaced both Athens and Alexandria as the premier centres of learning for the whole Mediterranean region (Masalha 2018, pp. 40–41). Masalha, Nur (2018). Palestine: A Four Thousand Year History. Bloomsbury Academic. ISBN 978-1-78699-274-1.
Notable scholars of this era were: the Gazan rhetoricans and sophists Aeneas, Choricius, Procopius, and the grammarian John; the Caesarean authors and historians Procopius, Gelasius, Eusebius, and the theologican Origen; the hagiographer Cyril of Scythopolis; and the Church historian Zacharias Rhetor (Kazhdan 1991, p. 1563, Palestine). Kazhdan, Aleksandr Petrovich (1991). The Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-504652-6. Archived from the original on 19 December 2023. Retrieved 8 January 2021.
Jerome and Eusebius, rather than Herodotus' actual history of Palestine which formed the basis of Western religio‑social toponymic memory and the reimagining of Palestine as a Christian Holy Land (Masalha 2018, p. 49) Masalha, Nur (2018). Palestine: A Four Thousand Year History. Bloomsbury Academic. ISBN 978-1-78699-274-1.
Renouncing the orthodox Christianity ... Furthermore, he publicly and energetically embraced polytheism and proclaimed universal religious toleration ... Finally, he announced that he intended to oversee the rebuilding of the Jews' Temple in Jerusalem (Fredriksen & Irshai 2008, p. 1003). Fredriksen, Paula; Irshai, Oded (2008). "Christian anti-Judaism: polemics and policies". In Katz, Steven T. (ed.). The Cambridge History of Judaism: Volume 4, The Late Roman-Rabbinic Period. Cambridge University Press. pp. 997–1034. ISBN 978-0-521-77248-8. Archived from the original on 19 December 2023. Retrieved 24 December 2020.
The reasons why the construction stopped are according to Schäfer mysterious. He offers a few possible explanations: "The Christian sources give reports of earthquakes and a fire that fell from heaven, as well as numerous miracles accompanying these happenings. The Roman historian Ammianus Marcellinus, perhaps the most reliable source, mentions 'fearsome balls of flame' (metuendi globi flammarum) which repeatedly flared up 'near to the foundations' of the Temple and burned some of the workers to death; the church historian Rufinus likewise mentions the fire and also speaks of an earthquake. It is often suggested that the fire was the main reason why work was halted and that the Christians must bear the blame for causing the fire as they wished to sabotage the building work. This is certainly not out of the question, but the most probable explanation is that there was an earthquake (no rare event during this period) that then caused a fire to break out. It goes without saying that the Christians attributed the events to the direct intervention of God." (Schäfer 2003, p. 189) Schäfer, Peter (2003). The History of the Jews in the Greco-Roman World. Psychology Press. ISBN 978-0-415-30585-3.
After settling in Palaestina Tertia and Palaestina Secunda, the Ghassanids created client (buffer) states ... and fought alongside the Byzantines against the Persian Sassanids and Arab Lakhmid tribes of southern Iraq. ... the Ghassanid Arabs, who acted as a buffer zone and a source of troops for the Byzantine army and controlled (Masalha 2018, pp. 137–140) Masalha, Nur (2018). Palestine: A Four Thousand Year History. Bloomsbury Academic. ISBN 978-1-78699-274-1.
Although Emperor Trajan defeated the Nabataeans ... the culture did not diminish until changing political ties and economic disruptions moved trade routes away from Petra (Lawler 2011, p. 220). Lawler, Jennifer (2011). Encyclopedia of the Byzantine Empire. McFarland. ISBN 978-0-7864-6616-0. Archived from the original on 19 December 2023. Retrieved 7 January 2021.
Greek eventually replaced Aramaic as an official idiom for bureaucracy after the fourth century C.E (Gzella 2015, p. 242). Gzella, Holger (2015). A Cultural History of Aramaic: From the Beginnings to the Advent of Islam. Brill. ISBN 978-90-04-28510-1. Archived from the original on 19 December 2023. Retrieved 7 January 2021.
And for the many Nabataeans (probably most) who became Christians, the language of their liturgy was neither Arabic nor Aramaic but the less familiar Greek (Taylor 2002, p. 213). Taylor, Jane (2002). Petra and the Lost Kingdom of the Nabataeans. Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-674-00849-6. Archived from the original on 19 December 2023. Retrieved 7 January 2021.
Little is known about this uprising. Reinhard Pummer characterizes the events as two riots – one in Neapolis and one in Caesarea – rather than an uprising, but acknowledges that the majority of sources speak of it as a revolt (Pummer 2016, p. 139). Pummer, Reinhard (2016). The Samaritans: A Profile. Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing. pp. 132–. ISBN 978-0-8028-6768-1.
It will be remembered that in the suppression of the dangerous Samaritan revolt that broke out in Palestine in 529, it was the Arab Ghassanid phylarch Arethas, Abu Karib, or both that finally crushed the revolt mercilessly and, captured, according to the chronographer, twenty thousand Samaritans, who were sold as slaves (Shahid 2002, p. 364) Shahid, Irfan (2002). Byzantium and the Arabs in the Sixth Century. Vol. II. Dumbarton Oaks. ISBN 978-0-88402-214-5.
the Muslims viewed their war as a war of the End of Days, the realisation of an apocalyptic vision. ... The war was seen as the supreme effort (jihad, a well-known term meaning firstly "effort"), to go the way dictated by God (fi sabil Allah) (Gil 1997, pp. 12–13). Gil, Moshe (1997). A History of Palestine, 634–1099. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-59984-9.
Security was given to men who paid the tax, to their dependants and property. In addition, they would have to be submissive, that is to consider themselves inferior to Muslims and to act accordingly (Gil 1997, p. 142). Gil, Moshe (1997). A History of Palestine, 634–1099. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-59984-9.
Moshe Gil writes: "These [dress regulations] restrictions were imposed by the rulers in Palestine as well, but to the best of my knowledge there is nothing in the sources indicating their particular application in Palestine. However there is no doubt that they were theoretically imposed in Palestine. Except that here, as elsewhere in the caliphate they were not rigorously observed; which is the only explanation for the fact that they had to be renewed from time to time." (Gil 1997, p. 159) Gil, Moshe (1997). A History of Palestine, 634–1099. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-59984-9.
At first there were four districts, but a fifth, Jund Qinnasrin in the north was added in about 680 (Hawting 2000, p. 38). Hawting, Gerald R. (2000). The First Dynasty of Islam: The Umayyad Caliphate AD 661–750 (2nd ed.). London; New York: Routledge. ISBN 0-415-24072-7. Archived from the original on 19 December 2023. Retrieved 26 April 2022.
Later, about 680, a fifth district was added, Qinnasrin in the north (Hawting 2000, p. 38) Hawting, Gerald R. (2000). The First Dynasty of Islam: The Umayyad Caliphate AD 661–750 (2nd ed.). London; New York: Routledge. ISBN 0-415-24072-7. Archived from the original on 19 December 2023. Retrieved 26 April 2022.
For several centuries Aylah, the present‑day Jordanian port city of al-'Aqabah on the Red Sea, was part of the Islamic administrative province of Jund Filastin (Masalha 2018, pp. 158–160) Masalha, Nur (2018). Palestine: A Four Thousand Year History. Bloomsbury Academic. ISBN 978-1-78699-274-1.
It was expanded further by the Tulunids, ... The province of Filastin was enlarged ... eastwards and southwards, at the expense of Jund Dimashq, to include Bilad al‑Sharat, ... in modern‑day southern Jordan and north‑western Saudi Arabia (Salibi 1993: 18‒20; le Strange 1890: 28) (Masalha 2018, p. 169). Masalha, Nur (2018). Palestine: A Four Thousand Year History. Bloomsbury Academic. ISBN 978-1-78699-274-1.
the Cluniac Reforms popularized pilgrimage to the Holy Sites as a means to expiate sin (Tejirian & Spector Simon 2012, p. 26) Tejirian, Eleanor H.; Spector Simon, Reeva (2012). Conflict, Conquest, and Conversion: Two Thousand Years of Christian Missions in the Middle East. Columbia University Press. ISBN 978-0-231-51109-4. Archived from the original on 19 December 2023. Retrieved 17 January 2021.
Mu'awiya became caliph and founder of the Umayyad dynasty as a result of the events of a period of about five years, between 656 and 661, during which the Arabs were divided into several camps each hostile to the others. ... Muslim tradition knows this period as the Fitna ("time of trial") (Hawting 2002, p. 24) Hawting, Gerald R. (2002). The First Dynasty of Islam: The Umayyad Caliphate AD 661–750 (2nd ed.). Routledge. ISBN 978-1-134-55059-3.
As yet the feud between the Qays and Yaman which was to plague Syria for so many centuries was not a major problem (Kennedy 2004, p. 86). Kennedy, Hugh N. (2004). The Prophet and the Age of the Caliphates: The Islamic Near East from the 6th to the 11th Century (2nd ed.). Harlow: Pearson Education Limited. ISBN 0-582-40525-4.
It was also a division arising from the Islamic conquests. Some Yamani tribes ... had been in Syria before the coming of Islam, while the majority of Qays ... were newly arrived from the Arabian peninsula (Kennedy 2004, p. 92) Kennedy, Hugh N. (2004). The Prophet and the Age of the Caliphates: The Islamic Near East from the 6th to the 11th Century (2nd ed.). Harlow: Pearson Education Limited. ISBN 0-582-40525-4.
the conflict was between two factions, based on tribal loyalties, which sought to control access to military power and the privileges that went with it. The prizes were the favour of the ruling caliph and the lucrative governorships in the provinces (Kennedy 2004, p. 105). Kennedy, Hugh N. (2004). The Prophet and the Age of the Caliphates: The Islamic Near East from the 6th to the 11th Century (2nd ed.). Harlow: Pearson Education Limited. ISBN 0-582-40525-4.
Unfair taxation practices against the mawali, Muslim converts from non-Arab backgrounds, and other instances of preferential treatment for Arabs over non-Arabs were among the significant factors that fomented widespread resentment and hostility toward the Umayyads. This culminated in the outbreak of the Abbasid revolution of 749 and the Umayyad assumption of the caliphate in 750 (Lev 2006, p. 131). Lev, Yaacov (2006). "Palestine". In Meri, Josef W. (ed.). Medieval Islamic Civilization: L–Z, index. Taylor & Francis. pp. 590–592. ISBN 978-0-415-96692-4.
Although this shift of focus away from Palestine did not cause an immediate decline in the region, it did put an end to the extravagant investments that characterized Umayyad rule (Burke & Peilstocker 2011, p. 114). Burke, Aaron A; Peilstocker, Martin (2011). The History and Archaeology of Jaffa 1. Cotsen Institute of Archaeology Press. ISBN 978-1-938770-56-2. Archived from the original on 19 December 2023. Retrieved 12 January 2021.
The most drastic and basic change effected by this revolution throughout the caliphate-the decline of the Arab tribes' glory-was strongly felt in Palestine. From that time onwards, after the initial shocks were over, one hears no longer of the tribes participating in its political affairs, but only of their rebellions (Gil 1997, p. 279) Gil, Moshe (1997). A History of Palestine, 634–1099. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-59984-9.
There is some debate on how the Abbasids rule affected Syria. Paul M. Cobb writes: "However unhappy some Syrians may have been, the large-scale political breakdown and socio-economic collapse of 'Abbasid Syria that modern scholarship has posited for so long has no historical basis. Indeed, in certain cases, contention – especially interelite competition like that of Syria's ashraf – can be seen as a kind of backhanded compliment to the success of the 'Abbasid state-building and an affirmation of its legitimacy. Political life in 'Abbasid Syria was certainly different from that under the Umayyads, but, all things considered, it showed little change for the worse." (Cobb 2001, p. 128) Cobb, Paul M. (2001). White Banners: Contention in 'Abbasid Syria, 750–880. SUNY Press. ISBN 978-0-7914-4880-9. Archived from the original on 19 December 2023. Retrieved 16 January 2021.
In 327/939, Muhammad ibn Tughj obtained from the Caliph al-Radi confirmation of his appointment as military and fiscal governor, receiving the laqab of al-Ikhshid or "servant," a princely title from Farghana. After three decades of costly disorders in an Egypt administered by appointed governors, the caliphate had reached the conclusion that only an autonomous prince who, along with his descendants, ..., would be capable of defending it effectively against the Fatimids (Bianquis 1998, p. 112). Bianquis, Thierry (1998). "Autonomous Egypt from Ibn Ṭūlūn to Kāfūr, 868–969". In Petry, Carl F. (ed.). The Cambridge History of Egypt, Volume 1: Islamic Egypt, 640–1517. Vol. 1. Cambridge University Press. pp. 86–119. doi:10.1017/CHOL9780521471374. ISBN 0-521-47137-0.
For a period of some fourteen years (997–1010), the Banu Jarrah enjoyed almost unlimited power in Palestine, evidently with the consent of Caliph al-Hakim (Gil 1997, p. 370). Gil, Moshe (1997). A History of Palestine, 634–1099. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-59984-9.
The 1020s were particularly harrowing. The outrages perpetrated by the Bedouins "were unlike anything experienced in the countries of Islam since its inception" (Geniza letter, in Mann, Jews in Egypt, ii, 181, l. 22). The details reported in the Geniza letters are revolting ... the population must have considerably shrunk, possibly an outcome of the catastrophic tribulations by the Bedouins in the 1020 (Goitein & Grabar 2007, pp. 232–234) Goitein, S.D.; Grabar, O. (2007). "Jerusalem". In Bosworth, Clifford Edmund (ed.). Historic Cities of the Islamic World. Brill. pp. 224–255. ISBN 978-90-04-15388-2. Archived from the original on 29 June 2023. Retrieved 19 January 2021.
By and large, however, the Turcoman period, which lasted less than thirty years, was one of slaughter and vandalism, of economic hardship and the uprooting of populations (Gil 1997, p. 420). Gil, Moshe (1997). A History of Palestine, 634–1099. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-59984-9.
In return for a ten-year truce between the kingdom of Jerusalem and the Muslims, al-Kamil would give to Frederick Jerusalem, Bethlehem, and Nazareth, as well as a thin strip of land connecting the holy sites to the coast (Madden 2014, pp. 150–151). Madden, Thomas F. (2014). The Concise History of the Crusades. Rowman & Littlefield Publishers. ISBN 978-1-4422-3116-0. Archived from the original on 19 December 2023. Retrieved 26 January 2021.
Certain that the crusaders would accept the proposal, al-Mu'azzam ordered the destruction of the walls of Jerusalem in March 1219 (Madden 2014, p. 141). Madden, Thomas F. (2014). The Concise History of the Crusades. Rowman & Littlefield Publishers. ISBN 978-1-4422-3116-0. Archived from the original on 19 December 2023. Retrieved 26 January 2021.
Pooling the resources of the Frankish nobility and the Military Orders, the Christians managed to muster around two thousand knights and perhaps a further 10,000 infantrymen. This host–the largest field army amassed in the East since the Third Crusade–represented the Latin kingdom's full fighting manpower (Asbridge 2010, p. 474). Asbridge, Thomas (2010). The Crusades: The Authoritative History of the War for the Holy Land. HarperCollins e-books. ISBN 978-0-06-198136-4. Archived from the original on 19 December 2023. Retrieved 25 January 2021.
On 18 October 1244 they launched an attack and battle was joined on the sandy plains near the village of La Forbie (north-east of Gaza). For the Franks and their allies, the mêlée that followed was an unmitigated disaster (Asbridge 2010, pp. 474–475). Asbridge, Thomas (2010). The Crusades: The Authoritative History of the War for the Holy Land. HarperCollins e-books. ISBN 978-0-06-198136-4. Archived from the original on 19 December 2023. Retrieved 25 January 2021.
Overall the Latin Kingdom lasted in Palestine nearly 200 years, from 1099 until 1291, when the last stronghold and capital, Acre, was destroyed by the Mamluks (Masalha 2018, p. 167). Masalha, Nur (2018). Palestine: A Four Thousand Year History. Bloomsbury Academic. ISBN 978-1-78699-274-1.
6 Arab states, Egypt, Iraq, Lebanon, Saudi Arabia, Syria, Yemen: 4 Moslem states, Afghanistan, Iran, Pakistan, Turkey: Greece, Cuba and India also voted against (Cattan 1988, p. 36). Cattan, Henry (1988). The Palestine Question. Croom Helm. p. 36. ISBN 978-0-7099-4878-0. Archived from the original on 31 July 2023. Retrieved 21 March 2023.
Slavik 2001, p. 60. Slavik, Diane (2001). Daily Life in Ancient and Modern Jerusalem. Lerner Publications. ISBN 978-0-8225-3218-7. Archived from the original on 19 December 2023. Retrieved 8 January 2021.
Noonan 2019. Noonan, Benjamin J. (2019). Non-Semitic Loanwords in the Hebrew Bible: A Lexicon of Language Contact. Penn State Press. ISBN 978-1-64602-039-3. Archived from the original on 19 December 2023. Retrieved 28 June 2020.
Dever 2001, pp. 118–119. Dever, William G. (2001). What Did the Biblical Writers Know and When Did They Know It?: What Archeology Can Tell Us About the Reality of Ancient Israel. Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing. pp. 118–119. ISBN 978-0-8028-2126-3. Archived from the original on 19 December 2023. Retrieved 15 February 2022.
Faust 2016. Faust, Avraham (2016). Israel's Ethnogenesis: Settlement, Interaction, Expansion and Resistance. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-134-94208-4. Archived from the original on 1 July 2023. Retrieved 15 February 2022.
Finkelstein & Mazar 2007. Finkelstein, Israel; Mazar, Amihai (2007). Schmidt, Brian B. (ed.). The Quest for the Historical Israel: Debating Archaeology and the History of Early Israel. Invited Lectures Delivered at the Sixth Biennial Colloquium of the International Institute for Secular Humanistic Judaism, Detroit, October 2005. Atlanta: Society of Biblical Literature. ISBN 978-1-58983-277-0. Archived from the original on 11 May 2023. Retrieved 21 March 2023.
Finkelstein & Silberman 2002. Finkelstein, Israel; Silberman, Neil Asher (2002). The Bible Unearthed: Archaeology's New Vision of Ancient Israel and the Origin of Sacred Texts. Simon and Schuster. ISBN 978-0-7432-2338-6. Archived from the original on 1 July 2023. Retrieved 15 November 2020.
Noll 2001, p. 164. Noll, K. L. (2001). Canaan and Israel in Antiquity: An Introduction. London: Sheffield Academic Press. p. 164. ISBN 978-1-84127-318-1. Archived from the original on 1 July 2023. Retrieved 16 February 2022. It would seem that, in the eyes of Merneptah's artisans, Israel was a Canaanite group indistinguishable from all other Canaanite groups... It is likely that Merneptah's Israel was a group of Canaanites located in the Jezreel Valley.
McNutt 1999, p. 47. McNutt, Paula (1999). Reconstructing the Society of Ancient Israel. Westminster John Knox Press. ISBN 978-0-664-22265-9. Archived from the original on 9 October 2023. Retrieved 16 February 2022.
Finkelstein & Silberman 2002, p. 103. Finkelstein, Israel; Silberman, Neil Asher (2002). The Bible Unearthed: Archaeology's New Vision of Ancient Israel and the Origin of Sacred Texts. Simon and Schuster. ISBN 978-0-7432-2338-6. Archived from the original on 1 July 2023. Retrieved 15 November 2020.
Finkelstein & Silberman 2002, p. 113. Finkelstein, Israel; Silberman, Neil Asher (2002). The Bible Unearthed: Archaeology's New Vision of Ancient Israel and the Origin of Sacred Texts. Simon and Schuster. ISBN 978-0-7432-2338-6. Archived from the original on 1 July 2023. Retrieved 15 November 2020.
Killebrew 2005, p. 230. Killebrew, Ann E. (2005). Biblical Peoples and Ethnicity: An Archaeological Study of Egyptians, Canaanites, Philistines, and Early Israel, 1300–1100 BCE. Archaeology and Biblical Studies. Society of Biblical Literature. p. 230. ISBN 978-1-58983-097-4.
Finkelstein & Silberman 2002, p. 106: The early Israelites appeared around 1200 BCE Finkelstein, Israel; Silberman, Neil Asher (2002). The Bible Unearthed: Archaeology's New Vision of Ancient Israel and the Origin of Sacred Texts. Simon and Schuster. ISBN 978-0-7432-2338-6. Archived from the original on 1 July 2023. Retrieved 15 November 2020.
Finkelstein & Silberman 2002, pp. 146–147. Finkelstein, Israel; Silberman, Neil Asher (2002). The Bible Unearthed: Archaeology's New Vision of Ancient Israel and the Origin of Sacred Texts. Simon and Schuster. ISBN 978-0-7432-2338-6. Archived from the original on 1 July 2023. Retrieved 15 November 2020.
Finkelstein & Silberman 2002, p. 106. Finkelstein, Israel; Silberman, Neil Asher (2002). The Bible Unearthed: Archaeology's New Vision of Ancient Israel and the Origin of Sacred Texts. Simon and Schuster. ISBN 978-0-7432-2338-6. Archived from the original on 1 July 2023. Retrieved 15 November 2020.
Finkelstein, Lipschits & Koch 2012, p. 151. Finkelstein, Israel; Lipschits, Oded; Koch, Ido (2012). "The Biblical Gilead: Observations on Identifications, Geographic Divisions and Territorial History". In Kottsieper, Ingo; Dietrich, Manfried (eds.). Ugarit-Forschungen: Internationales Jahrbuch Für Die Altertumskunde Syrien-Palästinas. 2011. Band 43. Ugarit Verlag. p. 151. ISBN 978-3-86835-086-9. OCLC 1101929531. Archived from the original on 11 May 2023. Retrieved 21 March 2023.
Finkelstein & Silberman 2002, pp. 162–163. Finkelstein, Israel; Silberman, Neil Asher (2002). The Bible Unearthed: Archaeology's New Vision of Ancient Israel and the Origin of Sacred Texts. Simon and Schuster. ISBN 978-0-7432-2338-6. Archived from the original on 1 July 2023. Retrieved 15 November 2020.
Finkelstein & Silberman 2002, p. 163. Finkelstein, Israel; Silberman, Neil Asher (2002). The Bible Unearthed: Archaeology's New Vision of Ancient Israel and the Origin of Sacred Texts. Simon and Schuster. ISBN 978-0-7432-2338-6. Archived from the original on 1 July 2023. Retrieved 15 November 2020.
Finkelstein & Silberman 2002, p. 162. Finkelstein, Israel; Silberman, Neil Asher (2002). The Bible Unearthed: Archaeology's New Vision of Ancient Israel and the Origin of Sacred Texts. Simon and Schuster. ISBN 978-0-7432-2338-6. Archived from the original on 1 July 2023. Retrieved 15 November 2020.
Finkelstein & Silberman 2002, pp. 182–183. Finkelstein, Israel; Silberman, Neil Asher (2002). The Bible Unearthed: Archaeology's New Vision of Ancient Israel and the Origin of Sacred Texts. Simon and Schuster. ISBN 978-0-7432-2338-6. Archived from the original on 1 July 2023. Retrieved 15 November 2020.
Finkelstein & Silberman 2002, pp. 187–188. Finkelstein, Israel; Silberman, Neil Asher (2002). The Bible Unearthed: Archaeology's New Vision of Ancient Israel and the Origin of Sacred Texts. Simon and Schuster. ISBN 978-0-7432-2338-6. Archived from the original on 1 July 2023. Retrieved 15 November 2020.
Finkelstein & Silberman 2002, p. 194. Finkelstein, Israel; Silberman, Neil Asher (2002). The Bible Unearthed: Archaeology's New Vision of Ancient Israel and the Origin of Sacred Texts. Simon and Schuster. ISBN 978-0-7432-2338-6. Archived from the original on 1 July 2023. Retrieved 15 November 2020.
Lipschits 2006, p. 19. Lipschits, Oded (2006). "Achaemenid Imperial Policy and the Status of Jerusalem". In Lipschits, Oded; Oeming, Manfred (eds.). Judah and the Judeans in the Persian Period. Pennsylvania State University Press. pp. 19–52. ISBN 978-1-57506-250-1. Archived from the original on 19 December 2023. Retrieved 8 December 2020.
Leithart 2006, pp. 255–256. Leithart, Peter J. (2006). 1 & 2 Kings (Brazos Theological Commentary on the Bible). Baker Publishing Group. pp. 255–256. ISBN 978-1-4412-3560-2.
Lipschits 2006, p. 20. Lipschits, Oded (2006). "Achaemenid Imperial Policy and the Status of Jerusalem". In Lipschits, Oded; Oeming, Manfred (eds.). Judah and the Judeans in the Persian Period. Pennsylvania State University Press. pp. 19–52. ISBN 978-1-57506-250-1. Archived from the original on 19 December 2023. Retrieved 8 December 2020.
Perdue & Carter 2015, p. 69. Perdue, Leo G.; Carter, Warren (2015). Israel and Empire: A Postcolonial History of Israel and Early Judaism. Bloomsbury Publishing. ISBN 978-0-567-28051-0. Archived from the original on 19 December 2023. Retrieved 15 November 2020.
Finkelstein & Silberman 2002, p. 259. Finkelstein, Israel; Silberman, Neil Asher (2002). The Bible Unearthed: Archaeology's New Vision of Ancient Israel and the Origin of Sacred Texts. Simon and Schuster. ISBN 978-0-7432-2338-6. Archived from the original on 1 July 2023. Retrieved 15 November 2020.
Finkelstein & Silberman 2002, pp. 260–261. Finkelstein, Israel; Silberman, Neil Asher (2002). The Bible Unearthed: Archaeology's New Vision of Ancient Israel and the Origin of Sacred Texts. Simon and Schuster. ISBN 978-0-7432-2338-6. Archived from the original on 1 July 2023. Retrieved 15 November 2020.
Ben-Shlomo 2010, p. 17. Ben-Shlomo, David (2010). Philistine Iconography: A Wealth of Style and Symbolism. Saint-Paul. ISBN 978-3-525-54360-3. Archived from the original on 19 December 2023. Retrieved 16 November 2020.
Perdue & Carter 2015, p. 69: All of the nations of Syria-Israel had become colonies of the Neo-Babylonian Empire by 601 BCE. Perdue, Leo G.; Carter, Warren (2015). Israel and Empire: A Postcolonial History of Israel and Early Judaism. Bloomsbury Publishing. ISBN 978-0-567-28051-0. Archived from the original on 19 December 2023. Retrieved 15 November 2020.
Lipschits 2005, p. 24. Lipschits, Oled (2005). The Fall and Rise of Jerusalem: Judah under Babylonian Rule. Winona Lake: Eisenbrauns. ISBN 978-1-57506-095-8. Archived from the original on 19 December 2023. Retrieved 8 December 2020.
Saggs 2010: deporting King Jehoiachin to Babylon. Finkelstein & Silberman 2002, p. 261: The Jerusalem aristocracy and priesthood ... were taken off into exile, Saggs, Henry W.F. (2010). "Nebuchadnezzar II – Biography, Accomplishments, & Facts". Encyclopædia Britannica. Archived from the original on 18 January 2020. Retrieved 16 November 2020. Finkelstein, Israel; Silberman, Neil Asher (2002). The Bible Unearthed: Archaeology's New Vision of Ancient Israel and the Origin of Sacred Texts. Simon and Schuster. ISBN 978-0-7432-2338-6. Archived from the original on 1 July 2023. Retrieved 15 November 2020.
Saggs 2010: The siege of Jerusalem ended in its capture in 587/586; Finkelstein & Silberman 2002, p. 262: In 587 BCE Nebuchadnezzar arrived with his formidable army and laid siege to Jerusalem. It was the beginning of the end. With the Babylonian forces rampaging through the countryside, the outlying cities of Judah fell one by one. Saggs, Henry W.F. (2010). "Nebuchadnezzar II – Biography, Accomplishments, & Facts". Encyclopædia Britannica. Archived from the original on 18 January 2020. Retrieved 16 November 2020. Finkelstein, Israel; Silberman, Neil Asher (2002). The Bible Unearthed: Archaeology's New Vision of Ancient Israel and the Origin of Sacred Texts. Simon and Schuster. ISBN 978-0-7432-2338-6. Archived from the original on 1 July 2023. Retrieved 15 November 2020.
Ephal 2000, p. 142. Ephal, Israel (2000). "Syria-Palestine under Achaemenid Rule". The Cambridge Ancient History. Vol. 11. Cambridge University Press. pp. 139–. ISBN 978-0-521-22804-6. Archived from the original on 19 December 2023. Retrieved 16 November 2020.
Noll 2013, p. 338. Noll, K. L. (2013). Canaan and Israel in Antiquity: A Textbook on History and Religion. Bloomsbury Publishing. pp. 340–. ISBN 978-0-567-18258-6. Archived from the original on 19 December 2023. Retrieved 16 November 2020.
Ephal 2000, p. 156. Ephal, Israel (2000). "Syria-Palestine under Achaemenid Rule". The Cambridge Ancient History. Vol. 11. Cambridge University Press. pp. 139–. ISBN 978-0-521-22804-6. Archived from the original on 19 December 2023. Retrieved 16 November 2020.
Ephal 2000, p. 161. Ephal, Israel (2000). "Syria-Palestine under Achaemenid Rule". The Cambridge Ancient History. Vol. 11. Cambridge University Press. pp. 139–. ISBN 978-0-521-22804-6. Archived from the original on 19 December 2023. Retrieved 16 November 2020.
Ephal 2000, p. 151. Ephal, Israel (2000). "Syria-Palestine under Achaemenid Rule". The Cambridge Ancient History. Vol. 11. Cambridge University Press. pp. 139–. ISBN 978-0-521-22804-6. Archived from the original on 19 December 2023. Retrieved 16 November 2020.
Crotty 2017, p. 25 f.n. 4. Crotty, Robert Brian (2017). The Christian Survivor: How Roman Christianity Defeated Its Early Competitors. Springer. p. 25 f.n. 4. ISBN 978-981-10-3214-1. Archived from the original on 19 December 2023. Retrieved 15 February 2022. The Babylonians translated the Hebrew name [Judah] into Aramaic as Yehud Medinata ('the province of Judah') or simply 'Yehud' and made it a new Babylonian province. This was inherited by the Persians. Under the Greeks, Yehud was translated as Judaea and this was taken over by the Romans. After the Jewish rebellion of 135 CE, the Romans renamed the area Syria Palaestina or simply Palestine. The area described by these land titles differed to some extent in the different periods.
Grabbe 2004, p. 355. Grabbe, Lester L. (2004). A History of the Jews and Judaism in the Second Temple Period: Yehud – A History of the Persian Province of Judah v. 1. T & T Clark. p. 355. ISBN 978-0-567-08998-4. Archived from the original on 19 December 2023. Retrieved 15 February 2022.
Grabbe 2006. Grabbe, Lester L. (2006). A History of the Jews and Judaism in the Second Temple Period (vol. 1): The Persian Period (539–331BCE). Bloomsbury Academic. pp. 85–. ISBN 978-0-567-04352-8. Archived from the original on 19 December 2023. Retrieved 13 December 2020.
Pummer 2016, p. 2: The claim by the Samaritans to be the original Israelites. Pummer, Reinhard (2016). The Samaritans: A Profile. Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing. pp. 132–. ISBN 978-0-8028-6768-1.
Lynwood Smith 2015, p. 133. Lynwood Smith, Daniel (2015). Into the World of the New Testament: Greco-Roman and Jewish Texts and Contexts. Bloomsbury Publishing. pp. 133–. ISBN 978-0-567-65742-8.
Hjelm 2010, p. 26. Hjelm, Ingrid (2010). "Mt. Gerizim and Samaritans in Recent Research". In Winkler, Waltraud (ed.). Samaritans: Past and Present: Current Studies. Walter de Gruyter. pp. 25–44. ISBN 978-3-11-019497-5. Archived from the original on 19 December 2023. Retrieved 25 December 2020.
Ephal 1998, pp. 114–115: One or two generations before the destruction of the kingdom of Judah in 586 BCE, Edomites began to infiltrate into southern Palestine. ... Idumaea, south and west of the province of Judah; Magness 2012, p. 75: After 586 BCE, Edomites settled in the southern part of the former kingdom of Judah (the northern Negev). Their descendants were known as Idumaeans, and the area was called Idumaea. Ephal, Israel (1998). "Changes in Palestine during the Persian Period in Light of Epigraphic Sources". Israel Exploration Journal. 48 (1/2): 106–119. JSTOR 27926503. Archived from the original on 1 October 2021. Retrieved 8 December 2020. Magness, Jodi (2012). The Archaeology of the Holy Land: From the Destruction of Solomon's Temple to the Muslim Conquest. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-12413-3.
Lipschits 2006, pp. 26–27. Lipschits, Oded (2006). "Achaemenid Imperial Policy and the Status of Jerusalem". In Lipschits, Oded; Oeming, Manfred (eds.). Judah and the Judeans in the Persian Period. Pennsylvania State University Press. pp. 19–52. ISBN 978-1-57506-250-1. Archived from the original on 19 December 2023. Retrieved 8 December 2020.
Lipschits 2006, p. 26: Development of maritime trade was probably the main reason Lipschits, Oded (2006). "Achaemenid Imperial Policy and the Status of Jerusalem". In Lipschits, Oded; Oeming, Manfred (eds.). Judah and the Judeans in the Persian Period. Pennsylvania State University Press. pp. 19–52. ISBN 978-1-57506-250-1. Archived from the original on 19 December 2023. Retrieved 8 December 2020.
Ephal 2000, p. 144. Ephal, Israel (2000). "Syria-Palestine under Achaemenid Rule". The Cambridge Ancient History. Vol. 11. Cambridge University Press. pp. 139–. ISBN 978-0-521-22804-6. Archived from the original on 19 December 2023. Retrieved 16 November 2020.
Lipschits 2006, p. 27. Lipschits, Oded (2006). "Achaemenid Imperial Policy and the Status of Jerusalem". In Lipschits, Oded; Oeming, Manfred (eds.). Judah and the Judeans in the Persian Period. Pennsylvania State University Press. pp. 19–52. ISBN 978-1-57506-250-1. Archived from the original on 19 December 2023. Retrieved 8 December 2020.
Ephal 2000, p. 150. Ephal, Israel (2000). "Syria-Palestine under Achaemenid Rule". The Cambridge Ancient History. Vol. 11. Cambridge University Press. pp. 139–. ISBN 978-0-521-22804-6. Archived from the original on 19 December 2023. Retrieved 16 November 2020.
Schäfer 2003, p. 2: Gaza, one of the most important Arabian trading centres Schäfer, Peter (2003). The History of the Jews in the Greco-Roman World. Psychology Press. ISBN 978-0-415-30585-3.
Ephal 2000, p. 162. Ephal, Israel (2000). "Syria-Palestine under Achaemenid Rule". The Cambridge Ancient History. Vol. 11. Cambridge University Press. pp. 139–. ISBN 978-0-521-22804-6. Archived from the original on 19 December 2023. Retrieved 16 November 2020.
Wenning 2007, p. 26. Wenning, Robert (2007). "The Nabataeans in History (Before AD 106)". In Politis, Konstantinos D. (ed.). The World of the Nabataeans. Vol. 2 of the International Conference, The World of the Herods and the Nabataeans, Held at the British Museum, 17–19 April 2001. Franz Steiner Verlag. ISBN 978-3-515-08816-9. Archived from the original on 19 December 2023. Retrieved 13 December 2020.
Shahin 2005, p. 6: the Nabataenas (400 BCE–160 CE), with their capital in Petra (Jordan), made inroads into southern Palestine and built a separate and flourishing civilization in the Negev. Wenning 2007, p. 26: Beside the establishment of Idumaea, which meant the loss of a large territory, the Qedarites obviously lost of their privileges of the frankincense trade. It can be assumed that they were replaced by the Nabataeans. Masalha 2018, p. 153 Shahin, Mariam (2005). Palestine: A Guide. Interlink Books. ISBN 1-56656-557-X – via Internet Archive. Wenning, Robert (2007). "The Nabataeans in History (Before AD 106)". In Politis, Konstantinos D. (ed.). The World of the Nabataeans. Vol. 2 of the International Conference, The World of the Herods and the Nabataeans, Held at the British Museum, 17–19 April 2001. Franz Steiner Verlag. ISBN 978-3-515-08816-9. Archived from the original on 19 December 2023. Retrieved 13 December 2020. Masalha, Nur (2018). Palestine: A Four Thousand Year History. Bloomsbury Academic. ISBN 978-1-78699-274-1.
Meyers & Chancey 2012, p. 3: despite ... the devastating wars between Greece and Persia in the fifth century, Greek cultural influence rose steadily; Ephal 1998, p. 118 Meyers, Eric M.; Chancey, Mark A. (2012). Alexander to Constantine: Archaeology of the Land of the Bible. Vol. III. Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-14179-5. Archived from the original on 19 December 2023. Retrieved 15 December 2020. Ephal, Israel (1998). "Changes in Palestine during the Persian Period in Light of Epigraphic Sources". Israel Exploration Journal. 48 (1/2): 106–119. JSTOR 27926503. Archived from the original on 1 October 2021. Retrieved 8 December 2020.
Hübner 2014, p. 161. Hübner, Ulrich (2014). "The development of monetary systems in Palestine during the Achaemenid and Hellenistic Eras". In Hagen, Jürgen von; Welker, Michael (eds.). Money as God?: The Monetisation of the Market and its Impact on Religion, Politics, Law and Ethics. Cambridge University Press. pp. 164–. ISBN 978-1-107-04300-8. Archived from the original on 19 December 2023. Retrieved 16 November 2020.
Meyers & Chancey 2012, p. 3. Meyers, Eric M.; Chancey, Mark A. (2012). Alexander to Constantine: Archaeology of the Land of the Bible. Vol. III. Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-14179-5. Archived from the original on 19 December 2023. Retrieved 15 December 2020.
Schäfer 2003, p. 1; Hengel 1984, pp. 35–36: For a long time the western districts of the empire, especially Phoenicia, had been oriented in economic, cultural and military affairs towards Greece and the Aegean. ... No well-to-do household in Palestine would have lacked Greek pottery, terracottas and other luxury items; Greek coins and their local imitations had long been an important medium of exchange. Schwartz 2009, p. 24: By the fifth century, Greek goods predominated over all other imports in the cities of the Syro-Palestinian coast. ... the trickle of Greek imports now turned into a flood Schäfer, Peter (2003). The History of the Jews in the Greco-Roman World. Psychology Press. ISBN 978-0-415-30585-3. Hengel, Martin (1984). "The political and social history of Palestine from Alexander to Antiochus III". In Davies, William David; Finkelstein, Louis (eds.). The Cambridge History of Judaism: Volume 2, The Hellenistic Age. Cambridge University Press. pp. 35–78. ISBN 978-0-521-21929-7. Archived from the original on 19 December 2023. Retrieved 14 December 2020. Schwartz, Seth (2009). Imperialism and Jewish Society: 200 B.C.E. to 640 C.E. Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-1-4008-2485-4. Archived from the original on 19 December 2023. Retrieved 16 December 2020.
Meyers & Chancey 2012, pp. 3–4. Meyers, Eric M.; Chancey, Mark A. (2012). Alexander to Constantine: Archaeology of the Land of the Bible. Vol. III. Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-14179-5. Archived from the original on 19 December 2023. Retrieved 15 December 2020.
Hübner 2014, p. 162. Hübner, Ulrich (2014). "The development of monetary systems in Palestine during the Achaemenid and Hellenistic Eras". In Hagen, Jürgen von; Welker, Michael (eds.). Money as God?: The Monetisation of the Market and its Impact on Religion, Politics, Law and Ethics. Cambridge University Press. pp. 164–. ISBN 978-1-107-04300-8. Archived from the original on 19 December 2023. Retrieved 16 November 2020.
Hübner 2014, p. 165. Hübner, Ulrich (2014). "The development of monetary systems in Palestine during the Achaemenid and Hellenistic Eras". In Hagen, Jürgen von; Welker, Michael (eds.). Money as God?: The Monetisation of the Market and its Impact on Religion, Politics, Law and Ethics. Cambridge University Press. pp. 164–. ISBN 978-1-107-04300-8. Archived from the original on 19 December 2023. Retrieved 16 November 2020.
Ephal 2000, p. 145: it would appear that the Egyptians seized control of the entire coastal strip of Palestine and Phoenicia for a time. Stern 1984, p. 75: They seized the northern part of the coastal plain of Palestine and for a brief period also held Tyre and Sidon. Meyers & Chancey 2012, p. 7: the Egyptians rebelled ... taking control of the northern part of the coastal plain and for a short time part of the Phoenician coast including Akko and Sidon as well. Ephal, Israel (2000). "Syria-Palestine under Achaemenid Rule". The Cambridge Ancient History. Vol. 11. Cambridge University Press. pp. 139–. ISBN 978-0-521-22804-6. Archived from the original on 19 December 2023. Retrieved 16 November 2020. Stern, Ephraim (1984). "The Persian Empire and the Political and Social History of Palestine in the Persian Period". In Davies, William Donald; Finkelstein, Louis (eds.). The Cambridge History of Judaism: Volume 1, Introduction: The Persian Period. Cambridge University Press. pp. 70–87. ISBN 978-0-521-21880-1. Meyers, Eric M.; Chancey, Mark A. (2012). Alexander to Constantine: Archaeology of the Land of the Bible. Vol. III. Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-14179-5. Archived from the original on 19 December 2023. Retrieved 15 December 2020.
Bowman 2020; Meyers & Chancey 2012, p. 7: subsequently the Persians ... marched to Egypt and recovered it in 343 BCE. Bowman, Alan K. (2020). "Ancient Egypt – Egypt under Achaemenid rule". Encyclopædia Britannica. Archived from the original on 20 June 2015. Retrieved 4 December 2020. Meyers, Eric M.; Chancey, Mark A. (2012). Alexander to Constantine: Archaeology of the Land of the Bible. Vol. III. Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-14179-5. Archived from the original on 19 December 2023. Retrieved 15 December 2020.
Baesens, V. (2006). "Royal Taxation and Religious Tribute in Hellenistic Palestine". Ancient Economies, Modern Methodologies: Archaeology, Comparative History, Models and Institutions. Pragmateiai (Bari). Edipuglia. pp. 179. ISBN 9788872284889.
Magness 2012, p. 66. Magness, Jodi (2012). The Archaeology of the Holy Land: From the Destruction of Solomon's Temple to the Muslim Conquest. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-12413-3.
Ephal 2000, p. 147. Ephal, Israel (2000). "Syria-Palestine under Achaemenid Rule". The Cambridge Ancient History. Vol. 11. Cambridge University Press. pp. 139–. ISBN 978-0-521-22804-6. Archived from the original on 19 December 2023. Retrieved 16 November 2020.
Schäfer 2003, p. 8. Schäfer, Peter (2003). The History of the Jews in the Greco-Roman World. Psychology Press. ISBN 978-0-415-30585-3.
Schäfer 2003, p. 13 Schäfer, Peter (2003). The History of the Jews in the Greco-Roman World. Psychology Press. ISBN 978-0-415-30585-3.
; Hengel 1984, p. 52: With the exception of the fourth Syrian war (219–217) it was for most of the land a time of peace; Meyers & Chancey 2012, p. 16: Despite the high tension between the rival factions for control of Palestine, the third century may be viewed as a time of relative prosperity and quiet. Hengel, Martin (1984). "The political and social history of Palestine from Alexander to Antiochus III". In Davies, William David; Finkelstein, Louis (eds.). The Cambridge History of Judaism: Volume 2, The Hellenistic Age. Cambridge University Press. pp. 35–78. ISBN 978-0-521-21929-7. Archived from the original on 19 December 2023. Retrieved 14 December 2020. Meyers, Eric M.; Chancey, Mark A. (2012). Alexander to Constantine: Archaeology of the Land of the Bible. Vol. III. Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-14179-5. Archived from the original on 19 December 2023. Retrieved 15 December 2020.
Hengel 1984, p. 49 Hengel, Martin (1984). "The political and social history of Palestine from Alexander to Antiochus III". In Davies, William David; Finkelstein, Louis (eds.). The Cambridge History of Judaism: Volume 2, The Hellenistic Age. Cambridge University Press. pp. 35–78. ISBN 978-0-521-21929-7. Archived from the original on 19 December 2023. Retrieved 14 December 2020.
Hengel 1984, p. 49 Hengel, Martin (1984). "The political and social history of Palestine from Alexander to Antiochus III". In Davies, William David; Finkelstein, Louis (eds.). The Cambridge History of Judaism: Volume 2, The Hellenistic Age. Cambridge University Press. pp. 35–78. ISBN 978-0-521-21929-7. Archived from the original on 19 December 2023. Retrieved 14 December 2020.
Schäfer 2003, p. 28. Schäfer, Peter (2003). The History of the Jews in the Greco-Roman World. Psychology Press. ISBN 978-0-415-30585-3.
Magness 2012, p. 94. Magness, Jodi (2012). The Archaeology of the Holy Land: From the Destruction of Solomon's Temple to the Muslim Conquest. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-12413-3.
Atkinson 2018, p. 20. Atkinson, Kenneth (2018). The Hasmoneans and Their Neighbors. Jewish and Christian texts in contexts and related studies. London; New York: T&T Clark. ISBN 978-0-567-68082-2. Archived from the original on 19 December 2023. Retrieved 5 June 2022.
Grabbe 2010, p. 18; Schäfer 2003, p. 58: The Maccabees had achieved their main political objective and freed Judaea de facto (though not de jure) from the Seleucid confederation. Grabbe, Lester L. (2010). An Introduction to Second Temple Judaism: History and Religion of the Jews in the Time of Nehemiah, the Maccabees, Hillel, and Jesus. A&C Black. ISBN 978-0-567-55248-8. Archived from the original on 19 December 2023. Retrieved 18 December 2020. Schäfer, Peter (2003). The History of the Jews in the Greco-Roman World. Psychology Press. ISBN 978-0-415-30585-3.
Schwartz 2009, p. 14. Schwartz, Seth (2009). Imperialism and Jewish Society: 200 B.C.E. to 640 C.E. Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-1-4008-2485-4. Archived from the original on 19 December 2023. Retrieved 16 December 2020.
Schäfer 2003, p. 68. Schäfer, Peter (2003). The History of the Jews in the Greco-Roman World. Psychology Press. ISBN 978-0-415-30585-3.
Schwartz 2009, p. 38. Schwartz, Seth (2009). Imperialism and Jewish Society: 200 B.C.E. to 640 C.E. Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-1-4008-2485-4. Archived from the original on 19 December 2023. Retrieved 16 December 2020.
Magness 2012, p. 96; Schwartz 2009, p. 43; Schäfer 2003, p. 78 Magness, Jodi (2012). The Archaeology of the Holy Land: From the Destruction of Solomon's Temple to the Muslim Conquest. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-12413-3. Schwartz, Seth (2009). Imperialism and Jewish Society: 200 B.C.E. to 640 C.E. Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-1-4008-2485-4. Archived from the original on 19 December 2023. Retrieved 16 December 2020. Schäfer, Peter (2003). The History of the Jews in the Greco-Roman World. Psychology Press. ISBN 978-0-415-30585-3.
Schwartz 2009, p. 43: He then named Hyrcanus high priest (but not king; Sartre 2005, p. 41: Hyrcanos II was confirmed as high priest but denied a royal title Schwartz, Seth (2009). Imperialism and Jewish Society: 200 B.C.E. to 640 C.E. Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-1-4008-2485-4. Archived from the original on 19 December 2023. Retrieved 16 December 2020. Sartre, Maurice (2005). The Middle East Under Rome. Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-674-01683-5.
Sartre 2005, p. 41; Gabba 2008, p. 97: The re-establishment of the traditional aristocratic-religious government was a consequence of the reduction in territory of the Jewish state, which was now deprived of (a) the whole coastal zone, ..., together with the Hellenized cities ..., (b) western Idumaea with Marisa, (c) the city of Samaria, (d) the town of Gaba and the royal possessions in the plain of Esdraelon, (e) the Samaritan toparchies ..., (f) the five non-Jewish cities in the northern Transjordanian region, Sartre, Maurice (2005). The Middle East Under Rome. Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-674-01683-5. Gabba, Emilio (2008). "The social, economic and political history of Palestine 63 BCE – CE 70". In Davies, William David; Finkelstein, Louis; Horbury, William (eds.). The Cambridge History of Judaism: The early Roman period. Cambridge University Press. pp. 94–167. ISBN 978-0-521-24377-3.
Gabba 2008, p. 98. Gabba, Emilio (2008). "The social, economic and political history of Palestine 63 BCE – CE 70". In Davies, William David; Finkelstein, Louis; Horbury, William (eds.). The Cambridge History of Judaism: The early Roman period. Cambridge University Press. pp. 94–167. ISBN 978-0-521-24377-3.
Schwartz 2009, p. 43: He ... removed the Greek cities conquered by Alexander Yannai from Jewish rule, and restored their Greek constitutions. Sartre 2005, p. 42: Pompey restored damaged and destroyed cities everywhere. Above all, he guaranteed the independence of cities formerly occupied by the Hasmoneans; Butcher 2003, p. 112: Many of the cities further south had fallen under the influence of the Hasmoneans ... Pompey and his successors restored the "freedom" of the subject cities, ; Gabba 2008, p. 97: Pompey, and Gabinius after him, restored many of the liberated cities which the Hasmonaean kings had destroyed Schwartz, Seth (2009). Imperialism and Jewish Society: 200 B.C.E. to 640 C.E. Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-1-4008-2485-4. Archived from the original on 19 December 2023. Retrieved 16 December 2020. Sartre, Maurice (2005). The Middle East Under Rome. Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-674-01683-5. Butcher, Kevin (2003). Roman Syria and the Near East. Getty Publications. ISBN 978-0-89236-715-3. Gabba, Emilio (2008). "The social, economic and political history of Palestine 63 BCE – CE 70". In Davies, William David; Finkelstein, Louis; Horbury, William (eds.). The Cambridge History of Judaism: The early Roman period. Cambridge University Press. pp. 94–167. ISBN 978-0-521-24377-3.
Sartre 2005, p. 43. Sartre, Maurice (2005). The Middle East Under Rome. Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-674-01683-5.
Butcher 2003, p. 113: To commemorate their restoration they sometimes adopted the names of those governors who had honoured them, ; Sartre 2005, p. 43: a new era known as "Pompeian," an indication that the city-states considered Pompey's achievements, ..., as amounting to a rebirth. Chancey 2004, pp. 109–110: It did not take long after Rome's arrival ... for cities to acknowledge their new rulers on their coins. For some cities, this acknowledgment took the form of adopting a new dating system commemorating Rome's advent. ... a few cities renamed themselves after Roman officials. Butcher, Kevin (2003). Roman Syria and the Near East. Getty Publications. ISBN 978-0-89236-715-3. Sartre, Maurice (2005). The Middle East Under Rome. Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-674-01683-5. Chancey, Mark A. (2004). "City Coins and Roman Power in Palestine: from Pompey to the Great Revolt". In Edwards, Douglas R. (ed.). Religion and Society in Roman Palestine: Old Questions, New Approaches. Taylor & Francis. ISBN 978-0-203-40956-5. Archived from the original on 19 December 2023. Retrieved 19 December 2020.
Schwartz 2009, p. 43; Schäfer 2003, p. 87: In 40 BCE, there was a massive invasion by the Parthians Schwartz, Seth (2009). Imperialism and Jewish Society: 200 B.C.E. to 640 C.E. Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-1-4008-2485-4. Archived from the original on 19 December 2023. Retrieved 16 December 2020. Schäfer, Peter (2003). The History of the Jews in the Greco-Roman World. Psychology Press. ISBN 978-0-415-30585-3.
Schwartz 2009, p. 43; Meyers & Chancey 2012, p. 50: the Senate appointed him king of Judea before sending him back ... to seize Palestine Schwartz, Seth (2009). Imperialism and Jewish Society: 200 B.C.E. to 640 C.E. Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-1-4008-2485-4. Archived from the original on 19 December 2023. Retrieved 16 December 2020. Meyers, Eric M.; Chancey, Mark A. (2012). Alexander to Constantine: Archaeology of the Land of the Bible. Vol. III. Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-14179-5. Archived from the original on 19 December 2023. Retrieved 15 December 2020.
Schwartz 2009, p. 46: The other twin star of Herod's construction was Jerusalem, which was re-built from top to bottom. Schwartz, Seth (2009). Imperialism and Jewish Society: 200 B.C.E. to 640 C.E. Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-1-4008-2485-4. Archived from the original on 19 December 2023. Retrieved 16 December 2020.
Schwartz 2009, p. 46; Perowne 1999: His most grandiose creation was the Temple, which he wholly rebuilt. ... The great outer court, 35 acres (14 ha) (14 hectares) in extent, is still visible as Al-Ḥaram al-Sharīf. Grabbe 2010, p. 23: Yet the end product was for practical purposes a new temple, a magnificent structure which paled by comparison the previous temples. Schwartz, Seth (2009). Imperialism and Jewish Society: 200 B.C.E. to 640 C.E. Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-1-4008-2485-4. Archived from the original on 19 December 2023. Retrieved 16 December 2020. Perowne, Stewart Henry (1999). "Herod". Encyclopædia Britannica. Archived from the original on 25 June 2015. Retrieved 19 December 2020. Grabbe, Lester L. (2010). An Introduction to Second Temple Judaism: History and Religion of the Jews in the Time of Nehemiah, the Maccabees, Hillel, and Jesus. A&C Black. ISBN 978-0-567-55248-8. Archived from the original on 19 December 2023. Retrieved 18 December 2020.
Grabbe 2010, p. 23: the new temple became a major site of pilgrimage; Levine 2006, p. 25: This institution, which functioned as the center of Jewish sacrificial worship as well as the national bank and a tourist attraction, drew visitors from throughout the empire, Jewish as well as Gentile. Grabbe, Lester L. (2010). An Introduction to Second Temple Judaism: History and Religion of the Jews in the Time of Nehemiah, the Maccabees, Hillel, and Jesus. A&C Black. ISBN 978-0-567-55248-8. Archived from the original on 19 December 2023. Retrieved 18 December 2020. Levine, Amy-Jill, ed. (2006). The Historical Jesus in Context. Princeton University Press. ISBN 1-4008-2737-X. Archived from the original on 19 December 2023. Retrieved 27 December 2020.
Schwartz 2009, p. 46: the city ... became ... the main point of entry for the burgeoning Jewish pilgrim traffic Schwartz, Seth (2009). Imperialism and Jewish Society: 200 B.C.E. to 640 C.E. Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-1-4008-2485-4. Archived from the original on 19 December 2023. Retrieved 16 December 2020.
Lendering: Herod the Great; Schwartz 2009, p. 46 Lendering, Jona (10 October 2020). "Herod the Great". Livius. Archived from the original on 26 November 2020. Retrieved 19 December 2020. Schwartz, Seth (2009). Imperialism and Jewish Society: 200 B.C.E. to 640 C.E. Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-1-4008-2485-4. Archived from the original on 19 December 2023. Retrieved 16 December 2020.
Schwartz 2009, p. 46; Schäfer 2003, p. 98: Straton's Tower/Caesarea with its great harbour, which was of outstanding economic significance Schwartz, Seth (2009). Imperialism and Jewish Society: 200 B.C.E. to 640 C.E. Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-1-4008-2485-4. Archived from the original on 19 December 2023. Retrieved 16 December 2020. Schäfer, Peter (2003). The History of the Jews in the Greco-Roman World. Psychology Press. ISBN 978-0-415-30585-3.
Schäfer 2003, p. 99. Schäfer, Peter (2003). The History of the Jews in the Greco-Roman World. Psychology Press. ISBN 978-0-415-30585-3.
Schäfer 2003, p. 100: he appointed and dismissed the High Priests at his own discretion; Gabba 2008, p. 117: the position of High Priest, hereditary in the Hasmonaean family, was now conferred and withdrawn by the king for political reasons Schäfer, Peter (2003). The History of the Jews in the Greco-Roman World. Psychology Press. ISBN 978-0-415-30585-3. Gabba, Emilio (2008). "The social, economic and political history of Palestine 63 BCE – CE 70". In Davies, William David; Finkelstein, Louis; Horbury, William (eds.). The Cambridge History of Judaism: The early Roman period. Cambridge University Press. pp. 94–167. ISBN 978-0-521-24377-3.
Schäfer 2003, p. 98: Herod maintained excellent relations with his overlord ... Augustus rewarded the faithful vassal of Rome with ... the incorporation into Herod's kingdom of the large Transjordanian territories; Gabba 2008, p. 115: Herod received further territorial increases from Augustus in 23 with the territories of Trachonitis, Batanaea and Auranitis. Schäfer, Peter (2003). The History of the Jews in the Greco-Roman World. Psychology Press. ISBN 978-0-415-30585-3. Gabba, Emilio (2008). "The social, economic and political history of Palestine 63 BCE – CE 70". In Davies, William David; Finkelstein, Louis; Horbury, William (eds.). The Cambridge History of Judaism: The early Roman period. Cambridge University Press. pp. 94–167. ISBN 978-0-521-24377-3.
Grabbe 2010, p. 71. Grabbe, Lester L. (2010). An Introduction to Second Temple Judaism: History and Religion of the Jews in the Time of Nehemiah, the Maccabees, Hillel, and Jesus. A&C Black. ISBN 978-0-567-55248-8. Archived from the original on 19 December 2023. Retrieved 18 December 2020.
Schwartz 2009, p. 48. Schwartz, Seth (2009). Imperialism and Jewish Society: 200 B.C.E. to 640 C.E. Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-1-4008-2485-4. Archived from the original on 19 December 2023. Retrieved 16 December 2020.
Grabbe 2010, p. 25; Gabba 2008, p. 130: His ethnarchy was transformed into a Roman province of the equestrian rank; Shahin 2005, p. 7; Haensch 2010, p. 2: It was only after the expulsion of Archelaus in 6 CE that direct Roman rule was established in Judaea and Samaria. Grabbe, Lester L. (2010). An Introduction to Second Temple Judaism: History and Religion of the Jews in the Time of Nehemiah, the Maccabees, Hillel, and Jesus. A&C Black. ISBN 978-0-567-55248-8. Archived from the original on 19 December 2023. Retrieved 18 December 2020. Gabba, Emilio (2008). "The social, economic and political history of Palestine 63 BCE – CE 70". In Davies, William David; Finkelstein, Louis; Horbury, William (eds.). The Cambridge History of Judaism: The early Roman period. Cambridge University Press. pp. 94–167. ISBN 978-0-521-24377-3. Shahin, Mariam (2005). Palestine: A Guide. Interlink Books. ISBN 1-56656-557-X – via Internet Archive. Haensch, Rudolf (2010). "The Roman Provincial Administration". In Hezser, Catherine (ed.). The Oxford Handbook of Jewish Daily Life in Roman Palestine. OUP Oxford. pp. 1–13. ISBN 978-0-19-921643-7.
Gabba 2008, p. 150. Gabba, Emilio (2008). "The social, economic and political history of Palestine 63 BCE – CE 70". In Davies, William David; Finkelstein, Louis; Horbury, William (eds.). The Cambridge History of Judaism: The early Roman period. Cambridge University Press. pp. 94–167. ISBN 978-0-521-24377-3.
Gabba 2008, p. 155. Gabba, Emilio (2008). "The social, economic and political history of Palestine 63 BCE – CE 70". In Davies, William David; Finkelstein, Louis; Horbury, William (eds.). The Cambridge History of Judaism: The early Roman period. Cambridge University Press. pp. 94–167. ISBN 978-0-521-24377-3.
Gabba 2008, p. 152. Gabba, Emilio (2008). "The social, economic and political history of Palestine 63 BCE – CE 70". In Davies, William David; Finkelstein, Louis; Horbury, William (eds.). The Cambridge History of Judaism: The early Roman period. Cambridge University Press. pp. 94–167. ISBN 978-0-521-24377-3.
Gabba 2008, p. 152; Grabbe 2010, p. 74: It had been a century since the Hasmonaean kingdom had come to an end, but the Jewish Hasmonaean state was no doubt still firm in folk memory. Gabba, Emilio (2008). "The social, economic and political history of Palestine 63 BCE – CE 70". In Davies, William David; Finkelstein, Louis; Horbury, William (eds.). The Cambridge History of Judaism: The early Roman period. Cambridge University Press. pp. 94–167. ISBN 978-0-521-24377-3. Grabbe, Lester L. (2010). An Introduction to Second Temple Judaism: History and Religion of the Jews in the Time of Nehemiah, the Maccabees, Hillel, and Jesus. A&C Black. ISBN 978-0-567-55248-8. Archived from the original on 19 December 2023. Retrieved 18 December 2020.
Zissu 2018, p. 19. Zissu, Boaz (2018). "Interbellum Judea 70–132 CE: An Archaeological Perspective". In Schwartz, Joshua J; Tomson, Peter J. (eds.). Jews and Christians in the First and Second Centuries: The Interbellum 70‒132 CE. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill. pp. 19–49. ISBN 978-90-04-34986-5. OCLC 988856967. Archived from the original on 11 May 2023. Retrieved 21 March 2023.
Goldenberg 2008, p. 194. Goldenberg, Robert (2008). "The Destruction of the Jerusalem Temple: its Meaning and its Consequences". In Katz, Steven T. (ed.). The Cambridge History of Judaism: Volume 4, The Late Roman-Rabbinic Period. Cambridge University Press. pp. 191–205. ISBN 978-0-521-77248-8.
Schäfer 2003, p. 150: So, according to Pseudo-Spartianus, the Jews started the revolt because they had been forbidden to practice circumcision. Lewin 2005, p. 32: Hadrian had in fact ordered the prohibition on circumcision; Meyers & Chancey 2012, p. 167; Eshel 2008, p. 106 Schäfer, Peter (2003). The History of the Jews in the Greco-Roman World. Psychology Press. ISBN 978-0-415-30585-3. Lewin, Ariel (2005). The Archaeology of Ancient Judea and Palestine. Getty Publications. ISBN 978-0-89236-800-6. Archived from the original on 19 December 2023. Retrieved 23 December 2020. Meyers, Eric M.; Chancey, Mark A. (2012). Alexander to Constantine: Archaeology of the Land of the Bible. Vol. III. Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-14179-5. Archived from the original on 19 December 2023. Retrieved 15 December 2020. Eshel, Hanan (2008). "The Bar Kochba Revolt, 132–135". In Katz, Steven T. (ed.). The Cambridge History of Judaism: Volume 4, The Late Roman-Rabbinic Period. Cambridge University Press. pp. 105–127. ISBN 978-0-521-77248-8. Archived from the original on 19 December 2023. Retrieved 24 December 2020.
Schäfer 2003, p. 159: Jerusalem was still in ruin Schäfer, Peter (2003). The History of the Jews in the Greco-Roman World. Psychology Press. ISBN 978-0-415-30585-3.
Meyers & Chancey 2012, p. 167; Eshel 2008, p. 106; Schäfer 2003, p. 150: The historian Dio Cassius ... states ... that the reason for the war was Hadrian's intention to refound the city of Jerusalem as a Roman colony ... containing a new, pagan temple. Lewin 2005, p. 32: he also gave orders that a colony to be called Aelia Capitolina ... be founded on the soil of Jerusalem. A grand temple to Zeus was to be built on the ruins of the Jewish Temple. Meyers, Eric M.; Chancey, Mark A. (2012). Alexander to Constantine: Archaeology of the Land of the Bible. Vol. III. Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-14179-5. Archived from the original on 19 December 2023. Retrieved 15 December 2020. Eshel, Hanan (2008). "The Bar Kochba Revolt, 132–135". In Katz, Steven T. (ed.). The Cambridge History of Judaism: Volume 4, The Late Roman-Rabbinic Period. Cambridge University Press. pp. 105–127. ISBN 978-0-521-77248-8. Archived from the original on 19 December 2023. Retrieved 24 December 2020. Schäfer, Peter (2003). The History of the Jews in the Greco-Roman World. Psychology Press. ISBN 978-0-415-30585-3. Lewin, Ariel (2005). The Archaeology of Ancient Judea and Palestine. Getty Publications. ISBN 978-0-89236-800-6. Archived from the original on 19 December 2023. Retrieved 23 December 2020.
Lewin 2005, p. 33. Lewin, Ariel (2005). The Archaeology of Ancient Judea and Palestine. Getty Publications. ISBN 978-0-89236-800-6. Archived from the original on 19 December 2023. Retrieved 23 December 2020.
Schäfer 2003, p. 163: The entire spiritual and economic life of the Palestinian Jews moved to Galilee. Meyers & Chancey 2012, p. 173: Galilee became the all-important focus of Jewish life Schäfer, Peter (2003). The History of the Jews in the Greco-Roman World. Psychology Press. ISBN 978-0-415-30585-3. Meyers, Eric M.; Chancey, Mark A. (2012). Alexander to Constantine: Archaeology of the Land of the Bible. Vol. III. Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-14179-5. Archived from the original on 19 December 2023. Retrieved 15 December 2020.
Meyers & Chancey 2012, p. 169. Meyers, Eric M.; Chancey, Mark A. (2012). Alexander to Constantine: Archaeology of the Land of the Bible. Vol. III. Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-14179-5. Archived from the original on 19 December 2023. Retrieved 15 December 2020.
Taylor 2012. Taylor, Joan E. (2012). The Essenes, the Scrolls, and the Dead Sea. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-955448-5. Archived from the original on 19 December 2023. Retrieved 16 February 2022. Up until this date the Bar Kokhba documents indicate that towns, villages and ports where Jews lived were busy with industry and activity. Afterwards there is an eerie silence, and the archaeological record testifies to little Jewish presence until the Byzantine era, in En Gedi. This picture coheres with what we have already determined in Part I of this study, that the crucial date for what can only be described as genocide, and the devastation of Jews and Judaism within central Judea, was 135 CE and not, as usually assumed, 70 CE, despite the siege of Jerusalem and the Temple's destruction
Lewin 2005, p. 33: It seems clear that by choosing a seemingly neutral name ... of an ancient geographical entity (Palestine), ... Hadrian was intending to suppress any connection between the Jewish people and that land. Safrai 1976, p. 334: In an effort to wipe out all memory of the bond between the Jews and the land Lewin, Ariel (2005). The Archaeology of Ancient Judea and Palestine. Getty Publications. ISBN 978-0-89236-800-6. Archived from the original on 19 December 2023. Retrieved 23 December 2020. Safrai, Schmuel (1976). "The Jews in the Land of Israel (70–335)". In Ben-Sasson, H. H. (ed.). A History of the Jewish People. Harvard University Press. pp. 314–342. ISBN 978-0-674-39731-6. Archived from the original on 19 January 2023. Retrieved 23 December 2020.
Seligman 2017, p. 116. Seligman, Jon (2017). "'Absence of Evidence' or 'Evidence of Absence' Was Jerusalem the Legionary Camp and Where Was Civilian Aelia Capitolina?". In Avni, Gideon; Stiebel, Guy (eds.). Roman Jerusalem: A New Old City. Journal of Roman Archaeology. pp. 107–116. ISBN 978-0-9913730-9-3. Archived from the original on 19 December 2023. Retrieved 24 December 2020.
Schäfer 2003, p. 163. Schäfer, Peter (2003). The History of the Jews in the Greco-Roman World. Psychology Press. ISBN 978-0-415-30585-3.
Schwartz 2016, p. 248. Schwartz, Seth (2016). "The Impact of the Jewish Rebellions, 66–135 CE: Destruction or Provincialization?". Revolt and Resistance in the Ancient Classical World and the Near East: In the Crucible of Empire. Brill. pp. 234–252. ISBN 978-90-04-33018-4. Archived from the original on 19 December 2023. Retrieved 17 December 2020.
Britannica: Palestine – Roman Palestine: Although this ban was officially still in force as late as the 4th century CE, there is some evidence that from the Severan period onward (after 193) Jews visited the city more frequently, especially at certain festival times, and even that there may have been some Jews in residence. Seligman 2017, p. 114: there seems to have been a slow trickle into the city over subsequent centuries, although the actual numbers probably remained rather insignificant. Towards the beginning of the 4th c., sources identify a synagogue in Jerusalem "Palestine – Roman Palestine". Encyclopædia Britannica. Archived from the original on 30 October 2023. Retrieved 24 December 2020. Seligman, Jon (2017). "'Absence of Evidence' or 'Evidence of Absence' Was Jerusalem the Legionary Camp and Where Was Civilian Aelia Capitolina?". In Avni, Gideon; Stiebel, Guy (eds.). Roman Jerusalem: A New Old City. Journal of Roman Archaeology. pp. 107–116. ISBN 978-0-9913730-9-3. Archived from the original on 19 December 2023. Retrieved 24 December 2020.
Dignas & Winter 2007, p. 161. Dignas, Beate; Winter, Engelbert (2007) [First published 2001]. Rome and Persia in Late Antiquity: Neighbours and Rivals. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-84925-8. Archived from the original on 19 December 2023. Retrieved 25 December 2020.
Britannica: Jesus – The Jewish religion in the 1st century: there were three small but important religious parties that differed from each other in several ways: the Pharisees (numbering about 6,000 at the time of Herod), Essenes (about 4,000), and Sadducees ("a few men," according to Flavius Josephus, in The Antiquities of the Jews 18.17) ... Although the vast majority of Jews did not belong to a party, the study of these parties reveals the substantial variety within the general framework of Judaism. Schwartz 2009, p. 91: Though Josephus speaks of three (and in one polemical passage of four) sects, it seems certain that there were many more sectarian groups in first-century Palestine. "Jesus – The Jewish religion in the 1st century". Encyclopædia Britannica. Archived from the original on 11 December 2020. Retrieved 27 December 2020. Schwartz, Seth (2009). Imperialism and Jewish Society: 200 B.C.E. to 640 C.E. Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-1-4008-2485-4. Archived from the original on 19 December 2023. Retrieved 16 December 2020.
Grabbe 2010, p. 40. Grabbe, Lester L. (2010). An Introduction to Second Temple Judaism: History and Religion of the Jews in the Time of Nehemiah, the Maccabees, Hillel, and Jesus. A&C Black. ISBN 978-0-567-55248-8. Archived from the original on 19 December 2023. Retrieved 18 December 2020.
Schäfer 2003, p. 170: The dissolution of a society dominated by cult and priest; Grabbe 2010, p. 40: temple worship went back many centuries; Neusner 2003, p. 12: When the temple was destroyed, ..., the foundations of the country's religious-cultural life were destroyed. Schäfer 2003, pp. 136–137: a second very important state and religious institution was also affected: the Synhedrion. ... It was headed by the High Priest and, ... was undoubtedly dominated largely by the aristocratic and economically influential Sadducee families. With the destruction of Jerusalem and the Temple, the administrative authority of the Synhedrion and the Sadducee "party" also disappeared. Grabbe 2010, pp. 26–27: Those sections of Judaism which had their base in the temple dwindled in importance: the priesthood and probably the Sadducees (2.7). Schäfer, Peter (2003). The History of the Jews in the Greco-Roman World. Psychology Press. ISBN 978-0-415-30585-3. Grabbe, Lester L. (2010). An Introduction to Second Temple Judaism: History and Religion of the Jews in the Time of Nehemiah, the Maccabees, Hillel, and Jesus. A&C Black. ISBN 978-0-567-55248-8. Archived from the original on 19 December 2023. Retrieved 18 December 2020. Neusner, Jacob (2003). Understanding Rabbinic Judaism: From Talmudic to Modern Times. Wipf and Stock Publishers. ISBN 978-1-59244-213-3. Archived from the original on 19 December 2023. Retrieved 28 December 2020. Schäfer, Peter (2003). The History of the Jews in the Greco-Roman World. Psychology Press. ISBN 978-0-415-30585-3. Grabbe, Lester L. (2010). An Introduction to Second Temple Judaism: History and Religion of the Jews in the Time of Nehemiah, the Maccabees, Hillel, and Jesus. A&C Black. ISBN 978-0-567-55248-8. Archived from the original on 19 December 2023. Retrieved 18 December 2020.
Kimelman 2008, p. 573: Nonetheless, all agree to some extent that from tannaitic (70–220 CE) to amoraic times (220–500 CE) there occurred a "templization of the synagogue" and "a sacrificization of prayer."; Zucker 2005, p. 133: verbal prayer and study replaced the cult of ... sacrifice; Allen 2013, p. 75: the study of Scripture and Talmud replace the actual temple after its destruction Kimelman, Reuven (2008). "Rabbinic Prayer in Late Antiquity". In Katz, Steven T. (ed.). The Cambridge History of Judaism: Volume 4, The Late Roman-Rabbinic Period. Cambridge University Press. pp. 573–611. ISBN 978-0-521-77248-8. Archived from the original on 19 December 2023. Retrieved 24 December 2020. Zucker, David J. (2005). The Torah: An Introduction for Christians and Jews. Paulist Press. ISBN 978-0-8091-4349-8. Allen, Joel S. (2013). Jewish Biblical Legends: Rabbinic Wisdom for Christian Readers. Wipf and Stock Publishers. ISBN 978-1-62189-890-0. Archived from the original on 19 December 2023. Retrieved 30 December 2020.
Goldenberg 2008, p. 201: the rabbinic redesign of Judaism; Schäfer 2003, p. 137: the moderate wing of the Pharisees, who went down in history as "rabbis" and who was to be the major formative influence on Judaism over the following centuries. Goldenberg, Robert (2008). "The Destruction of the Jerusalem Temple: its Meaning and its Consequences". In Katz, Steven T. (ed.). The Cambridge History of Judaism: Volume 4, The Late Roman-Rabbinic Period. Cambridge University Press. pp. 191–205. ISBN 978-0-521-77248-8. Schäfer, Peter (2003). The History of the Jews in the Greco-Roman World. Psychology Press. ISBN 978-0-415-30585-3.
Scheindlin 2000, p. 62: the Babylonian Talmud, compiled around 499 CE. Scheindlin, Raymond P. (2000). A Short History of the Jewish People: From Legendary Times to Modern Statehood. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-513941-9. Archived from the original on 19 December 2023. Retrieved 30 December 2020.
Köstenberger, Kellum & Quarles 2016, p. 929: Christians abhorred the imperial cult as idolatry Köstenberger, Andreas J.; Kellum, L. Scott; Quarles, Charles L (2016). The Cradle, the Cross, and the Crown: An Introduction to the New Testament. B&H Publishing Group. ISBN 978-1-4336-8401-2. Archived from the original on 19 December 2023. Retrieved 31 December 2020.
Gaddis 1999, p. 29. Gaddis, Michael (1999). There is No Crime for Those who Have Christ: Religious Violence in the Christian Roman Empire. Princeton University. ISBN 978-0-520-24104-6. Archived from the original on 19 December 2023. Retrieved 5 January 2021.
Middleton 2015, p. 937. Middleton, John (2015). World Monarchies and Dynasties. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-317-45158-7.
Mitchell 2014, p. 242. Mitchell, Stephen (2014). A History of the Later Roman Empire, AD 284–641. Wiley. ISBN 978-1-118-34106-3.
Middleton 2015, p. 211: the first Roman ruler to be converted to Christianity Middleton, John (2015). World Monarchies and Dynasties. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-317-45158-7.
Middleton 2015, p. 212: Viewing the Christian God as responsible for his victory Middleton, John (2015). World Monarchies and Dynasties. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-317-45158-7.
McGuckin 2008, p. 614. McGuckin, John (2008). "Monasticism and Monasteries". In Jeffreys, Elizabeth; Haldon, John F.; Cormack, Robin (eds.). The Oxford Handbook of Byzantine Studies. Oxford University Press. pp. 611–620. ISBN 978-0-19-925246-6.
Shahin 2005, p. 8: Thus Palestine became the world's greatest pilgrimage site. It became the center for ascetic life for men and women from all over the world, who came to the Palestinian wilderness to become hermits. Soon it was dotted with monasteries, many of which can still be visited today. They include St. George Monastery in Wadi al-Qilt, Deir Quruntul and Deir Hijle next to Jericho, and Deir Mar Saba and Deir Theodosius east of Bethlehem, as well as the remains of many others in the Negev and Gaza. Masalha 2018, p. 99 Shahin, Mariam (2005). Palestine: A Guide. Interlink Books. ISBN 1-56656-557-X – via Internet Archive. Masalha, Nur (2018). Palestine: A Four Thousand Year History. Bloomsbury Academic. ISBN 978-1-78699-274-1.
Masalha 2018, p. 110: This decree of elevating the Palestine Church led to the Church of Aelia Capitolina not only becoming an independent Patriarchate, but also to becoming ... one of the five Patriarchates of Christendom, ... the five major Patriarchs of the empire: Constantinople, Rome, Alexandria, Antioch and Aelia Capitolina. Horn & Phenix 2008, p. lxxxviii: Council of Chalcedon ..., at which Jerusalem was granted the status of patriarchate; Britannica: Palestine – Roman Palestine: Juvenal, bishop of Jerusalem from 421 to 458 ... was recognized by the Council of Chalcedon (451) as patriarch of the three provinces of Palestine. Masalha, Nur (2018). Palestine: A Four Thousand Year History. Bloomsbury Academic. ISBN 978-1-78699-274-1. Horn, Cornelia B.; Phenix, Robert R. Jr. (2008). The Lives of Peter the Iberian, Theodosius of Jerusalem, and the Monk Romanus. Society of Biblical Lit. ISBN 978-1-58983-200-8. Archived from the original on 19 December 2023. Retrieved 7 January 2021. "Palestine – Roman Palestine". Encyclopædia Britannica. Archived from the original on 30 October 2023. Retrieved 24 December 2020.
Masalha 2018, p. 111. Masalha, Nur (2018). Palestine: A Four Thousand Year History. Bloomsbury Academic. ISBN 978-1-78699-274-1.
Schwartz 2009, p. 214: In sum, it is not unlikely that late antiquity was a period of unprecedented prosperity in Palestine, as in Syria. Masalha 2018, p. 99: The Christian era of Byzantine Palestine ..., was an extraordinary time of cultural flourishing and of great expansion and prosperity in Late Antiquity. Lewin 2005, p. 41: Palaestina reached a peak of prosperity in the late fifth and early sixth century Schwartz, Seth (2009). Imperialism and Jewish Society: 200 B.C.E. to 640 C.E. Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-1-4008-2485-4. Archived from the original on 19 December 2023. Retrieved 16 December 2020. Masalha, Nur (2018). Palestine: A Four Thousand Year History. Bloomsbury Academic. ISBN 978-1-78699-274-1. Lewin, Ariel (2005). The Archaeology of Ancient Judea and Palestine. Getty Publications. ISBN 978-0-89236-800-6. Archived from the original on 19 December 2023. Retrieved 23 December 2020.
Masalha 2018, p. 99: New areas were brought under cultivation, urban development increased Masalha, Nur (2018). Palestine: A Four Thousand Year History. Bloomsbury Academic. ISBN 978-1-78699-274-1.
Lewin 2005, p. 41. Lewin, Ariel (2005). The Archaeology of Ancient Judea and Palestine. Getty Publications. ISBN 978-0-89236-800-6. Archived from the original on 19 December 2023. Retrieved 23 December 2020.
Masalha 2018, p. 40: the diverse population of the "Three Palestines" may have reached as many as one and a half million. Goodblatt 2008, p. 406: the country reached its highest population density ever (until the twentieth century) precisely in the Byzantine period. Masalha, Nur (2018). Palestine: A Four Thousand Year History. Bloomsbury Academic. ISBN 978-1-78699-274-1. Goodblatt, David (2008). "The political and social history of the Jewish community in the Land of Israel, c. 235–638". In Katz, Steven T. (ed.). The Cambridge History of Judaism: Volume 4, The Late Roman-Rabbinic Period. Cambridge University Press. pp. 404–430. ISBN 978-0-521-77248-8. Archived from the original on 19 December 2023. Retrieved 24 December 2020.
Masalha 2018, pp. 40–41. Masalha, Nur (2018). Palestine: A Four Thousand Year History. Bloomsbury Academic. ISBN 978-1-78699-274-1.
Kazhdan 1991, p. 1563, Palestine. Kazhdan, Aleksandr Petrovich (1991). The Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-504652-6. Archived from the original on 19 December 2023. Retrieved 8 January 2021.
Britannica: Vulgate; Masalha 2018, p. 49: St Jerome relocated physically to Judaea in Provincia Palaestina while working on the Vulgate translation. Jerome, ... was the first person to ... translate the Old Testament from Hebrew rather than from the Septuagint "Vulgate". Encyclopædia Britannica. Archived from the original on 13 March 2022. Retrieved 8 January 2021. Masalha, Nur (2018). Palestine: A Four Thousand Year History. Bloomsbury Academic. ISBN 978-1-78699-274-1.
Masalha 2018, p. 49. Masalha, Nur (2018). Palestine: A Four Thousand Year History. Bloomsbury Academic. ISBN 978-1-78699-274-1.
Hughes 2020, p. 15; Harries 2012, p. 50: Diocletian sought to head off potential threats to his personal security but he also saw the potential for improving efficiency by operating through smaller provincial units. Larger provinces were therefore divided, on an ad hoc basis, into smaller entities, each with its own provincial governor, usually called a praeses – but in Italy a corrector, later a consularis – and administrative capital. Hughes, Ian (2020). A Military Life of Constantine the Great. Pen and Sword Military. ISBN 978-1-5267-2426-7. Harries, Jill (2012). Imperial Rome AD 284 to 363: The New Empire. Edinburgh University Press. ISBN 978-0-7486-2052-4. Archived from the original on 19 December 2023. Retrieved 2 January 2021.
Harries 2012, p. 51. Harries, Jill (2012). Imperial Rome AD 284 to 363: The New Empire. Edinburgh University Press. ISBN 978-0-7486-2052-4. Archived from the original on 19 December 2023. Retrieved 2 January 2021.
Lewis 2011, p. 155. Lewis, Bernard (2011). Islam in History: Ideas, People, and Events in the Middle East. Open Court. ISBN 978-0-8126-9757-5. Archived from the original on 19 December 2023. Retrieved 2 January 2021.
Lewis 2011, p. 155; Britannica: Palestine – Roman Palestine: At the end of the 4th century, an enlarged Palestine was divided into three provinces: Prima, with its capital at Caesarea; Secunda, with its capital at Scythopolis (Bet Sheʾan); and Salutaris, with its capital at Petra or possibly for a time at Elusa. Shahin 2005, p. 8 Lewis, Bernard (2011). Islam in History: Ideas, People, and Events in the Middle East. Open Court. ISBN 978-0-8126-9757-5. Archived from the original on 19 December 2023. Retrieved 2 January 2021. "Palestine – Roman Palestine". Encyclopædia Britannica. Archived from the original on 30 October 2023. Retrieved 24 December 2020. Shahin, Mariam (2005). Palestine: A Guide. Interlink Books. ISBN 1-56656-557-X – via Internet Archive.
Goodblatt 2008, p. 406. Goodblatt, David (2008). "The political and social history of the Jewish community in the Land of Israel, c. 235–638". In Katz, Steven T. (ed.). The Cambridge History of Judaism: Volume 4, The Late Roman-Rabbinic Period. Cambridge University Press. pp. 404–430. ISBN 978-0-521-77248-8. Archived from the original on 19 December 2023. Retrieved 24 December 2020.
Goodblatt 2008, pp. 407–410. Goodblatt, David (2008). "The political and social history of the Jewish community in the Land of Israel, c. 235–638". In Katz, Steven T. (ed.). The Cambridge History of Judaism: Volume 4, The Late Roman-Rabbinic Period. Cambridge University Press. pp. 404–430. ISBN 978-0-521-77248-8. Archived from the original on 19 December 2023. Retrieved 24 December 2020.
Goodblatt 2008, pp. 407–408. Goodblatt, David (2008). "The political and social history of the Jewish community in the Land of Israel, c. 235–638". In Katz, Steven T. (ed.). The Cambridge History of Judaism: Volume 4, The Late Roman-Rabbinic Period. Cambridge University Press. pp. 404–430. ISBN 978-0-521-77248-8. Archived from the original on 19 December 2023. Retrieved 24 December 2020.
Goodblatt 2008, p. 407. Goodblatt, David (2008). "The political and social history of the Jewish community in the Land of Israel, c. 235–638". In Katz, Steven T. (ed.). The Cambridge History of Judaism: Volume 4, The Late Roman-Rabbinic Period. Cambridge University Press. pp. 404–430. ISBN 978-0-521-77248-8. Archived from the original on 19 December 2023. Retrieved 24 December 2020.
Goodblatt 2008, p. 409. Goodblatt, David (2008). "The political and social history of the Jewish community in the Land of Israel, c. 235–638". In Katz, Steven T. (ed.). The Cambridge History of Judaism: Volume 4, The Late Roman-Rabbinic Period. Cambridge University Press. pp. 404–430. ISBN 978-0-521-77248-8. Archived from the original on 19 December 2023. Retrieved 24 December 2020.
Goodblatt 2008, p. 410. Goodblatt, David (2008). "The political and social history of the Jewish community in the Land of Israel, c. 235–638". In Katz, Steven T. (ed.). The Cambridge History of Judaism: Volume 4, The Late Roman-Rabbinic Period. Cambridge University Press. pp. 404–430. ISBN 978-0-521-77248-8. Archived from the original on 19 December 2023. Retrieved 24 December 2020.
Lewin 2005, pp. 36–38: In 351, there was a rebellion in Palestine, ... Its epicenter was Sepphoris, but it also affected Diospolis. Schäfer 2003, p. 186: In 351, ... a local Jewish revolt seems to have broken out in Palestine, but little information on this has come down to us. Goodblatt 2008, pp. 410–411; Britannica: Palestine – Roman Palestine Lewin, Ariel (2005). The Archaeology of Ancient Judea and Palestine. Getty Publications. ISBN 978-0-89236-800-6. Archived from the original on 19 December 2023. Retrieved 23 December 2020. Schäfer, Peter (2003). The History of the Jews in the Greco-Roman World. Psychology Press. ISBN 978-0-415-30585-3. Goodblatt, David (2008). "The political and social history of the Jewish community in the Land of Israel, c. 235–638". In Katz, Steven T. (ed.). The Cambridge History of Judaism: Volume 4, The Late Roman-Rabbinic Period. Cambridge University Press. pp. 404–430. ISBN 978-0-521-77248-8. Archived from the original on 19 December 2023. Retrieved 24 December 2020. "Palestine – Roman Palestine". Encyclopædia Britannica. Archived from the original on 30 October 2023. Retrieved 24 December 2020.
Pummer 2016, p. 135: Due to the scant sources, the motives of the uprising are unknown as are the consequences, and it is not even certain that there was a Jewish revolt. Goodblatt 2008, pp. 410–413 Pummer, Reinhard (2016). The Samaritans: A Profile. Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing. pp. 132–. ISBN 978-0-8028-6768-1. Goodblatt, David (2008). "The political and social history of the Jewish community in the Land of Israel, c. 235–638". In Katz, Steven T. (ed.). The Cambridge History of Judaism: Volume 4, The Late Roman-Rabbinic Period. Cambridge University Press. pp. 404–430. ISBN 978-0-521-77248-8. Archived from the original on 19 December 2023. Retrieved 24 December 2020.
Fredriksen & Irshai 2008, p. 1003. Fredriksen, Paula; Irshai, Oded (2008). "Christian anti-Judaism: polemics and policies". In Katz, Steven T. (ed.). The Cambridge History of Judaism: Volume 4, The Late Roman-Rabbinic Period. Cambridge University Press. pp. 997–1034. ISBN 978-0-521-77248-8. Archived from the original on 19 December 2023. Retrieved 24 December 2020.
Browning 1976, p. 176: It was not so much a matter of favouring the Jews ... as of demonstrating by concrete example the falsity of the Bible. Several passages in the gospels ... were usually interpreted as prophecies that the temple would never be rebuilt. Neusner 2008, p. 21: Christians had long cited the destruction of the Temple of Jerusalem as proof of the prophetic powers of Jesus, who, in Christian record, had predicted the matter before it happened. Browning, Robert (1976). The Emperor Julian. University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-03731-1. Archived from the original on 19 December 2023. Retrieved 3 January 2021. Neusner, Jacob (2008). Judaism and Christianity in the Age of Constantine: History, Messiah, Israel, and the Initial Confrontation. University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0-226-57647-3.
Fredriksen & Irshai 2008, p. 1004: Julian died while on a campaign in 363 before much could come of his efforts. His successor Jovian, a ..., promptly restored orthodox bishops to their privileged position. Neusner 2008, p. 22: Julian's successors dismantled all of his programs and restored the privileges the Church had lost Fredriksen, Paula; Irshai, Oded (2008). "Christian anti-Judaism: polemics and policies". In Katz, Steven T. (ed.). The Cambridge History of Judaism: Volume 4, The Late Roman-Rabbinic Period. Cambridge University Press. pp. 997–1034. ISBN 978-0-521-77248-8. Archived from the original on 19 December 2023. Retrieved 24 December 2020. Neusner, Jacob (2008). Judaism and Christianity in the Age of Constantine: History, Messiah, Israel, and the Initial Confrontation. University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0-226-57647-3.
Gil 1997, pp. 3–4. Gil, Moshe (1997). A History of Palestine, 634–1099. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-59984-9.
Janin 2015, p. 65. Janin, Hunt (2015). Four Paths to Jerusalem: Jewish, Christian, Muslim, and Secular Pilgrimages, 1000 BCE to 2001 CE. McFarland. ISBN 978-1-4766-0880-8. Archived from the original on 19 December 2023. Retrieved 8 January 2021.
Gil 1997, p. 3: The stories of Bar-Sawma: Nau, ROC, 18 (1913), 19(1914); REJ, 83(1927); and Honigmann, Le couvent, Louvain 1954, 17f, who thinks that the stories of Bar-Sawma are not credible, certainly with regard to the Jews mentioned there; he sees them as figments of the author's imagination, as he lived 100 years later. Hahn & Menze 2020, pp. 94–96 Gil, Moshe (1997). A History of Palestine, 634–1099. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-59984-9. Hahn, Johannes; Menze, Volker (2020). The Wandering Holy Man: The Life of Barsauma, Christian Asceticism, and Religious Conflict in Late Antique Palestine. Univ of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-30414-7. Archived from the original on 19 December 2023. Retrieved 4 January 2021.
Masalha 2018, p. 136: The Ghassanid Arabs ... were the biggest Arab group in Palestine. Masalha, Nur (2018). Palestine: A Four Thousand Year History. Bloomsbury Academic. ISBN 978-1-78699-274-1.
Masalha 2018, p. 136: in the early 3rd century from the Arabian Peninsula to Palestine and the southern Levant region Masalha, Nur (2018). Palestine: A Four Thousand Year History. Bloomsbury Academic. ISBN 978-1-78699-274-1.
Masalha 2018, pp. 137–140. Masalha, Nur (2018). Palestine: A Four Thousand Year History. Bloomsbury Academic. ISBN 978-1-78699-274-1.
Chancey 2005, p. 62: In 106, the Romans annexed the Nabatean territory, apparently without bloodshed. They reorganized it as the province of Arabia; Butcher 2003, p. 84 Chancey, Mark A. (2005). Greco-Roman Culture and the Galilee of Jesus. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-139-44798-0. Archived from the original on 19 December 2023. Retrieved 22 December 2020. Butcher, Kevin (2003). Roman Syria and the Near East. Getty Publications. ISBN 978-0-89236-715-3.
Lawler 2011, p. 220. Lawler, Jennifer (2011). Encyclopedia of the Byzantine Empire. McFarland. ISBN 978-0-7864-6616-0. Archived from the original on 19 December 2023. Retrieved 7 January 2021.
Gzella 2015, p. 242. Gzella, Holger (2015). A Cultural History of Aramaic: From the Beginnings to the Advent of Islam. Brill. ISBN 978-90-04-28510-1. Archived from the original on 19 December 2023. Retrieved 7 January 2021.
Taylor 2002, p. 213. Taylor, Jane (2002). Petra and the Lost Kingdom of the Nabataeans. Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-674-00849-6. Archived from the original on 19 December 2023. Retrieved 7 January 2021.
Pummer 2016, p. 139; Sivan 2008, pp. 117–118 Pummer, Reinhard (2016). The Samaritans: A Profile. Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing. pp. 132–. ISBN 978-0-8028-6768-1. Sivan, Hagith (2008). Palestine in Late Antiquity. OUP Oxford. ISBN 978-0-19-160867-4.
Pummer 2016, p. 139; Sivan 2008, p. 119: Zeno punished those responsible for the bishop's mutilation and banished all Samaritans from Mount Gerizim, ... He ordered the erection of a church honouring Mary on top of the mountain. Pummer, Reinhard (2016). The Samaritans: A Profile. Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing. pp. 132–. ISBN 978-0-8028-6768-1. Sivan, Hagith (2008). Palestine in Late Antiquity. OUP Oxford. ISBN 978-0-19-160867-4.
Pummer 2016, p. 140; Lewin 2005, p. 41: Another important Samaritan uprising took place in 529, ; Sivan 2008, p. 125 Pummer, Reinhard (2016). The Samaritans: A Profile. Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing. pp. 132–. ISBN 978-0-8028-6768-1. Lewin, Ariel (2005). The Archaeology of Ancient Judea and Palestine. Getty Publications. ISBN 978-0-89236-800-6. Archived from the original on 19 December 2023. Retrieved 23 December 2020. Sivan, Hagith (2008). Palestine in Late Antiquity. OUP Oxford. ISBN 978-0-19-160867-4.
Shahid 2002, p. 364. Shahid, Irfan (2002). Byzantium and the Arabs in the Sixth Century. Vol. II. Dumbarton Oaks. ISBN 978-0-88402-214-5.
Pummer 2016, p. 140; Lewin 2005, p. 41 Pummer, Reinhard (2016). The Samaritans: A Profile. Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing. pp. 132–. ISBN 978-0-8028-6768-1. Lewin, Ariel (2005). The Archaeology of Ancient Judea and Palestine. Getty Publications. ISBN 978-0-89236-800-6. Archived from the original on 19 December 2023. Retrieved 23 December 2020.
Pummer 2016, p. 140. Pummer, Reinhard (2016). The Samaritans: A Profile. Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing. pp. 132–. ISBN 978-0-8028-6768-1.
Pummer 2016, p. 141: The result of the oppressive legislation by the Byzantine authorities and the rebellions ... was that at the end of the Byzantine period the Samaritans were left diminshed in numbers; Masalha 2018, p. 146: However, the Samaritan revolts during the 5th and 6th centuries in Palaestina Prima were marked by great ... and their brutal suppression at the hands of the Byzantines and their Ghassanid Arab allies ... contributed to ... making the Christians the dominant group in the province of Palaestina Prima for many decades. Pummer, Reinhard (2016). The Samaritans: A Profile. Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing. pp. 132–. ISBN 978-0-8028-6768-1. Masalha, Nur (2018). Palestine: A Four Thousand Year History. Bloomsbury Academic. ISBN 978-1-78699-274-1.
Schäfer 2003, p. 195: the Jews appear to have risked an open revolt ... and to have allied themselves with the Persians. Jewish requests for (above all) the return of Jerusalem met with a positive response from the Persians; Magness 2012, p. 322: The Sasanids were aided by the local Jewish population, who had suffered under Byzantine Christian rule and hoped for permission to rebuild the Jerusalem temple. Schäfer, Peter (2003). The History of the Jews in the Greco-Roman World. Psychology Press. ISBN 978-0-415-30585-3. Magness, Jodi (2012). The Archaeology of the Holy Land: From the Destruction of Solomon's Temple to the Muslim Conquest. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-12413-3.
Mitchell 2014, p. 452: Caesarea Maritima, ..., and, ..., Jerusalem, fell to the Persians in 614. ... huge numbers of Jerusalem's Christian population were slaughtered ..., and the relic of the Cross itself was removed as a trophy; Haldon 2002, p. 2: in 614 Jerusalem fell – the church of the Holy Sepulchre was destroyed and the relic of the Cross taken; Reinik 2002, pp. 81–82: the bloody sack and destruction of Jerusalem in 614, including the loss of the relic of the True Cross; Schäfer 2003, p. 195: The Persians conquered Jerusalem ... and ... they destroyed a large number of churches, ransacked the city and caused carnage amongst the Christian population. Mitchell, Stephen (2014). A History of the Later Roman Empire, AD 284–641. Wiley. ISBN 978-1-118-34106-3. Haldon, John (2002). "The Reign of Heraclius: a Context for Change?". In Reinink, G. J.; Stolte, Bernard H. (eds.). The Reign of Heraclius (610-641): Crisis and Confrontation. Peeters Publishers. pp. 1–16. ISBN 978-90-429-1228-1. Archived from the original on 19 December 2023. Retrieved 4 January 2021. Reinik, Gerrit J. (2002). "Heraclius, the New Alexander: Apocalyptic Prophecies during the Reign of Heraclius". In Reinink, G. J.; Stolte, Bernard H. (eds.). The Reign of Heraclius (610–641): Crisis and Confrontation. Peeters Publishers. pp. 81–94. ISBN 978-90-429-1228-1. Schäfer, Peter (2003). The History of the Jews in the Greco-Roman World. Psychology Press. ISBN 978-0-415-30585-3.
Drijvers 2002, p. 176: They may even have ruled, ..., Jerusalem ... However, ... by 617 the Persians seem to have returned the city; Balfour 2012, pp. 112–113: The city was left in the control of a Jewish administration that lasted from 614 to 617 ... After 617 the Persians concluded that it was politically more constructive to deal with the Christians; Schäfer 2003, p. 198; Foss 2003, p. 153: the Persians soon shifted their favour to the Christians, no doubt recognising that they formed the overwhelming majority in the province and had to be conciliated. Drijvers, Jan Willem (2002). "Heraclius and the Restitutio Crucis: Notes on Symbolism and Ideology". In Reinink, G. J.; Stolte, Bernard H. (eds.). The Reign of Heraclius (610–641): Crisis and Confrontation. Peeters Publishers. pp. 175–190. ISBN 978-90-429-1228-1. Archived from the original on 19 December 2023. Retrieved 4 January 2021. Balfour, Alan (2012). Solomon's Temple: Myth, Conflict, and Faith. John Wiley & Sons. pp. 112–. ISBN 978-0-470-67495-6. Schäfer, Peter (2003). The History of the Jews in the Greco-Roman World. Psychology Press. ISBN 978-0-415-30585-3. Foss, Clive (July 2003). "The Persians in the Roman Near East (602–630 AD)". Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain & Ireland. 13 (2): 149–170. doi:10.1017/S1356186303003055. S2CID 162252154.
Schäfer 2003, p. 198; Balfour 2012, p. 112: In March 629, the "True Cross" was carried in splendid procession into Jerusalem by the Emperor Heraclius. Schäfer, Peter (2003). The History of the Jews in the Greco-Roman World. Psychology Press. ISBN 978-0-415-30585-3. Balfour, Alan (2012). Solomon's Temple: Myth, Conflict, and Faith. John Wiley & Sons. pp. 112–. ISBN 978-0-470-67495-6.
Schäfer 2003, p. 198: He had promised the Jews ... amnesty ..., but was unable to hold to this. At the insistence of the leaders of the Christians, who had not forgotten the period of Jewish rule from 614 to 617, he once more expelled the Jews from Jerusalem and had to allow large numbers of them to be executed. Balfour 2012, p. 112: The patriarch of Jerusalem executed those who were known to have taken part in the killings. Schäfer, Peter (2003). The History of the Jews in the Greco-Roman World. Psychology Press. ISBN 978-0-415-30585-3. Balfour, Alan (2012). Solomon's Temple: Myth, Conflict, and Faith. John Wiley & Sons. pp. 112–. ISBN 978-0-470-67495-6.
Dignas & Winter 2007, p. 49: Although the Romans celebrated a triumphant success ..., the continuous struggle with Persia had taken its toll. Soon after the Romans had re-conquered Syria, Palestine and Egypt, these territories were lost once more, this time to the Arabs. Lendering: Arabia Deserta: Both empires were exhausted and an easy target for the great Arab conquests that started in the second quarter of the seventh century. Dignas, Beate; Winter, Engelbert (2007) [First published 2001]. Rome and Persia in Late Antiquity: Neighbours and Rivals. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-84925-8. Archived from the original on 19 December 2023. Retrieved 25 December 2020. Lendering, Jona (12 October 2020). "Arabia Deserta". Livius. Archived from the original on 25 December 2020. Retrieved 7 January 2021.
Gil 1997, pp. 12–13. Gil, Moshe (1997). A History of Palestine, 634–1099. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-59984-9.
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Gil 1997, p. 159. Gil, Moshe (1997). A History of Palestine, 634–1099. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-59984-9.
Shahin 2005, p. 10: Jews were allowed to return to Jerusalem after a 500-year ban stipulated by the Romans and maintained by the Christian rulers. Gil 1997, pp. 68–69: The Jews felt that the injunction against their entry into Jerusalem, not to speak of their settling there-...-had come to an end. Slavik 2001, p. 33: Jews were even allowed back into the city to live. Shahin, Mariam (2005). Palestine: A Guide. Interlink Books. ISBN 1-56656-557-X – via Internet Archive. Gil, Moshe (1997). A History of Palestine, 634–1099. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-59984-9. Slavik, Diane (2001). Daily Life in Ancient and Modern Jerusalem. Lerner Publications. ISBN 978-0-8225-3218-7. Archived from the original on 19 December 2023. Retrieved 8 January 2021.
Masalha 2018, pp. 154, 158; Hawting 2002, p. 38 Masalha, Nur (2018). Palestine: A Four Thousand Year History. Bloomsbury Academic. ISBN 978-1-78699-274-1. Hawting, Gerald R. (2002). The First Dynasty of Islam: The Umayyad Caliphate AD 661–750 (2nd ed.). Routledge. ISBN 978-1-134-55059-3.
Masalha 2018, pp. 158–160. Masalha, Nur (2018). Palestine: A Four Thousand Year History. Bloomsbury Academic. ISBN 978-1-78699-274-1.
Masalha 2018, p. 169. Masalha, Nur (2018). Palestine: A Four Thousand Year History. Bloomsbury Academic. ISBN 978-1-78699-274-1.
Masalha 2018, p. 180; Lev 2006, p. 590: Ramla, the capital of Jund Filastin, was founded ... in 715; Gil 1997, p. 106: It became the capital of jund Filastin and actually the most important city in Palestine. Hawting 2002, p. 38 Masalha, Nur (2018). Palestine: A Four Thousand Year History. Bloomsbury Academic. ISBN 978-1-78699-274-1. Lev, Yaacov (2006). "Palestine". In Meri, Josef W. (ed.). Medieval Islamic Civilization: L–Z, index. Taylor & Francis. pp. 590–592. ISBN 978-0-415-96692-4. Gil, Moshe (1997). A History of Palestine, 634–1099. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-59984-9. Hawting, Gerald R. (2002). The First Dynasty of Islam: The Umayyad Caliphate AD 661–750 (2nd ed.). Routledge. ISBN 978-1-134-55059-3.
Gil 1997, p. 111: including Acre and Tyre Gil, Moshe (1997). A History of Palestine, 634–1099. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-59984-9.
Masalha 2018, p. 160; Gil 1997, p. 111 Masalha, Nur (2018). Palestine: A Four Thousand Year History. Bloomsbury Academic. ISBN 978-1-78699-274-1. Gil, Moshe (1997). A History of Palestine, 634–1099. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-59984-9.
Gil 1997, p. 145: Palestine was, during the entire period we are dealing with, a sort of gold mine for the central government, whether headquartered in Damascus, Baghdad or Cairo. Shahin 2005, p. 10: historians of the period noted that Palestine was among the most prosperous and fertile regions of the Muslim empire at this juncture. Gil, Moshe (1997). A History of Palestine, 634–1099. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-59984-9. Shahin, Mariam (2005). Palestine: A Guide. Interlink Books. ISBN 1-56656-557-X – via Internet Archive.
Masalha 2018, p. 173: The economy of Palestine was boosted by the country's strategic location and its international trade; Gil 1997: Palestine's wealth came from its natural resources, especially its excellent crop of fruits and ... from the various types of craftsmanship that developed there, from its network of ports and not a little, from its influx of pilgrims. Masalha, Nur (2018). Palestine: A Four Thousand Year History. Bloomsbury Academic. ISBN 978-1-78699-274-1. Gil, Moshe (1997). A History of Palestine, 634–1099. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-59984-9.
Shahin 2005, p. 11: Spices, silks, soap, olive oil, glassware, and sugar were traded for European products. Gil 1997, pp. 230–239 Shahin, Mariam (2005). Palestine: A Guide. Interlink Books. ISBN 1-56656-557-X – via Internet Archive. Gil, Moshe (1997). A History of Palestine, 634–1099. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-59984-9.
Gil 1997, p. 238; Masalha 2018, pp. 174–175 Gil, Moshe (1997). A History of Palestine, 634–1099. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-59984-9. Masalha, Nur (2018). Palestine: A Four Thousand Year History. Bloomsbury Academic. ISBN 978-1-78699-274-1.
Gil 1997, p. 232. Gil, Moshe (1997). A History of Palestine, 634–1099. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-59984-9.
Gil 1997, p. 107: The Umayyads invested great efforts in developing a Muslim fleet and in renovating seaports in Palestine and Syria. Restoration and fortification works were carried out in Tyre, Acre, Caesarea, Jaffa and Ascalon. Arab army units were garrisoned at these ports. Masalha 2018, p. 166: new Arab naval bases and shipyards were established in Palestine; Shahin 2005, p. 11 Gil, Moshe (1997). A History of Palestine, 634–1099. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-59984-9. Masalha, Nur (2018). Palestine: A Four Thousand Year History. Bloomsbury Academic. ISBN 978-1-78699-274-1. Shahin, Mariam (2005). Palestine: A Guide. Interlink Books. ISBN 1-56656-557-X – via Internet Archive.
Gil 1997, p. 107. Gil, Moshe (1997). A History of Palestine, 634–1099. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-59984-9.
Burke & Peilstocker 2011, p. 113: Jaffa acted as the port of Ramla and thus became the principal port of Palestine. Burke, Aaron A; Peilstocker, Martin (2011). The History and Archaeology of Jaffa 1. Cotsen Institute of Archaeology Press. ISBN 978-1-938770-56-2. Archived from the original on 19 December 2023. Retrieved 12 January 2021.
Kennedy 2004, p. 146: Charlemagne was interested in the Holy Places in Jerusalem, where he founded a hostel and library for pilgrims; Gil 1997, p. 245: The monk Bernard, who visited Jerusalem shortly after the middle of the ninth century, mentions the hostel which Charlemagne built there, where any western pilgrim ('the Latins') is welcomed; the Church of St Mary, with its library established with Charlemagne's help Kennedy, Hugh N. (2004). The Prophet and the Age of the Caliphates: The Islamic Near East from the 6th to the 11th Century (2nd ed.). Harlow: Pearson Education Limited. ISBN 0-582-40525-4. Gil, Moshe (1997). A History of Palestine, 634–1099. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-59984-9.
Tejirian & Spector Simon 2012, pp. 25–26. Tejirian, Eleanor H.; Spector Simon, Reeva (2012). Conflict, Conquest, and Conversion: Two Thousand Years of Christian Missions in the Middle East. Columbia University Press. ISBN 978-0-231-51109-4. Archived from the original on 19 December 2023. Retrieved 17 January 2021.
Tejirian & Spector Simon 2012, p. 27; Janin 2015, p. 83: estimates range from 7,000 to 12,000 men and women Tejirian, Eleanor H.; Spector Simon, Reeva (2012). Conflict, Conquest, and Conversion: Two Thousand Years of Christian Missions in the Middle East. Columbia University Press. ISBN 978-0-231-51109-4. Archived from the original on 19 December 2023. Retrieved 17 January 2021. Janin, Hunt (2015). Four Paths to Jerusalem: Jewish, Christian, Muslim, and Secular Pilgrimages, 1000 BCE to 2001 CE. McFarland. ISBN 978-1-4766-0880-8. Archived from the original on 19 December 2023. Retrieved 8 January 2021.
Tejirian & Spector Simon 2012, p. 26. Tejirian, Eleanor H.; Spector Simon, Reeva (2012). Conflict, Conquest, and Conversion: Two Thousand Years of Christian Missions in the Middle East. Columbia University Press. ISBN 978-0-231-51109-4. Archived from the original on 19 December 2023. Retrieved 17 January 2021.
Janin 2015, p. 85. Janin, Hunt (2015). Four Paths to Jerusalem: Jewish, Christian, Muslim, and Secular Pilgrimages, 1000 BCE to 2001 CE. McFarland. ISBN 978-1-4766-0880-8. Archived from the original on 19 December 2023. Retrieved 8 January 2021.
Hawting 2002, p. 24. Hawting, Gerald R. (2002). The First Dynasty of Islam: The Umayyad Caliphate AD 661–750 (2nd ed.). Routledge. ISBN 978-1-134-55059-3.
Hawting 2002, p. 38; Masalha 2018, p. 155 Hawting, Gerald R. (2002). The First Dynasty of Islam: The Umayyad Caliphate AD 661–750 (2nd ed.). Routledge. ISBN 978-1-134-55059-3. Masalha, Nur (2018). Palestine: A Four Thousand Year History. Bloomsbury Academic. ISBN 978-1-78699-274-1.
Mourad 2008, p. 86; Faizer 1998 Mourad, Suleiman Ali (2008). "The symbolism of Jerusalem in early Islam". In Mayer, Tamar; Mourad, Suleiman A. (eds.). Jerusalem: Idea and Reality. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-134-10287-7. Faizer, Rizwi (1998). "The Shape of the Holy: Early Islamic Jerusalem". Rizwi's Bibliography for Medieval Islam. Archived from the original on 9 June 2007. Retrieved 14 July 2007.
Bahat 1990, p. 82; Wilkinson 2002, p. 170 Bahat, Dan (1990). The Illustrated Atlas of Jerusalem. Carta. ISBN 978-965-220-348-9. Archived from the original on 19 December 2023. Retrieved 9 January 2021. Wilkinson, John (2002). Jerusalem Pilgrims before the Crusades. Aris & Phillips. ISBN 978-0-85668-746-4.
Shahin 2005, p. 10; Slavik 2001, p. 60; Britannica: Dome of the Rock Shahin, Mariam (2005). Palestine: A Guide. Interlink Books. ISBN 1-56656-557-X – via Internet Archive. Slavik, Diane (2001). Daily Life in Ancient and Modern Jerusalem. Lerner Publications. ISBN 978-0-8225-3218-7. Archived from the original on 19 December 2023. Retrieved 8 January 2021. "Dome of the Rock". Encyclopædia Britannica. Archived from the original on 15 June 2008. Retrieved 8 January 2021.
Britannica: Dome of the Rock; Masalha 2018, p. 125: It is the oldest extant Muslim monument in the world "Dome of the Rock". Encyclopædia Britannica. Archived from the original on 15 June 2008. Retrieved 8 January 2021. Masalha, Nur (2018). Palestine: A Four Thousand Year History. Bloomsbury Academic. ISBN 978-1-78699-274-1.
Kennedy 2004, p. 86. Kennedy, Hugh N. (2004). The Prophet and the Age of the Caliphates: The Islamic Near East from the 6th to the 11th Century (2nd ed.). Harlow: Pearson Education Limited. ISBN 0-582-40525-4.
Blankinship 1994, p. 50; Gil 1997, p. 285 Blankinship, Khalid Yahya (1994). The End of the Jihad State: The Reign of Hisham Ibn 'Abd al-Malik and the Collapse of the Umayyads. SUNY Press. ISBN 978-0-7914-1827-7. Archived from the original on 19 December 2023. Retrieved 14 January 2021. Gil, Moshe (1997). A History of Palestine, 634–1099. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-59984-9.
Kennedy 2004, p. 92: As late as the nineteenth century, battles were still being fought in Palestine between groups calling themselves Qays and Yaman. Al-Salim 2015, p. 61; Shahin 2005, p. 11: This division continued to be a significant factor in Palestine's political life until the 20th century. Kennedy, Hugh N. (2004). The Prophet and the Age of the Caliphates: The Islamic Near East from the 6th to the 11th Century (2nd ed.). Harlow: Pearson Education Limited. ISBN 0-582-40525-4. Al-Salim, Farid (2015). Palestine and the Decline of the Ottoman Empire: Modernization and the Path to Palestinian Statehood. Bloomsbury Publishing. ISBN 978-1-78673-967-4. Archived from the original on 19 December 2023. Retrieved 14 January 2021. Shahin, Mariam (2005). Palestine: A Guide. Interlink Books. ISBN 1-56656-557-X – via Internet Archive.
Al-Salim 2015, p. 61. Al-Salim, Farid (2015). Palestine and the Decline of the Ottoman Empire: Modernization and the Path to Palestinian Statehood. Bloomsbury Publishing. ISBN 978-1-78673-967-4. Archived from the original on 19 December 2023. Retrieved 14 January 2021.
Silverstein 2010, p. 122. Silverstein, Adam J. (2010). Islamic History: A Very Short Introduction. OUP Oxford. ISBN 978-0-19-160934-3. Archived from the original on 19 December 2023. Retrieved 14 January 2021.
Rihan 2014, p. 179; Kennedy 2004, p. 92: Many of the Yamani ... were still in part Christian, ... They had also in many cases been allies of the Byzantines Rihan, Mohammad (2014). The Politics and Culture of an Umayyad Tribe: Conflict and Factionalism in the Early Islamic Period. London: I.B. Tauris and Company Limited. ISBN 978-1-78076-564-8. Kennedy, Hugh N. (2004). The Prophet and the Age of the Caliphates: The Islamic Near East from the 6th to the 11th Century (2nd ed.). Harlow: Pearson Education Limited. ISBN 0-582-40525-4.
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Kennedy 2004, p. 92: Much of the hostility must have been the result of disputes over grazing rights. Kennedy, Hugh N. (2004). The Prophet and the Age of the Caliphates: The Islamic Near East from the 6th to the 11th Century (2nd ed.). Harlow: Pearson Education Limited. ISBN 0-582-40525-4.
Kennedy 2004, p. 105. Kennedy, Hugh N. (2004). The Prophet and the Age of the Caliphates: The Islamic Near East from the 6th to the 11th Century (2nd ed.). Harlow: Pearson Education Limited. ISBN 0-582-40525-4.
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Gil 1997, p. 84. Gil, Moshe (1997). A History of Palestine, 634–1099. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-59984-9.
Gil 1997, p. 85. Gil, Moshe (1997). A History of Palestine, 634–1099. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-59984-9.
Gil 1997, p. 86. Gil, Moshe (1997). A History of Palestine, 634–1099. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-59984-9.
Gil 1997, p. 87; Hawting 2002, p. 98: First, in the summer of 745, a revolt which seems to have begun among the Kalb in the south ... spread to engulf most of Syria Gil, Moshe (1997). A History of Palestine, 634–1099. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-59984-9. Hawting, Gerald R. (2002). The First Dynasty of Islam: The Umayyad Caliphate AD 661–750 (2nd ed.). Routledge. ISBN 978-1-134-55059-3.
Gil 1997, p. 87: This rebellion, drowned in rivers of blood, once again included the tribes of Palestine, and during its course, as Theophanes tells us, Marwan destroyed the walls of Jerusalem, as he did in Hims, Damascus and other cities. Hawting 2002, p. 99: Marwan's anger ... led him to raze the walls not only of Hims but also of other important Syrian towns including Damascus and, reportedly, Jerusalem. As Wellhausen expressed it, "in the summer of 128 (746) he had finished with Syria; it lay in fragments at his feet". Gil, Moshe (1997). A History of Palestine, 634–1099. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-59984-9. Hawting, Gerald R. (2002). The First Dynasty of Islam: The Umayyad Caliphate AD 661–750 (2nd ed.). Routledge. ISBN 978-1-134-55059-3.
Hawting 2002, p. 4: he and his descendants were in some ways treated as second-class Muslims. Adler & Pouwels 2006, p. 194: However, they consigned these non-Arab converts to the status of second-class Muslims by requiring that they continue paying the burdensome jizya. Hawting, Gerald R. (2002). The First Dynasty of Islam: The Umayyad Caliphate AD 661–750 (2nd ed.). Routledge. ISBN 978-1-134-55059-3. Adler, Philip J.; Pouwels, Randall L. (2006). World Civilizations (4th ed.). Thomson Wadsworth. ISBN 0-534-59933-8.
Lev 2006, p. 131. Lev, Yaacov (2006). "Palestine". In Meri, Josef W. (ed.). Medieval Islamic Civilization: L–Z, index. Taylor & Francis. pp. 590–592. ISBN 978-0-415-96692-4.
Rivlin 2009, p. 86: The treatment of non-Arab populations and other groups led to revolts in parts of the empire and eventually led to the overthrow of the Umayyads in 750 C.E. and their replacement by the Abbasids. Rivlin, Paul (2009). Arab Economies in the Twenty-First Century. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-89500-2.
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Gil 1997, p. 295: a widespread rebellion broke out in Palestine; ... the rebellion of Abu Harb, .... Arab tribes and farmers from the south of Palestine took part in this uprising and their leader was said to be a "Yamahi"; Britannica: Palestine – Roman Palestine: In 840/841 Abū Ḥarb, a Yemenite, ... succeeded in recruiting ... peasant followers, mainly among the Palestinian population, who regarded him as the saviour whose appearance was to save the land from the hated 'Abbāsids. Though the insurrection was put down, unrest persisted. Gil, Moshe (1997). A History of Palestine, 634–1099. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-59984-9. "Palestine – Roman Palestine". Encyclopædia Britannica. Archived from the original on 30 October 2023. Retrieved 24 December 2020.
Levy-Rubin & Kedar 2001, p. 65; Gil 1997, p. 283: considerable destruction in Palestine as a result of the civil war in 788, in the days of the patriarch Elias (II), telling of the utter devastation of Bet Guvrin (Eleutheropolis), Ascalon, Gaza and Sariphaea. The St Chariton monastery was robbed and the Mar Saba monastery was attacked. Levy-Rubin, Milka; Kedar, Benjamin Z (2001). "A Spanish Source on mid-Ninth Century Mar Saba and a Neglected Sabaite Martyr". In Patrich, Joseph (ed.). The Sabaite Heritage in the Orthodox Church from the Fifth Century to the Present. Peeters Publishers. pp. 63–83. ISBN 978-90-429-0976-2. Gil, Moshe (1997). A History of Palestine, 634–1099. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-59984-9.
Levy-Rubin & Kedar 2001, p. 65; Jotischky 2016, pp. 53–54 Levy-Rubin, Milka; Kedar, Benjamin Z (2001). "A Spanish Source on mid-Ninth Century Mar Saba and a Neglected Sabaite Martyr". In Patrich, Joseph (ed.). The Sabaite Heritage in the Orthodox Church from the Fifth Century to the Present. Peeters Publishers. pp. 63–83. ISBN 978-90-429-0976-2. Jotischky, Andrew (2016). Kedar, Benjamin Z.; Phillips, Jonathan; Riley-Smith, Jonathan (eds.). Crusades. Vol. 7. Taylor & Francis. ISBN 978-1-351-98557-4.
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Britannica: Tulunid Dynasty: the state finally reverted to the ʿAbbāsids in 905. Burke & Peilstocker 2011, p. 114: The Abbasids regained control of Palestine in 906 "Ṭūlūnid Dynasty". Encyclopædia Britannica. Archived from the original on 16 April 2008. Retrieved 16 January 2021. Burke, Aaron A; Peilstocker, Martin (2011). The History and Archaeology of Jaffa 1. Cotsen Institute of Archaeology Press. ISBN 978-1-938770-56-2. Archived from the original on 19 December 2023. Retrieved 12 January 2021.
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Britannica: Palestine – Roman Palestine: The Fāṭimids seized Egypt from the Ikhshīdids in 969 and in less than a decade were able to establish a precarious control over Palestine, where they faced Qarmaṭian, Seljuq, Byzantine, and periodic Bedouin opposition. Palestine was thus often reduced to a battlefield. Gil 1997, p. 336: it was an almost unceasing war which destroyed Palestine "Palestine – Roman Palestine". Encyclopædia Britannica. Archived from the original on 30 October 2023. Retrieved 24 December 2020. Gil, Moshe (1997). A History of Palestine, 634–1099. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-59984-9.
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britannica.com

On the last occasion (601/600), Nebuchadnezzar clashed with an Egyptian army, with heavy losses; this reverse was followed by the defection of certain vassal states, Judah among them. This brought an intermission in the series of annual campaigns in 600/599, while Nebuchadnezzar remained in Babylonia repairing his losses of chariots (Saggs 2010). Saggs, Henry W.F. (2010). "Nebuchadnezzar II – Biography, Accomplishments, & Facts". Encyclopædia Britannica. Archived from the original on 18 January 2020. Retrieved 16 November 2020.
He attacked Judah a year later and captured Jerusalem on March 16, 597 (Saggs 2010) Saggs, Henry W.F. (2010). "Nebuchadnezzar II – Biography, Accomplishments, & Facts". Encyclopædia Britannica. Archived from the original on 18 January 2020. Retrieved 16 November 2020.
Herod ... who built many ... public buildings and generally raised the prosperity of his land but who was the centre of political and family intrigues in his later years (Perowne 1999). Perowne, Stewart Henry (1999). "Herod". Encyclopædia Britannica. Archived from the original on 25 June 2015. Retrieved 19 December 2020.
Although eschatology is the doctrine of last things, the Jews who anticipated future redemption did not expect the end of the world. Instead, they thought that God would intervene in human history and make the world perfect: that is, the Jews would live in the Holy Land free of foreign domination and in peace and prosperity. Many Jews, including John, expected final judgment to precede this golden age, and he taught that people should repent in view of its imminence (Matthew 3:1–12; Luke 3:3–9) (Britannica: Jesus – The Context of Jesus Career). "Jesus – The context of Jesus' career". Encyclopædia Britannica. Archived from the original on 11 November 2020. Retrieved 27 December 2020.
Constantine began issuing laws conveying upon the church and its clergy fiscal and legal privileges and immunities from civic burdens (Britannica: Constantine I – Commitment to Christianity) "Constantine I – Commitment to Christianity". Encyclopædia Britannica. 2020. Archived from the original on 15 April 2017. Retrieved 3 January 2021.
It also became a great centre of the eremitic life (idiorrhythmic monasticism); men flocked from all quarters to become hermits in the Judaean wilderness, which was soon dotted with monasteries (Britannica: Palestine – Roman Palestine). "Palestine – Roman Palestine". Encyclopædia Britannica. Archived from the original on 30 October 2023. Retrieved 24 December 2020.
The decisive battle that delivered Palestine to the Muslims took place on August 20, 636. Only Jerusalem and Caesarea held out, the former until 638, when it surrendered to the Muslims, and the latter until October 640. Palestine, and indeed all of Syria, was then in Muslim hands (Britannica: Palestine – Roman Palestine). "Palestine – Roman Palestine". Encyclopædia Britannica. Archived from the original on 30 October 2023. Retrieved 24 December 2020.
Muslim men are permitted to marry women from Ahl al-Kitāb even if the latter choose to remain in their religion. Muslim women, however, are not allowed to marry Christians or Jews unless they convert to Islam (Britannica: Ahl al-Kitab). "Ahl al-Kitāb – Islam". Encyclopædia Britannica. Archived from the original on 21 November 2020. Retrieved 12 January 2021.
During the second half of the 9th century, however, signs of internal decay began to appear in the 'Abbāsid empire. Petty states, and some indeed not so petty, emerged in different parts of the realm (Britannica: Palestine – Roman Palestine). "Palestine – Roman Palestine". Encyclopædia Britannica. Archived from the original on 30 October 2023. Retrieved 24 December 2020.
Finally, in 969, under the caliph al-Muʿizz, the first stage in the advance to the East was completed. Fāṭimid troops conquered the Nile Valley and advanced across Sinai into Palestine and southern Syria (Britannica: Fatimid Dynasty). "Fāṭimid Dynasty – Islamic dynasty". Encyclopædia Britannica. Archived from the original on 1 September 2022. Retrieved 16 January 2021.
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Saggs 2010: In this respect he followed the methods of his Assyrian predecessors. Saggs, Henry W.F. (2010). "Nebuchadnezzar II – Biography, Accomplishments, & Facts". Encyclopædia Britannica. Archived from the original on 18 January 2020. Retrieved 16 November 2020.
Saggs 2010. Saggs, Henry W.F. (2010). "Nebuchadnezzar II – Biography, Accomplishments, & Facts". Encyclopædia Britannica. Archived from the original on 18 January 2020. Retrieved 16 November 2020.
Saggs 2010: deporting King Jehoiachin to Babylon. Finkelstein & Silberman 2002, p. 261: The Jerusalem aristocracy and priesthood ... were taken off into exile, Saggs, Henry W.F. (2010). "Nebuchadnezzar II – Biography, Accomplishments, & Facts". Encyclopædia Britannica. Archived from the original on 18 January 2020. Retrieved 16 November 2020. Finkelstein, Israel; Silberman, Neil Asher (2002). The Bible Unearthed: Archaeology's New Vision of Ancient Israel and the Origin of Sacred Texts. Simon and Schuster. ISBN 978-0-7432-2338-6. Archived from the original on 1 July 2023. Retrieved 15 November 2020.
Saggs 2010: The siege of Jerusalem ended in its capture in 587/586; Finkelstein & Silberman 2002, p. 262: In 587 BCE Nebuchadnezzar arrived with his formidable army and laid siege to Jerusalem. It was the beginning of the end. With the Babylonian forces rampaging through the countryside, the outlying cities of Judah fell one by one. Saggs, Henry W.F. (2010). "Nebuchadnezzar II – Biography, Accomplishments, & Facts". Encyclopædia Britannica. Archived from the original on 18 January 2020. Retrieved 16 November 2020. Finkelstein, Israel; Silberman, Neil Asher (2002). The Bible Unearthed: Archaeology's New Vision of Ancient Israel and the Origin of Sacred Texts. Simon and Schuster. ISBN 978-0-7432-2338-6. Archived from the original on 1 July 2023. Retrieved 15 November 2020.
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Britannica: Palestine – Roman Palestine: Although this ban was officially still in force as late as the 4th century CE, there is some evidence that from the Severan period onward (after 193) Jews visited the city more frequently, especially at certain festival times, and even that there may have been some Jews in residence. Seligman 2017, p. 114: there seems to have been a slow trickle into the city over subsequent centuries, although the actual numbers probably remained rather insignificant. Towards the beginning of the 4th c., sources identify a synagogue in Jerusalem "Palestine – Roman Palestine". Encyclopædia Britannica. Archived from the original on 30 October 2023. Retrieved 24 December 2020. Seligman, Jon (2017). "'Absence of Evidence' or 'Evidence of Absence' Was Jerusalem the Legionary Camp and Where Was Civilian Aelia Capitolina?". In Avni, Gideon; Stiebel, Guy (eds.). Roman Jerusalem: A New Old City. Journal of Roman Archaeology. pp. 107–116. ISBN 978-0-9913730-9-3. Archived from the original on 19 December 2023. Retrieved 24 December 2020.
Shahin 2005, p. 7: new cities were founded at Eleutheropolis (Beit Jibrin), Diospolis (Lydd), and Nicopolis (Emmaus). Britannica: Palestine – Roman Palestine Shahin, Mariam (2005). Palestine: A Guide. Interlink Books. ISBN 1-56656-557-X – via Internet Archive. "Palestine – Roman Palestine". Encyclopædia Britannica. Archived from the original on 30 October 2023. Retrieved 24 December 2020.
Britannica: Jesus – The Context of Jesus Career. "Jesus – The context of Jesus' career". Encyclopædia Britannica. Archived from the original on 11 November 2020. Retrieved 27 December 2020.
Britannica: Jesus – The Jewish religion in the 1st century: there were three small but important religious parties that differed from each other in several ways: the Pharisees (numbering about 6,000 at the time of Herod), Essenes (about 4,000), and Sadducees ("a few men," according to Flavius Josephus, in The Antiquities of the Jews 18.17) ... Although the vast majority of Jews did not belong to a party, the study of these parties reveals the substantial variety within the general framework of Judaism. Schwartz 2009, p. 91: Though Josephus speaks of three (and in one polemical passage of four) sects, it seems certain that there were many more sectarian groups in first-century Palestine. "Jesus – The Jewish religion in the 1st century". Encyclopædia Britannica. Archived from the original on 11 December 2020. Retrieved 27 December 2020. Schwartz, Seth (2009). Imperialism and Jewish Society: 200 B.C.E. to 640 C.E. Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-1-4008-2485-4. Archived from the original on 19 December 2023. Retrieved 16 December 2020.
Britannica: Christianity – The history of Christianity: Christianity has never succeeded in gaining the allegiance of more than a small minority of Jews; Britannica: Christianity – The relation of the early church to the career and intentions of Jesus: Gospel sayings that make the Jews' refusal to recognize Jesus' authority as the ground for extending the kingdom of God to the Gentiles must, therefore, have been cast by the early community. "Christianity – The history of Christianity". Encyclopædia Britannica. 2020. Archived from the original on 25 January 2021. Retrieved 28 December 2020. "The relation of the early church to the career and intentions of Jesus". Encyclopædia Britannica. 2020. Archived from the original on 18 January 2021. Retrieved 27 December 2020.
Britannica: Constantine I – Commitment to Christianity. "Constantine I – Commitment to Christianity". Encyclopædia Britannica. 2020. Archived from the original on 15 April 2017. Retrieved 3 January 2021.
Shahin 2005, p. 8; Britannica: Palestine – Roman Palestine: The emperor ... built a ... church on the site of the Holy Sepulchre, the most sacred of Christian holy places; his mother, Saint Helena, built two others – at the place of the Nativity at Bethlehem and of the Ascension in Jerusalem – and his mother-in-law, Eutropia, built a church at Mamre. Shahin, Mariam (2005). Palestine: A Guide. Interlink Books. ISBN 1-56656-557-X – via Internet Archive. "Palestine – Roman Palestine". Encyclopædia Britannica. Archived from the original on 30 October 2023. Retrieved 24 December 2020.
Britannica: Palestine – Roman Palestine. "Palestine – Roman Palestine". Encyclopædia Britannica. Archived from the original on 30 October 2023. Retrieved 24 December 2020.
Masalha 2018, p. 110: This decree of elevating the Palestine Church led to the Church of Aelia Capitolina not only becoming an independent Patriarchate, but also to becoming ... one of the five Patriarchates of Christendom, ... the five major Patriarchs of the empire: Constantinople, Rome, Alexandria, Antioch and Aelia Capitolina. Horn & Phenix 2008, p. lxxxviii: Council of Chalcedon ..., at which Jerusalem was granted the status of patriarchate; Britannica: Palestine – Roman Palestine: Juvenal, bishop of Jerusalem from 421 to 458 ... was recognized by the Council of Chalcedon (451) as patriarch of the three provinces of Palestine. Masalha, Nur (2018). Palestine: A Four Thousand Year History. Bloomsbury Academic. ISBN 978-1-78699-274-1. Horn, Cornelia B.; Phenix, Robert R. Jr. (2008). The Lives of Peter the Iberian, Theodosius of Jerusalem, and the Monk Romanus. Society of Biblical Lit. ISBN 978-1-58983-200-8. Archived from the original on 19 December 2023. Retrieved 7 January 2021. "Palestine – Roman Palestine". Encyclopædia Britannica. Archived from the original on 30 October 2023. Retrieved 24 December 2020.
Britannica: Vulgate; Masalha 2018, p. 49: St Jerome relocated physically to Judaea in Provincia Palaestina while working on the Vulgate translation. Jerome, ... was the first person to ... translate the Old Testament from Hebrew rather than from the Septuagint "Vulgate". Encyclopædia Britannica. Archived from the original on 13 March 2022. Retrieved 8 January 2021. Masalha, Nur (2018). Palestine: A Four Thousand Year History. Bloomsbury Academic. ISBN 978-1-78699-274-1.
Lewis 2011, p. 155; Britannica: Palestine – Roman Palestine: At the end of the 4th century, an enlarged Palestine was divided into three provinces: Prima, with its capital at Caesarea; Secunda, with its capital at Scythopolis (Bet Sheʾan); and Salutaris, with its capital at Petra or possibly for a time at Elusa. Shahin 2005, p. 8 Lewis, Bernard (2011). Islam in History: Ideas, People, and Events in the Middle East. Open Court. ISBN 978-0-8126-9757-5. Archived from the original on 19 December 2023. Retrieved 2 January 2021. "Palestine – Roman Palestine". Encyclopædia Britannica. Archived from the original on 30 October 2023. Retrieved 24 December 2020. Shahin, Mariam (2005). Palestine: A Guide. Interlink Books. ISBN 1-56656-557-X – via Internet Archive.
Lewin 2005, pp. 36–38: In 351, there was a rebellion in Palestine, ... Its epicenter was Sepphoris, but it also affected Diospolis. Schäfer 2003, p. 186: In 351, ... a local Jewish revolt seems to have broken out in Palestine, but little information on this has come down to us. Goodblatt 2008, pp. 410–411; Britannica: Palestine – Roman Palestine Lewin, Ariel (2005). The Archaeology of Ancient Judea and Palestine. Getty Publications. ISBN 978-0-89236-800-6. Archived from the original on 19 December 2023. Retrieved 23 December 2020. Schäfer, Peter (2003). The History of the Jews in the Greco-Roman World. Psychology Press. ISBN 978-0-415-30585-3. Goodblatt, David (2008). "The political and social history of the Jewish community in the Land of Israel, c. 235–638". In Katz, Steven T. (ed.). The Cambridge History of Judaism: Volume 4, The Late Roman-Rabbinic Period. Cambridge University Press. pp. 404–430. ISBN 978-0-521-77248-8. Archived from the original on 19 December 2023. Retrieved 24 December 2020. "Palestine – Roman Palestine". Encyclopædia Britannica. Archived from the original on 30 October 2023. Retrieved 24 December 2020.
Britannica: Ahl al-Kitab. "Ahl al-Kitāb – Islam". Encyclopædia Britannica. Archived from the original on 21 November 2020. Retrieved 12 January 2021.
Shahin 2005, p. 10; Slavik 2001, p. 60; Britannica: Dome of the Rock Shahin, Mariam (2005). Palestine: A Guide. Interlink Books. ISBN 1-56656-557-X – via Internet Archive. Slavik, Diane (2001). Daily Life in Ancient and Modern Jerusalem. Lerner Publications. ISBN 978-0-8225-3218-7. Archived from the original on 19 December 2023. Retrieved 8 January 2021. "Dome of the Rock". Encyclopædia Britannica. Archived from the original on 15 June 2008. Retrieved 8 January 2021.
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Britannica: Dome of the Rock; Masalha 2018, p. 125: It is the oldest extant Muslim monument in the world "Dome of the Rock". Encyclopædia Britannica. Archived from the original on 15 June 2008. Retrieved 8 January 2021. Masalha, Nur (2018). Palestine: A Four Thousand Year History. Bloomsbury Academic. ISBN 978-1-78699-274-1.
Gil 1997, p. 295: a widespread rebellion broke out in Palestine; ... the rebellion of Abu Harb, .... Arab tribes and farmers from the south of Palestine took part in this uprising and their leader was said to be a "Yamahi"; Britannica: Palestine – Roman Palestine: In 840/841 Abū Ḥarb, a Yemenite, ... succeeded in recruiting ... peasant followers, mainly among the Palestinian population, who regarded him as the saviour whose appearance was to save the land from the hated 'Abbāsids. Though the insurrection was put down, unrest persisted. Gil, Moshe (1997). A History of Palestine, 634–1099. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-59984-9. "Palestine – Roman Palestine". Encyclopædia Britannica. Archived from the original on 30 October 2023. Retrieved 24 December 2020.
Britannica: Tulunid Dynasty: Aḥmad maintained his position by occupying Syria (878); Burke & Peilstocker 2011, p. 114 "Ṭūlūnid Dynasty". Encyclopædia Britannica. Archived from the original on 16 April 2008. Retrieved 16 January 2021. Burke, Aaron A; Peilstocker, Martin (2011). The History and Archaeology of Jaffa 1. Cotsen Institute of Archaeology Press. ISBN 978-1-938770-56-2. Archived from the original on 19 December 2023. Retrieved 12 January 2021.
Britannica: Tulunid Dynasty: the state finally reverted to the ʿAbbāsids in 905. Burke & Peilstocker 2011, p. 114: The Abbasids regained control of Palestine in 906 "Ṭūlūnid Dynasty". Encyclopædia Britannica. Archived from the original on 16 April 2008. Retrieved 16 January 2021. Burke, Aaron A; Peilstocker, Martin (2011). The History and Archaeology of Jaffa 1. Cotsen Institute of Archaeology Press. ISBN 978-1-938770-56-2. Archived from the original on 19 December 2023. Retrieved 12 January 2021.
Britannica: Fatimid Dynasty. "Fāṭimid Dynasty – Islamic dynasty". Encyclopædia Britannica. Archived from the original on 1 September 2022. Retrieved 16 January 2021.
Britannica: Palestine – Roman Palestine: The Fāṭimids seized Egypt from the Ikhshīdids in 969 and in less than a decade were able to establish a precarious control over Palestine, where they faced Qarmaṭian, Seljuq, Byzantine, and periodic Bedouin opposition. Palestine was thus often reduced to a battlefield. Gil 1997, p. 336: it was an almost unceasing war which destroyed Palestine "Palestine – Roman Palestine". Encyclopædia Britannica. Archived from the original on 30 October 2023. Retrieved 24 December 2020. Gil, Moshe (1997). A History of Palestine, 634–1099. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-59984-9.
Brett 2017, p. 231; Britannica: Palestine – Roman Palestine: The Fatimids recaptured the city in 1098 Brett, Michael (2017). The Fatimid Empire. Edinburgh University Press. ISBN 978-1-4744-2151-5. Archived from the original on 19 December 2023. Retrieved 21 January 2021. "Palestine – Roman Palestine". Encyclopædia Britannica. Archived from the original on 30 October 2023. Retrieved 24 December 2020.
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Britannica: Crusades: By September 1187 he and his lieutenants had occupied most of the major strongholds in the kingdom and all the ports south of Tripoli Jubayl and Botron (Al-Batrūn) in the county of Tripoli and Tyre in the kingdom. Shahin 2005, p. 12 "Crusades". Encyclopædia Britannica. 2020. Archived from the original on 17 August 2020. Retrieved 24 January 2021. Shahin, Mariam (2005). Palestine: A Guide. Interlink Books. ISBN 1-56656-557-X – via Internet Archive.
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Jacobson 2001, pp. 44–45: commonly viewed as a move intended to sever the connection of the Jews to their historical homeland. ... Hadrian's choice of Syria Palaestina may be more correctly seen as a rationalization of the name of the new province, in accordance with its area being far larger than geographical Judea. Foster 2017, pp. 95–110: the name change had little to do with Jew hatred ... he called the place what it was called. ... The decision to change the name to Palestine may have been a banal bureaucratic choice. ... If the administrative reorganization was indeed banal, then we might have expected both names to have persisted after the change, which is exactly what happened. Jacobson, David (2001), "When Palestine Meant Israel", Biblical Archaeology Review, 27 (3), archived from the original on 25 July 2011 Foster, Zachary (2017). The Invention of Palestine (thesis). Princeton University. p. 278. ISBN 978-0-355-48023-8. Docket 10634618. Archived from the original on 29 July 2021. Retrieved 9 February 2018.

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The late 13th, the 12th and the early 11th centuries BCE. were witnessing the foundations of scores if not hundreds of insignificant and unprotected village settlements, not least in the mountains of Palestine. Life must have become pretty safe. From at least the 11th century BCE, a certain reduction of the number of villages took place. This demographic change was counterbalanced by the rise of certain settlements to the status of sometimes heavily fortified townships (Lemche 2001, 9.3). Lemche, Niels Peter (31 December 2001). "On The Problems of Reconstructing Pre-Hellenistic Israelite (Palestinian) History". The Journal of Hebrew Scriptures. 3. doi:10.5508/jhs.2000.v3.a1.
Mesha was really the king of Moab and Moab was, before Mesha's revolt, a vassal of Israel (Lemche 2001, 3.5). Lemche, Niels Peter (31 December 2001). "On The Problems of Reconstructing Pre-Hellenistic Israelite (Palestinian) History". The Journal of Hebrew Scriptures. 3. doi:10.5508/jhs.2000.v3.a1.
The conquest of Palestine began in 734 BCE. with Tiglath-pileser III and lasted to about 645 (Bagg 2013, p. 122). Bagg, Ariel M. (2013). "Palestine under Assyrian Rule: A New Look at the Assyrian Imperial Policy in the West". Journal of the American Oriental Society. 133 (1): 119–144. doi:10.7817/jameroriesoci.133.1.0119. JSTOR 10.7817/jameroriesoci.133.1.0119. Gale A337529852 ProQuest 1398770895.
After the fall of Samaria, the capital of the Israelite kingdom, in 720 BCE, the Assyrian expansion under Sargon II and Sennacherib was reoriented southward, (Schipper 2011, p. 270) Schipper, Bernd U. (2011). "Egyptian Imperialism After The New Kingdom: The 26th Dynasty And The Southern Levant". Egypt, Canaan and Israel: History, Imperialism, Ideology and Literature. BRILL. pp. 268–290. doi:10.1163/ej.9789004194939.i-370.99. ISBN 978-90-04-21069-1.
During this period – by 612 BCE at the latest – Psammetichus I created a system of vassal states in the Southern Levant in which local chiefs were required to pay taxes to the Egyptians in exchange for military protection, according to the Ekron letter (Schipper 2011, p. 279). Schipper, Bernd U. (2011). "Egyptian Imperialism After The New Kingdom: The 26th Dynasty And The Southern Levant". Egypt, Canaan and Israel: History, Imperialism, Ideology and Literature. BRILL. pp. 268–290. doi:10.1163/ej.9789004194939.i-370.99. ISBN 978-90-04-21069-1.
..., Josiah, the Judean Egyptian vassal, went to meet the new pharaoh on the latter's first march to Syria-Palestine in 609. Necho II met Josiah at the traditional Egyptian base of Meggido, killed him for unknown reasons, ... Necho II deposed him and instead enthroned the older son of Josiah, Eliakim, and gave him the name Jehoiakim (Schipper 2011, p. 282). Schipper, Bernd U. (2011). "Egyptian Imperialism After The New Kingdom: The 26th Dynasty And The Southern Levant". Egypt, Canaan and Israel: History, Imperialism, Ideology and Literature. BRILL. pp. 268–290. doi:10.1163/ej.9789004194939.i-370.99. ISBN 978-90-04-21069-1.
In 327/939, Muhammad ibn Tughj obtained from the Caliph al-Radi confirmation of his appointment as military and fiscal governor, receiving the laqab of al-Ikhshid or "servant," a princely title from Farghana. After three decades of costly disorders in an Egypt administered by appointed governors, the caliphate had reached the conclusion that only an autonomous prince who, along with his descendants, ..., would be capable of defending it effectively against the Fatimids (Bianquis 1998, p. 112). Bianquis, Thierry (1998). "Autonomous Egypt from Ibn Ṭūlūn to Kāfūr, 868–969". In Petry, Carl F. (ed.). The Cambridge History of Egypt, Volume 1: Islamic Egypt, 640–1517. Vol. 1. Cambridge University Press. pp. 86–119. doi:10.1017/CHOL9780521471374. ISBN 0-521-47137-0.
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Lemche 2001, 3.5. Lemche, Niels Peter (31 December 2001). "On The Problems of Reconstructing Pre-Hellenistic Israelite (Palestinian) History". The Journal of Hebrew Scriptures. 3. doi:10.5508/jhs.2000.v3.a1.
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Bagg 2013, p. 122. Bagg, Ariel M. (2013). "Palestine under Assyrian Rule: A New Look at the Assyrian Imperial Policy in the West". Journal of the American Oriental Society. 133 (1): 119–144. doi:10.7817/jameroriesoci.133.1.0119. JSTOR 10.7817/jameroriesoci.133.1.0119. Gale A337529852 ProQuest 1398770895.
Schipper 2011, p. 270. Schipper, Bernd U. (2011). "Egyptian Imperialism After The New Kingdom: The 26th Dynasty And The Southern Levant". Egypt, Canaan and Israel: History, Imperialism, Ideology and Literature. BRILL. pp. 268–290. doi:10.1163/ej.9789004194939.i-370.99. ISBN 978-90-04-21069-1.
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Schipper 2011, p. 270: the Assyrian rulers gradually conquered Egypt, and, with the fall of Thebes in 664 BCE, Schipper, Bernd U. (2011). "Egyptian Imperialism After The New Kingdom: The 26th Dynasty And The Southern Levant". Egypt, Canaan and Israel: History, Imperialism, Ideology and Literature. BRILL. pp. 268–290. doi:10.1163/ej.9789004194939.i-370.99. ISBN 978-90-04-21069-1.
Schipper 2011, p. 279. Schipper, Bernd U. (2011). "Egyptian Imperialism After The New Kingdom: The 26th Dynasty And The Southern Levant". Egypt, Canaan and Israel: History, Imperialism, Ideology and Literature. BRILL. pp. 268–290. doi:10.1163/ej.9789004194939.i-370.99. ISBN 978-90-04-21069-1.
Schipper 2011, p. 282. Schipper, Bernd U. (2011). "Egyptian Imperialism After The New Kingdom: The 26th Dynasty And The Southern Levant". Egypt, Canaan and Israel: History, Imperialism, Ideology and Literature. BRILL. pp. 268–290. doi:10.1163/ej.9789004194939.i-370.99. ISBN 978-90-04-21069-1.
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The entire population of these hill country villages at the peak of the settlement process, around 1000 BCE, could not have been much more than forty-five thousand (Finkelstein & Silberman 2002, p. 103). Finkelstein, Israel; Silberman, Neil Asher (2002). The Bible Unearthed: Archaeology's New Vision of Ancient Israel and the Origin of Sacred Texts. Simon and Schuster. ISBN 978-0-7432-2338-6. Archived from the original on 1 July 2023. Retrieved 15 November 2020.
Though the early Israelites did not eat pork, the Philistines clearly did (Finkelstein & Silberman 2002, p. 113) Finkelstein, Israel; Silberman, Neil Asher (2002). The Bible Unearthed: Archaeology's New Vision of Ancient Israel and the Origin of Sacred Texts. Simon and Schuster. ISBN 978-0-7432-2338-6. Archived from the original on 1 July 2023. Retrieved 15 November 2020.
The Israelites' aversion to decorated pottery goes back to the very origins of Israelite ethnicity, when the Iron Age I hill-country settlers were distinguishing themselves from their neighbors. Among the groups that bordered the hill country were the Philistines, who crafted elaborate vessels (Faust 2009, p. 69) Faust, Avraham (2009). "How Did Israel Become a People?". Biblical Archaeology Review. 35 (6): 62–69. Archived from the original on 19 December 2023. Retrieved 29 August 2021.
Patterns of behavior and material items that seem meaningful during Iron Age II include the avoidance of pork, a tradition of not decorating pottery, avoiding imported pottery, male circumcision and use of the four-room house (Faust 2009, p. 68). Faust, Avraham (2009). "How Did Israel Become a People?". Biblical Archaeology Review. 35 (6): 62–69. Archived from the original on 19 December 2023. Retrieved 29 August 2021.
The Philistines disappear from written history during the 6th century BCE (Jarus 2016). Jarus, Owen (16 July 2016). "Who Were the Philistines?". livescience.com. Archived from the original on 26 January 2021. Retrieved 15 November 2020.
Put simply, while Judah was still economically marginal and backward, Israel was booming. ... In the next chapter we will see how the northern kingdom suddenly appeared on the ancient Near Eastern stage as a major regional power (Finkelstein & Silberman 2002, pp. 146–147) Finkelstein, Israel; Silberman, Neil Asher (2002). The Bible Unearthed: Archaeology's New Vision of Ancient Israel and the Origin of Sacred Texts. Simon and Schuster. ISBN 978-0-7432-2338-6. Archived from the original on 1 July 2023. Retrieved 15 November 2020.
By the high point of this settlement wave in the eighth century BCE, after the establishment of the kingdoms of Judah and Israel, it encompassed over five hundred sites, with a population of about 160,000 (Finkelstein & Silberman 2002, p. 106). Finkelstein, Israel; Silberman, Neil Asher (2002). The Bible Unearthed: Archaeology's New Vision of Ancient Israel and the Origin of Sacred Texts. Simon and Schuster. ISBN 978-0-7432-2338-6. Archived from the original on 1 July 2023. Retrieved 15 November 2020.
The kingdom of Israel under the Omrides stretched from the vicinity of Damascus throughout the central highlands and valleys of Israel, all the way to the southern territory of Moab, ruling over considerable populations of non-Israelites (Finkelstein & Silberman 2002, pp. 162–163). Finkelstein, Israel; Silberman, Neil Asher (2002). The Bible Unearthed: Archaeology's New Vision of Ancient Israel and the Origin of Sacred Texts. Simon and Schuster. ISBN 978-0-7432-2338-6. Archived from the original on 1 July 2023. Retrieved 15 November 2020.
In the year 853 BCE, Shalmaneser led a major Assyrian invasion force westward to intimidate and possibly conquer the smaller states of Syria, Phoenicia, and Israel. His advancing armies were confronted by an anti-Assyrian coalition near Qarqar ... Ahab was the strongest member of the anti-Assyrian coalition. ... Shalmaneser quickly returned to Assyria, and at least for a while the Assyrian march to the west was blocked (Finkelstein & Silberman 2002, p. 163). Finkelstein, Israel; Silberman, Neil Asher (2002). The Bible Unearthed: Archaeology's New Vision of Ancient Israel and the Origin of Sacred Texts. Simon and Schuster. ISBN 978-0-7432-2338-6. Archived from the original on 1 July 2023. Retrieved 15 November 2020.
The events recorded in the inscription took place in the ninth century BCE ... The inscription goes on to relate how Mesha gradually expanded his territory in rebellion against Israel, destroying the main settlements of the Israelites east of the Jordan, while fortifying and embellishing his own capital (Finkelstein & Silberman 2002, p. 162). Finkelstein, Israel; Silberman, Neil Asher (2002). The Bible Unearthed: Archaeology's New Vision of Ancient Israel and the Origin of Sacred Texts. Simon and Schuster. ISBN 978-0-7432-2338-6. Archived from the original on 1 July 2023. Retrieved 15 November 2020.
Hazael's incursion into the territory formerly controlled by Israel was clearly devastating and did much to weaken the power of the northern kingdom. ... Hazael's prime target was control of the fertile and strategic borderland between the two kingdoms, and he apparently not only conquered the Aramean lands formerly taken by the Omrides but also devastated some of Israel's most fertile agricultural region (Finkelstein & Silberman 2002, pp. 182–183) Finkelstein, Israel; Silberman, Neil Asher (2002). The Bible Unearthed: Archaeology's New Vision of Ancient Israel and the Origin of Sacred Texts. Simon and Schuster. ISBN 978-0-7432-2338-6. Archived from the original on 1 July 2023. Retrieved 15 November 2020.
Jehu – who bought this security to the throne by becoming an Assyrian vassal (Schneider 2011, pp. 9–10) Schneider, Tammi J. (31 October 2011). "Through Assyria's Eyes: Israel's Relationship with Judah". Expedition Magazine. Vol. 44, no. 3. Archived from the original on 18 July 2022. Retrieved 4 April 2022.
And while Jehu, ..., the famous "black obelisk" of Shalmaneser shows him bowing low to the ground at the feet of the great Assyrian king. Shalmaneser also notes: "The tribute of Jehu, son of Omri; ..." (Finkelstein & Silberman 2002, pp. 187–188) Finkelstein, Israel; Silberman, Neil Asher (2002). The Bible Unearthed: Archaeology's New Vision of Ancient Israel and the Origin of Sacred Texts. Simon and Schuster. ISBN 978-0-7432-2338-6. Archived from the original on 1 July 2023. Retrieved 15 November 2020.
This new king, Tiglathpileser III ..., began ... a thorough revamping of the Assyrian empire – primarily in its relations to its former vassals, which would now be much more directly controlled. ... In the era of Assyrian imperialism that Tiglath pileser had inaugurated, vassaldom would soon give way to conquest and annexation (Finkelstein & Silberman 2002, p. 194) Finkelstein, Israel; Silberman, Neil Asher (2002). The Bible Unearthed: Archaeology's New Vision of Ancient Israel and the Origin of Sacred Texts. Simon and Schuster. ISBN 978-0-7432-2338-6. Archived from the original on 1 July 2023. Retrieved 15 November 2020.
Tiglath-pileser conquered the strongest and largest kingdoms in the region, inflicting heavy damage. He deported large parts of the populations, replacing them with exiles from remote regions, and annexed their territory to Assyria, turning them into Assyrian provinces (Lipschits 2006, p. 19). Lipschits, Oded (2006). "Achaemenid Imperial Policy and the Status of Jerusalem". In Lipschits, Oded; Oeming, Manfred (eds.). Judah and the Judeans in the Persian Period. Pennsylvania State University Press. pp. 19–52. ISBN 978-1-57506-250-1. Archived from the original on 19 December 2023. Retrieved 8 December 2020.
There is some debate on whether Ashurbanipal died in 631 or 627, see Lipschits 2005, p. 13 for details. Lipschits, Oled (2005). The Fall and Rise of Jerusalem: Judah under Babylonian Rule. Winona Lake: Eisenbrauns. ISBN 978-1-57506-095-8. Archived from the original on 19 December 2023. Retrieved 8 December 2020.
When Assurbanipal died in 627 BCE, ... struggles over succession led to a weakening of centralized power. ... Babylon revolted and went on the offensive against Assyria. ... All of the nations of Syria-Israel had become colonies of the Neo-Babylonian Empire by 601 BCE (Perdue & Carter 2015, p. 69). Perdue, Leo G.; Carter, Warren (2015). Israel and Empire: A Postcolonial History of Israel and Early Judaism. Bloomsbury Publishing. ISBN 978-0-567-28051-0. Archived from the original on 19 December 2023. Retrieved 15 November 2020.
Egypt decided to intervene on the side of the Assyrians, and in 616 its army marched to the north. But this move did not stop the Assyrian collapse. The great Assyrian capital of Nineveh fell in 612, ..., in 610, ... the Babylonians took Haran (Finkelstein & Silberman 2002, p. 259). Finkelstein, Israel; Silberman, Neil Asher (2002). The Bible Unearthed: Archaeology's New Vision of Ancient Israel and the Origin of Sacred Texts. Simon and Schuster. ISBN 978-0-7432-2338-6. Archived from the original on 1 July 2023. Retrieved 15 November 2020.
In 605 BCE, the Babylonian crown prince later known as Nebuchadnezzar crushed the Egyptian army at Carchemish in Syria (an event recorded in Jeremiah 46:2), causing the Egyptian forces to flee (Finkelstein & Silberman 2002, pp. 260–261) Finkelstein, Israel; Silberman, Neil Asher (2002). The Bible Unearthed: Archaeology's New Vision of Ancient Israel and the Origin of Sacred Texts. Simon and Schuster. ISBN 978-0-7432-2338-6. Archived from the original on 1 July 2023. Retrieved 15 November 2020.
In the year 604 BCE, the Philistines cities of Ashdod, Ekron, Ashkelon and Gaza were destroyed by Nebuchadnezzar (Ben-Shlomo 2010, p. 17) Ben-Shlomo, David (2010). Philistine Iconography: A Wealth of Style and Symbolism. Saint-Paul. ISBN 978-3-525-54360-3. Archived from the original on 19 December 2023. Retrieved 16 November 2020.
it seems that Nebuchadrezzar used the destruction of the region as a lever for rebuilding the parts of Babylonia that had been damaged during the long years of war, devastation, and deportation inflicted by the Assyrians. Large groups of exiles from the ruling, economic, and religious elite of the local kingdoms were sent to Babylon and settled in the devastated areas to develop them (Lipschits 2005, p. 24). Lipschits, Oled (2005). The Fall and Rise of Jerusalem: Judah under Babylonian Rule. Winona Lake: Eisenbrauns. ISBN 978-1-57506-095-8. Archived from the original on 19 December 2023. Retrieved 8 December 2020.
On the last occasion (601/600), Nebuchadnezzar clashed with an Egyptian army, with heavy losses; this reverse was followed by the defection of certain vassal states, Judah among them. This brought an intermission in the series of annual campaigns in 600/599, while Nebuchadnezzar remained in Babylonia repairing his losses of chariots (Saggs 2010). Saggs, Henry W.F. (2010). "Nebuchadnezzar II – Biography, Accomplishments, & Facts". Encyclopædia Britannica. Archived from the original on 18 January 2020. Retrieved 16 November 2020.
He attacked Judah a year later and captured Jerusalem on March 16, 597 (Saggs 2010) Saggs, Henry W.F. (2010). "Nebuchadnezzar II – Biography, Accomplishments, & Facts". Encyclopædia Britannica. Archived from the original on 18 January 2020. Retrieved 16 November 2020.
The semi-independent kingdoms in southern Palestine (Judah and the Philistine kingdoms of Gaza, Ashkelon, Ashdod and Ekron) ... were dissolved during Nebuchadnezzar's reign and they too were incorporated into the Chaldaean provinces (Ephal 2000, p. 142) Ephal, Israel (2000). "Syria-Palestine under Achaemenid Rule". The Cambridge Ancient History. Vol. 11. Cambridge University Press. pp. 139–. ISBN 978-0-521-22804-6. Archived from the original on 19 December 2023. Retrieved 16 November 2020.
a province with its capital at Mizpah, just north of Jerusalem. ... Throughout this era, the province was called Yehud (Noll 2013, p. 338) Noll, K. L. (2013). Canaan and Israel in Antiquity: A Textbook on History and Religion. Bloomsbury Publishing. pp. 340–. ISBN 978-0-567-18258-6. Archived from the original on 19 December 2023. Retrieved 16 November 2020.
in October 539, the Persian king took Babylon and captured its king Nabonidus. ...The Babylonian Empire had been large, and Cyrus now became ruler of Syria and Palestine as well (Lendering: Cyrus the Great). Lendering, Jona. "Cyrus the Great". Livius. Archived from the original on 12 November 2020. Retrieved 16 November 2020.
Cyrus' Edict ... indicate that Cyrus and his successors maintained a policy of repatriation for some 80 years (Ephal 2000, p. 151). Ephal, Israel (2000). "Syria-Palestine under Achaemenid Rule". The Cambridge Ancient History. Vol. 11. Cambridge University Press. pp. 139–. ISBN 978-0-521-22804-6. Archived from the original on 19 December 2023. Retrieved 16 November 2020.
One developing consensus of the past couple of decades is that ancient Israel was basically a polytheistic society, though Yhwh functioned in some way as a national/ethnic god (much as Chemosh did for the Moabites and Qaus/Qos for the Edomites) for both Israel and Judah (Grabbe 2006). Grabbe, Lester L. (2006). A History of the Jews and Judaism in the Second Temple Period (vol. 1): The Persian Period (539–331BCE). Bloomsbury Academic. pp. 85–. ISBN 978-0-567-04352-8. Archived from the original on 19 December 2023. Retrieved 13 December 2020.
Norms of behaviour, as well as social patterns, that were to characterize the Jewish people for many generations to come began to crystallize during the Persian period (Ephal 1998, p. 119). Ephal, Israel (1998). "Changes in Palestine during the Persian Period in Light of Epigraphic Sources". Israel Exploration Journal. 48 (1/2): 106–119. JSTOR 27926503. Archived from the original on 1 October 2021. Retrieved 8 December 2020.
Furthermore, the temple rested on foundations ... from a temple built no later than the mid-fifth century BCE (Hjelm 2010, p. 26). Hjelm, Ingrid (2010). "Mt. Gerizim and Samaritans in Recent Research". In Winkler, Waltraud (ed.). Samaritans: Past and Present: Current Studies. Walter de Gruyter. pp. 25–44. ISBN 978-3-11-019497-5. Archived from the original on 19 December 2023. Retrieved 25 December 2020.
which he had received from the king of Persia ("the lord of Kings") as a reward for "the important deeds which I did" (Ephal 2000, p. 144) Ephal, Israel (2000). "Syria-Palestine under Achaemenid Rule". The Cambridge Ancient History. Vol. 11. Cambridge University Press. pp. 139–. ISBN 978-0-521-22804-6. Archived from the original on 19 December 2023. Retrieved 16 November 2020.
We may also accept the Idea that in the early fifth century BCE. the Achaemenids granted Upper Galilee and the area east of Tyre to the Tyrians (Lipschits 2006, p. 27). Lipschits, Oded (2006). "Achaemenid Imperial Policy and the Status of Jerusalem". In Lipschits, Oded; Oeming, Manfred (eds.). Judah and the Judeans in the Persian Period. Pennsylvania State University Press. pp. 19–52. ISBN 978-1-57506-250-1. Archived from the original on 19 December 2023. Retrieved 8 December 2020.
around the middle of the fourth century, Phoenicians were occupying the entire coast ... as far as Ascalon in southern Palestine (Ephal 2000, p. 150) Ephal, Israel (2000). "Syria-Palestine under Achaemenid Rule". The Cambridge Ancient History. Vol. 11. Cambridge University Press. pp. 139–. ISBN 978-0-521-22804-6. Archived from the original on 19 December 2023. Retrieved 16 November 2020.
All that can be said with certainty is that the Nabataeans are known in the sources since the fourth century B.C. Up to that time the Qedarites, the dominant Arab tribe of the Persian period, controlled the south from the Hejaz and all of the Negev (Wenning 2007, p. 26) Wenning, Robert (2007). "The Nabataeans in History (Before AD 106)". In Politis, Konstantinos D. (ed.). The World of the Nabataeans. Vol. 2 of the International Conference, The World of the Herods and the Nabataeans, Held at the British Museum, 17–19 April 2001. Franz Steiner Verlag. ISBN 978-3-515-08816-9. Archived from the original on 19 December 2023. Retrieved 13 December 2020.
The earliest coins found in Palestine are of Greek origin: archaic and early classicial coinage of the late sixth and early fifth centuries BCE (Hübner 2014, p. 161) Hübner, Ulrich (2014). "The development of monetary systems in Palestine during the Achaemenid and Hellenistic Eras". In Hagen, Jürgen von; Welker, Michael (eds.). Money as God?: The Monetisation of the Market and its Impact on Religion, Politics, Law and Ethics. Cambridge University Press. pp. 164–. ISBN 978-1-107-04300-8. Archived from the original on 19 December 2023. Retrieved 16 November 2020.
it did not take long for local potters to imitate those fine wares, though they could not duplicate the high quality of manufacture for which the Greeks were known (Meyers & Chancey 2012, pp. 3–4) Meyers, Eric M.; Chancey, Mark A. (2012). Alexander to Constantine: Archaeology of the Land of the Bible. Vol. III. Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-14179-5. Archived from the original on 19 December 2023. Retrieved 15 December 2020.
The so-called Philisto-Arabian coins are among the oldest in Palestine. The mints were located in Gaza, Ashkelon, and Ashdod (Hübner 2014, p. 162). Hübner, Ulrich (2014). "The development of monetary systems in Palestine during the Achaemenid and Hellenistic Eras". In Hagen, Jürgen von; Welker, Michael (eds.). Money as God?: The Monetisation of the Market and its Impact on Religion, Politics, Law and Ethics. Cambridge University Press. pp. 164–. ISBN 978-1-107-04300-8. Archived from the original on 19 December 2023. Retrieved 16 November 2020.
Since the second quarter of the fourth century, coins were also minted in the province of Judah (Hübner 2014, p. 165) Hübner, Ulrich (2014). "The development of monetary systems in Palestine during the Achaemenid and Hellenistic Eras". In Hagen, Jürgen von; Welker, Michael (eds.). Money as God?: The Monetisation of the Market and its Impact on Religion, Politics, Law and Ethics. Cambridge University Press. pp. 164–. ISBN 978-1-107-04300-8. Archived from the original on 19 December 2023. Retrieved 16 November 2020.
Herod ... who built many ... public buildings and generally raised the prosperity of his land but who was the centre of political and family intrigues in his later years (Perowne 1999). Perowne, Stewart Henry (1999). "Herod". Encyclopædia Britannica. Archived from the original on 25 June 2015. Retrieved 19 December 2020.
As soon as Herod the Great died in 4 BCE, a wave of unrest surged through Palestine. Herod's son Archelaus quickly put down the demonstrations, with the aid of Roman troops as well as Herod's army (Grabbe 2010, p. 71). Grabbe, Lester L. (2010). An Introduction to Second Temple Judaism: History and Religion of the Jews in the Time of Nehemiah, the Maccabees, Hillel, and Jesus. A&C Black. ISBN 978-0-567-55248-8. Archived from the original on 19 December 2023. Retrieved 18 December 2020.
He does not mention Galilee, and there is little to no physical or literary evidence for the war in the north, though recent archaeology in the region has hinted that it may have reached that far (Meyers & Chancey 2012, p. 169). Meyers, Eric M.; Chancey, Mark A. (2012). Alexander to Constantine: Archaeology of the Land of the Bible. Vol. III. Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-14179-5. Archived from the original on 19 December 2023. Retrieved 15 December 2020.
"It seems clear that by choosing a seemingly neutral name – one juxtaposing that of a neighboring province with the revived name of an ancient geographical entity (Palestine), already known from the writings of Herodotus – Hadrian was intending to suppress any connection between the Jewish people and that land." Lewin 2005, p. 33 Lewin, Ariel (2005). The Archaeology of Ancient Judea and Palestine. Getty Publications. ISBN 978-0-89236-800-6. Archived from the original on 19 December 2023. Retrieved 23 December 2020.
Even Geva's minimalist estimate of a population of 4,000 or fewer for Aelia Capitolina may be high (Seligman 2017, p. 116) Seligman, Jon (2017). "'Absence of Evidence' or 'Evidence of Absence' Was Jerusalem the Legionary Camp and Where Was Civilian Aelia Capitolina?". In Avni, Gideon; Stiebel, Guy (eds.). Roman Jerusalem: A New Old City. Journal of Roman Archaeology. pp. 107–116. ISBN 978-0-9913730-9-3. Archived from the original on 19 December 2023. Retrieved 24 December 2020.
Christian and Rabbinic sources claim that Roman law now forbade Jews to resettle the area around Jerusalem – an area that covered almost the entire historic district of Judaea (Schwartz 2016, p. 248). Schwartz, Seth (2016). "The Impact of the Jewish Rebellions, 66–135 CE: Destruction or Provincialization?". Revolt and Resistance in the Ancient Classical World and the Near East: In the Crucible of Empire. Brill. pp. 234–252. ISBN 978-90-04-33018-4. Archived from the original on 19 December 2023. Retrieved 17 December 2020.
At Antioch and at Emesa he scored a decisive victory against the Palmyrene army and in 272 he forced Palmyra to surrender (Dignas & Winter 2007, p. 161). Dignas, Beate; Winter, Engelbert (2007) [First published 2001]. Rome and Persia in Late Antiquity: Neighbours and Rivals. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-84925-8. Archived from the original on 19 December 2023. Retrieved 25 December 2020.
Although eschatology is the doctrine of last things, the Jews who anticipated future redemption did not expect the end of the world. Instead, they thought that God would intervene in human history and make the world perfect: that is, the Jews would live in the Holy Land free of foreign domination and in peace and prosperity. Many Jews, including John, expected final judgment to precede this golden age, and he taught that people should repent in view of its imminence (Matthew 3:1–12; Luke 3:3–9) (Britannica: Jesus – The Context of Jesus Career). "Jesus – The context of Jesus' career". Encyclopædia Britannica. Archived from the original on 11 November 2020. Retrieved 27 December 2020.
The main activity in the temple was blood sacrifice. ... the sources suggest that many and perhaps even most male Jews in Palestine came up one or more times a year to the temple (Grabbe 2010, p. 40). Grabbe, Lester L. (2010). An Introduction to Second Temple Judaism: History and Religion of the Jews in the Time of Nehemiah, the Maccabees, Hillel, and Jesus. A&C Black. ISBN 978-0-567-55248-8. Archived from the original on 19 December 2023. Retrieved 18 December 2020.
an unlicensed forms of monotheism: Christianity. Its members did not have to pay the two drachms, but could be persecuted (Lendering: Fiscus Judaicus). Lendering, Jona (28 April 2020). "Fiscus Judaicus". Livius. Archived from the original on 27 November 2022. Retrieved 31 December 2020.
In late February of 303, the emperor Diocletian and his imperial colleagues issued an edict ordering churches to be destroyed, scriptures to be burned, and Christians to be dismissed from government service and stripped of civil rights. ... This marked the formal opening of the Great Persecution, the last and most brutal assault on Christians by the pagan Roman state (Gaddis 1999, p. 29). Gaddis, Michael (1999). There is No Crime for Those who Have Christ: Religious Violence in the Christian Roman Empire. Princeton University. ISBN 978-0-520-24104-6. Archived from the original on 19 December 2023. Retrieved 5 January 2021.
Constantine began issuing laws conveying upon the church and its clergy fiscal and legal privileges and immunities from civic burdens (Britannica: Constantine I – Commitment to Christianity) "Constantine I – Commitment to Christianity". Encyclopædia Britannica. 2020. Archived from the original on 15 April 2017. Retrieved 3 January 2021.
In a sense Constantine becomes the embodiment of the righteous king. ... The bishops now have basically federal funding to have sponsored committee meetings so they can try to iron out creeds and get everybody to sign up (Cohen 2015). Cohen, Shaye I.D. (18 November 2015). "Why Did Christianity Succeed? – Legimitization Under Constantine". PBS. Archived from the original on 14 January 2021. Retrieved 31 December 2020.
It also became a great centre of the eremitic life (idiorrhythmic monasticism); men flocked from all quarters to become hermits in the Judaean wilderness, which was soon dotted with monasteries (Britannica: Palestine – Roman Palestine). "Palestine – Roman Palestine". Encyclopædia Britannica. Archived from the original on 30 October 2023. Retrieved 24 December 2020.
towns increasingly acquired new civic basilicas and porticoed streets with spaces for shops. ... a vigorous boost from the erection of many churches and other religious buildings (Lewin 2005, p. 41). Lewin, Ariel (2005). The Archaeology of Ancient Judea and Palestine. Getty Publications. ISBN 978-0-89236-800-6. Archived from the original on 19 December 2023. Retrieved 23 December 2020.
Notable scholars of this era were: the Gazan rhetoricans and sophists Aeneas, Choricius, Procopius, and the grammarian John; the Caesarean authors and historians Procopius, Gelasius, Eusebius, and the theologican Origen; the hagiographer Cyril of Scythopolis; and the Church historian Zacharias Rhetor (Kazhdan 1991, p. 1563, Palestine). Kazhdan, Aleksandr Petrovich (1991). The Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-504652-6. Archived from the original on 19 December 2023. Retrieved 8 January 2021.
Renouncing the orthodox Christianity ... Furthermore, he publicly and energetically embraced polytheism and proclaimed universal religious toleration ... Finally, he announced that he intended to oversee the rebuilding of the Jews' Temple in Jerusalem (Fredriksen & Irshai 2008, p. 1003). Fredriksen, Paula; Irshai, Oded (2008). "Christian anti-Judaism: polemics and policies". In Katz, Steven T. (ed.). The Cambridge History of Judaism: Volume 4, The Late Roman-Rabbinic Period. Cambridge University Press. pp. 997–1034. ISBN 978-0-521-77248-8. Archived from the original on 19 December 2023. Retrieved 24 December 2020.
Although Emperor Trajan defeated the Nabataeans ... the culture did not diminish until changing political ties and economic disruptions moved trade routes away from Petra (Lawler 2011, p. 220). Lawler, Jennifer (2011). Encyclopedia of the Byzantine Empire. McFarland. ISBN 978-0-7864-6616-0. Archived from the original on 19 December 2023. Retrieved 7 January 2021.
Greek eventually replaced Aramaic as an official idiom for bureaucracy after the fourth century C.E (Gzella 2015, p. 242). Gzella, Holger (2015). A Cultural History of Aramaic: From the Beginnings to the Advent of Islam. Brill. ISBN 978-90-04-28510-1. Archived from the original on 19 December 2023. Retrieved 7 January 2021.
And for the many Nabataeans (probably most) who became Christians, the language of their liturgy was neither Arabic nor Aramaic but the less familiar Greek (Taylor 2002, p. 213). Taylor, Jane (2002). Petra and the Lost Kingdom of the Nabataeans. Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-674-00849-6. Archived from the original on 19 December 2023. Retrieved 7 January 2021.
The decisive battle that delivered Palestine to the Muslims took place on August 20, 636. Only Jerusalem and Caesarea held out, the former until 638, when it surrendered to the Muslims, and the latter until October 640. Palestine, and indeed all of Syria, was then in Muslim hands (Britannica: Palestine – Roman Palestine). "Palestine – Roman Palestine". Encyclopædia Britannica. Archived from the original on 30 October 2023. Retrieved 24 December 2020.
Muslim men are permitted to marry women from Ahl al-Kitāb even if the latter choose to remain in their religion. Muslim women, however, are not allowed to marry Christians or Jews unless they convert to Islam (Britannica: Ahl al-Kitab). "Ahl al-Kitāb – Islam". Encyclopædia Britannica. Archived from the original on 21 November 2020. Retrieved 12 January 2021.
At first there were four districts, but a fifth, Jund Qinnasrin in the north was added in about 680 (Hawting 2000, p. 38). Hawting, Gerald R. (2000). The First Dynasty of Islam: The Umayyad Caliphate AD 661–750 (2nd ed.). London; New York: Routledge. ISBN 0-415-24072-7. Archived from the original on 19 December 2023. Retrieved 26 April 2022.
Later, about 680, a fifth district was added, Qinnasrin in the north (Hawting 2000, p. 38) Hawting, Gerald R. (2000). The First Dynasty of Islam: The Umayyad Caliphate AD 661–750 (2nd ed.). London; New York: Routledge. ISBN 0-415-24072-7. Archived from the original on 19 December 2023. Retrieved 26 April 2022.
the Cluniac Reforms popularized pilgrimage to the Holy Sites as a means to expiate sin (Tejirian & Spector Simon 2012, p. 26) Tejirian, Eleanor H.; Spector Simon, Reeva (2012). Conflict, Conquest, and Conversion: Two Thousand Years of Christian Missions in the Middle East. Columbia University Press. ISBN 978-0-231-51109-4. Archived from the original on 19 December 2023. Retrieved 17 January 2021.
Although this shift of focus away from Palestine did not cause an immediate decline in the region, it did put an end to the extravagant investments that characterized Umayyad rule (Burke & Peilstocker 2011, p. 114). Burke, Aaron A; Peilstocker, Martin (2011). The History and Archaeology of Jaffa 1. Cotsen Institute of Archaeology Press. ISBN 978-1-938770-56-2. Archived from the original on 19 December 2023. Retrieved 12 January 2021.
There is some debate on how the Abbasids rule affected Syria. Paul M. Cobb writes: "However unhappy some Syrians may have been, the large-scale political breakdown and socio-economic collapse of 'Abbasid Syria that modern scholarship has posited for so long has no historical basis. Indeed, in certain cases, contention – especially interelite competition like that of Syria's ashraf – can be seen as a kind of backhanded compliment to the success of the 'Abbasid state-building and an affirmation of its legitimacy. Political life in 'Abbasid Syria was certainly different from that under the Umayyads, but, all things considered, it showed little change for the worse." (Cobb 2001, p. 128) Cobb, Paul M. (2001). White Banners: Contention in 'Abbasid Syria, 750–880. SUNY Press. ISBN 978-0-7914-4880-9. Archived from the original on 19 December 2023. Retrieved 16 January 2021.
During the second half of the 9th century, however, signs of internal decay began to appear in the 'Abbāsid empire. Petty states, and some indeed not so petty, emerged in different parts of the realm (Britannica: Palestine – Roman Palestine). "Palestine – Roman Palestine". Encyclopædia Britannica. Archived from the original on 30 October 2023. Retrieved 24 December 2020.
Finally, in 969, under the caliph al-Muʿizz, the first stage in the advance to the East was completed. Fāṭimid troops conquered the Nile Valley and advanced across Sinai into Palestine and southern Syria (Britannica: Fatimid Dynasty). "Fāṭimid Dynasty – Islamic dynasty". Encyclopædia Britannica. Archived from the original on 1 September 2022. Retrieved 16 January 2021.
The 1020s were particularly harrowing. The outrages perpetrated by the Bedouins "were unlike anything experienced in the countries of Islam since its inception" (Geniza letter, in Mann, Jews in Egypt, ii, 181, l. 22). The details reported in the Geniza letters are revolting ... the population must have considerably shrunk, possibly an outcome of the catastrophic tribulations by the Bedouins in the 1020 (Goitein & Grabar 2007, pp. 232–234) Goitein, S.D.; Grabar, O. (2007). "Jerusalem". In Bosworth, Clifford Edmund (ed.). Historic Cities of the Islamic World. Brill. pp. 224–255. ISBN 978-90-04-15388-2. Archived from the original on 29 June 2023. Retrieved 19 January 2021.
In return for a ten-year truce between the kingdom of Jerusalem and the Muslims, al-Kamil would give to Frederick Jerusalem, Bethlehem, and Nazareth, as well as a thin strip of land connecting the holy sites to the coast (Madden 2014, pp. 150–151). Madden, Thomas F. (2014). The Concise History of the Crusades. Rowman & Littlefield Publishers. ISBN 978-1-4422-3116-0. Archived from the original on 19 December 2023. Retrieved 26 January 2021.
Certain that the crusaders would accept the proposal, al-Mu'azzam ordered the destruction of the walls of Jerusalem in March 1219 (Madden 2014, p. 141). Madden, Thomas F. (2014). The Concise History of the Crusades. Rowman & Littlefield Publishers. ISBN 978-1-4422-3116-0. Archived from the original on 19 December 2023. Retrieved 26 January 2021.
Pooling the resources of the Frankish nobility and the Military Orders, the Christians managed to muster around two thousand knights and perhaps a further 10,000 infantrymen. This host–the largest field army amassed in the East since the Third Crusade–represented the Latin kingdom's full fighting manpower (Asbridge 2010, p. 474). Asbridge, Thomas (2010). The Crusades: The Authoritative History of the War for the Holy Land. HarperCollins e-books. ISBN 978-0-06-198136-4. Archived from the original on 19 December 2023. Retrieved 25 January 2021.
On 18 October 1244 they launched an attack and battle was joined on the sandy plains near the village of La Forbie (north-east of Gaza). For the Franks and their allies, the mêlée that followed was an unmitigated disaster (Asbridge 2010, pp. 474–475). Asbridge, Thomas (2010). The Crusades: The Authoritative History of the War for the Holy Land. HarperCollins e-books. ISBN 978-0-06-198136-4. Archived from the original on 19 December 2023. Retrieved 25 January 2021.
6 Arab states, Egypt, Iraq, Lebanon, Saudi Arabia, Syria, Yemen: 4 Moslem states, Afghanistan, Iran, Pakistan, Turkey: Greece, Cuba and India also voted against (Cattan 1988, p. 36). Cattan, Henry (1988). The Palestine Question. Croom Helm. p. 36. ISBN 978-0-7099-4878-0. Archived from the original on 31 July 2023. Retrieved 21 March 2023.
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Finkelstein & Silberman 2002. Finkelstein, Israel; Silberman, Neil Asher (2002). The Bible Unearthed: Archaeology's New Vision of Ancient Israel and the Origin of Sacred Texts. Simon and Schuster. ISBN 978-0-7432-2338-6. Archived from the original on 1 July 2023. Retrieved 15 November 2020.
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Perdue & Carter 2015, p. 69. Perdue, Leo G.; Carter, Warren (2015). Israel and Empire: A Postcolonial History of Israel and Early Judaism. Bloomsbury Publishing. ISBN 978-0-567-28051-0. Archived from the original on 19 December 2023. Retrieved 15 November 2020.
Finkelstein & Silberman 2002, p. 259. Finkelstein, Israel; Silberman, Neil Asher (2002). The Bible Unearthed: Archaeology's New Vision of Ancient Israel and the Origin of Sacred Texts. Simon and Schuster. ISBN 978-0-7432-2338-6. Archived from the original on 1 July 2023. Retrieved 15 November 2020.
Finkelstein & Silberman 2002, pp. 260–261. Finkelstein, Israel; Silberman, Neil Asher (2002). The Bible Unearthed: Archaeology's New Vision of Ancient Israel and the Origin of Sacred Texts. Simon and Schuster. ISBN 978-0-7432-2338-6. Archived from the original on 1 July 2023. Retrieved 15 November 2020.
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Perdue & Carter 2015, p. 69: All of the nations of Syria-Israel had become colonies of the Neo-Babylonian Empire by 601 BCE. Perdue, Leo G.; Carter, Warren (2015). Israel and Empire: A Postcolonial History of Israel and Early Judaism. Bloomsbury Publishing. ISBN 978-0-567-28051-0. Archived from the original on 19 December 2023. Retrieved 15 November 2020.
Saggs 2010: In this respect he followed the methods of his Assyrian predecessors. Saggs, Henry W.F. (2010). "Nebuchadnezzar II – Biography, Accomplishments, & Facts". Encyclopædia Britannica. Archived from the original on 18 January 2020. Retrieved 16 November 2020.
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Saggs 2010: deporting King Jehoiachin to Babylon. Finkelstein & Silberman 2002, p. 261: The Jerusalem aristocracy and priesthood ... were taken off into exile, Saggs, Henry W.F. (2010). "Nebuchadnezzar II – Biography, Accomplishments, & Facts". Encyclopædia Britannica. Archived from the original on 18 January 2020. Retrieved 16 November 2020. Finkelstein, Israel; Silberman, Neil Asher (2002). The Bible Unearthed: Archaeology's New Vision of Ancient Israel and the Origin of Sacred Texts. Simon and Schuster. ISBN 978-0-7432-2338-6. Archived from the original on 1 July 2023. Retrieved 15 November 2020.
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Ephal 2000, p. 161. Ephal, Israel (2000). "Syria-Palestine under Achaemenid Rule". The Cambridge Ancient History. Vol. 11. Cambridge University Press. pp. 139–. ISBN 978-0-521-22804-6. Archived from the original on 19 December 2023. Retrieved 16 November 2020.
Ephal 2000, p. 151. Ephal, Israel (2000). "Syria-Palestine under Achaemenid Rule". The Cambridge Ancient History. Vol. 11. Cambridge University Press. pp. 139–. ISBN 978-0-521-22804-6. Archived from the original on 19 December 2023. Retrieved 16 November 2020.
Ahlström 1994, pp. 804–890. Ahlström, Gösta Werner (1994). The history of ancient Palestine. Fortress Press. ISBN 0-8006-2770-9. OCLC 704333266. Archived from the original on 19 December 2023. Retrieved 16 February 2022.
Crotty 2017, p. 25 f.n. 4. Crotty, Robert Brian (2017). The Christian Survivor: How Roman Christianity Defeated Its Early Competitors. Springer. p. 25 f.n. 4. ISBN 978-981-10-3214-1. Archived from the original on 19 December 2023. Retrieved 15 February 2022. The Babylonians translated the Hebrew name [Judah] into Aramaic as Yehud Medinata ('the province of Judah') or simply 'Yehud' and made it a new Babylonian province. This was inherited by the Persians. Under the Greeks, Yehud was translated as Judaea and this was taken over by the Romans. After the Jewish rebellion of 135 CE, the Romans renamed the area Syria Palaestina or simply Palestine. The area described by these land titles differed to some extent in the different periods.
Grabbe 2004, p. 355. Grabbe, Lester L. (2004). A History of the Jews and Judaism in the Second Temple Period: Yehud – A History of the Persian Province of Judah v. 1. T & T Clark. p. 355. ISBN 978-0-567-08998-4. Archived from the original on 19 December 2023. Retrieved 15 February 2022.
Grabbe 2006. Grabbe, Lester L. (2006). A History of the Jews and Judaism in the Second Temple Period (vol. 1): The Persian Period (539–331BCE). Bloomsbury Academic. pp. 85–. ISBN 978-0-567-04352-8. Archived from the original on 19 December 2023. Retrieved 13 December 2020.
Ephal 1998, p. 119. Ephal, Israel (1998). "Changes in Palestine during the Persian Period in Light of Epigraphic Sources". Israel Exploration Journal. 48 (1/2): 106–119. JSTOR 27926503. Archived from the original on 1 October 2021. Retrieved 8 December 2020.
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Hjelm 2010, p. 26. Hjelm, Ingrid (2010). "Mt. Gerizim and Samaritans in Recent Research". In Winkler, Waltraud (ed.). Samaritans: Past and Present: Current Studies. Walter de Gruyter. pp. 25–44. ISBN 978-3-11-019497-5. Archived from the original on 19 December 2023. Retrieved 25 December 2020.
Ephal 1998, pp. 114–115: One or two generations before the destruction of the kingdom of Judah in 586 BCE, Edomites began to infiltrate into southern Palestine. ... Idumaea, south and west of the province of Judah; Magness 2012, p. 75: After 586 BCE, Edomites settled in the southern part of the former kingdom of Judah (the northern Negev). Their descendants were known as Idumaeans, and the area was called Idumaea. Ephal, Israel (1998). "Changes in Palestine during the Persian Period in Light of Epigraphic Sources". Israel Exploration Journal. 48 (1/2): 106–119. JSTOR 27926503. Archived from the original on 1 October 2021. Retrieved 8 December 2020. Magness, Jodi (2012). The Archaeology of the Holy Land: From the Destruction of Solomon's Temple to the Muslim Conquest. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-12413-3.
Lipschits 2006, pp. 26–27. Lipschits, Oded (2006). "Achaemenid Imperial Policy and the Status of Jerusalem". In Lipschits, Oded; Oeming, Manfred (eds.). Judah and the Judeans in the Persian Period. Pennsylvania State University Press. pp. 19–52. ISBN 978-1-57506-250-1. Archived from the original on 19 December 2023. Retrieved 8 December 2020.
Lipschits 2006, p. 26: Development of maritime trade was probably the main reason Lipschits, Oded (2006). "Achaemenid Imperial Policy and the Status of Jerusalem". In Lipschits, Oded; Oeming, Manfred (eds.). Judah and the Judeans in the Persian Period. Pennsylvania State University Press. pp. 19–52. ISBN 978-1-57506-250-1. Archived from the original on 19 December 2023. Retrieved 8 December 2020.
Ephal 2000, p. 144. Ephal, Israel (2000). "Syria-Palestine under Achaemenid Rule". The Cambridge Ancient History. Vol. 11. Cambridge University Press. pp. 139–. ISBN 978-0-521-22804-6. Archived from the original on 19 December 2023. Retrieved 16 November 2020.
Lipschits 2006, p. 27. Lipschits, Oded (2006). "Achaemenid Imperial Policy and the Status of Jerusalem". In Lipschits, Oded; Oeming, Manfred (eds.). Judah and the Judeans in the Persian Period. Pennsylvania State University Press. pp. 19–52. ISBN 978-1-57506-250-1. Archived from the original on 19 December 2023. Retrieved 8 December 2020.
Ephal 2000, p. 150. Ephal, Israel (2000). "Syria-Palestine under Achaemenid Rule". The Cambridge Ancient History. Vol. 11. Cambridge University Press. pp. 139–. ISBN 978-0-521-22804-6. Archived from the original on 19 December 2023. Retrieved 16 November 2020.
Ephal 2000, p. 162. Ephal, Israel (2000). "Syria-Palestine under Achaemenid Rule". The Cambridge Ancient History. Vol. 11. Cambridge University Press. pp. 139–. ISBN 978-0-521-22804-6. Archived from the original on 19 December 2023. Retrieved 16 November 2020.
Wenning 2007, p. 26. Wenning, Robert (2007). "The Nabataeans in History (Before AD 106)". In Politis, Konstantinos D. (ed.). The World of the Nabataeans. Vol. 2 of the International Conference, The World of the Herods and the Nabataeans, Held at the British Museum, 17–19 April 2001. Franz Steiner Verlag. ISBN 978-3-515-08816-9. Archived from the original on 19 December 2023. Retrieved 13 December 2020.
Shahin 2005, p. 6: the Nabataenas (400 BCE–160 CE), with their capital in Petra (Jordan), made inroads into southern Palestine and built a separate and flourishing civilization in the Negev. Wenning 2007, p. 26: Beside the establishment of Idumaea, which meant the loss of a large territory, the Qedarites obviously lost of their privileges of the frankincense trade. It can be assumed that they were replaced by the Nabataeans. Masalha 2018, p. 153 Shahin, Mariam (2005). Palestine: A Guide. Interlink Books. ISBN 1-56656-557-X – via Internet Archive. Wenning, Robert (2007). "The Nabataeans in History (Before AD 106)". In Politis, Konstantinos D. (ed.). The World of the Nabataeans. Vol. 2 of the International Conference, The World of the Herods and the Nabataeans, Held at the British Museum, 17–19 April 2001. Franz Steiner Verlag. ISBN 978-3-515-08816-9. Archived from the original on 19 December 2023. Retrieved 13 December 2020. Masalha, Nur (2018). Palestine: A Four Thousand Year History. Bloomsbury Academic. ISBN 978-1-78699-274-1.
Meyers & Chancey 2012, p. 3: despite ... the devastating wars between Greece and Persia in the fifth century, Greek cultural influence rose steadily; Ephal 1998, p. 118 Meyers, Eric M.; Chancey, Mark A. (2012). Alexander to Constantine: Archaeology of the Land of the Bible. Vol. III. Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-14179-5. Archived from the original on 19 December 2023. Retrieved 15 December 2020. Ephal, Israel (1998). "Changes in Palestine during the Persian Period in Light of Epigraphic Sources". Israel Exploration Journal. 48 (1/2): 106–119. JSTOR 27926503. Archived from the original on 1 October 2021. Retrieved 8 December 2020.
Hübner 2014, p. 161. Hübner, Ulrich (2014). "The development of monetary systems in Palestine during the Achaemenid and Hellenistic Eras". In Hagen, Jürgen von; Welker, Michael (eds.). Money as God?: The Monetisation of the Market and its Impact on Religion, Politics, Law and Ethics. Cambridge University Press. pp. 164–. ISBN 978-1-107-04300-8. Archived from the original on 19 December 2023. Retrieved 16 November 2020.
Meyers & Chancey 2012, p. 3. Meyers, Eric M.; Chancey, Mark A. (2012). Alexander to Constantine: Archaeology of the Land of the Bible. Vol. III. Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-14179-5. Archived from the original on 19 December 2023. Retrieved 15 December 2020.
Schäfer 2003, p. 1; Hengel 1984, pp. 35–36: For a long time the western districts of the empire, especially Phoenicia, had been oriented in economic, cultural and military affairs towards Greece and the Aegean. ... No well-to-do household in Palestine would have lacked Greek pottery, terracottas and other luxury items; Greek coins and their local imitations had long been an important medium of exchange. Schwartz 2009, p. 24: By the fifth century, Greek goods predominated over all other imports in the cities of the Syro-Palestinian coast. ... the trickle of Greek imports now turned into a flood Schäfer, Peter (2003). The History of the Jews in the Greco-Roman World. Psychology Press. ISBN 978-0-415-30585-3. Hengel, Martin (1984). "The political and social history of Palestine from Alexander to Antiochus III". In Davies, William David; Finkelstein, Louis (eds.). The Cambridge History of Judaism: Volume 2, The Hellenistic Age. Cambridge University Press. pp. 35–78. ISBN 978-0-521-21929-7. Archived from the original on 19 December 2023. Retrieved 14 December 2020. Schwartz, Seth (2009). Imperialism and Jewish Society: 200 B.C.E. to 640 C.E. Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-1-4008-2485-4. Archived from the original on 19 December 2023. Retrieved 16 December 2020.
Meyers & Chancey 2012, pp. 3–4. Meyers, Eric M.; Chancey, Mark A. (2012). Alexander to Constantine: Archaeology of the Land of the Bible. Vol. III. Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-14179-5. Archived from the original on 19 December 2023. Retrieved 15 December 2020.
Hübner 2014, p. 162. Hübner, Ulrich (2014). "The development of monetary systems in Palestine during the Achaemenid and Hellenistic Eras". In Hagen, Jürgen von; Welker, Michael (eds.). Money as God?: The Monetisation of the Market and its Impact on Religion, Politics, Law and Ethics. Cambridge University Press. pp. 164–. ISBN 978-1-107-04300-8. Archived from the original on 19 December 2023. Retrieved 16 November 2020.
Hübner 2014, p. 165. Hübner, Ulrich (2014). "The development of monetary systems in Palestine during the Achaemenid and Hellenistic Eras". In Hagen, Jürgen von; Welker, Michael (eds.). Money as God?: The Monetisation of the Market and its Impact on Religion, Politics, Law and Ethics. Cambridge University Press. pp. 164–. ISBN 978-1-107-04300-8. Archived from the original on 19 December 2023. Retrieved 16 November 2020.
Ephal 1998, p. 108. Ephal, Israel (1998). "Changes in Palestine during the Persian Period in Light of Epigraphic Sources". Israel Exploration Journal. 48 (1/2): 106–119. JSTOR 27926503. Archived from the original on 1 October 2021. Retrieved 8 December 2020.
Ephal 2000, p. 145: it would appear that the Egyptians seized control of the entire coastal strip of Palestine and Phoenicia for a time. Stern 1984, p. 75: They seized the northern part of the coastal plain of Palestine and for a brief period also held Tyre and Sidon. Meyers & Chancey 2012, p. 7: the Egyptians rebelled ... taking control of the northern part of the coastal plain and for a short time part of the Phoenician coast including Akko and Sidon as well. Ephal, Israel (2000). "Syria-Palestine under Achaemenid Rule". The Cambridge Ancient History. Vol. 11. Cambridge University Press. pp. 139–. ISBN 978-0-521-22804-6. Archived from the original on 19 December 2023. Retrieved 16 November 2020. Stern, Ephraim (1984). "The Persian Empire and the Political and Social History of Palestine in the Persian Period". In Davies, William Donald; Finkelstein, Louis (eds.). The Cambridge History of Judaism: Volume 1, Introduction: The Persian Period. Cambridge University Press. pp. 70–87. ISBN 978-0-521-21880-1. Meyers, Eric M.; Chancey, Mark A. (2012). Alexander to Constantine: Archaeology of the Land of the Bible. Vol. III. Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-14179-5. Archived from the original on 19 December 2023. Retrieved 15 December 2020.
Bowman 2020; Meyers & Chancey 2012, p. 7: subsequently the Persians ... marched to Egypt and recovered it in 343 BCE. Bowman, Alan K. (2020). "Ancient Egypt – Egypt under Achaemenid rule". Encyclopædia Britannica. Archived from the original on 20 June 2015. Retrieved 4 December 2020. Meyers, Eric M.; Chancey, Mark A. (2012). Alexander to Constantine: Archaeology of the Land of the Bible. Vol. III. Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-14179-5. Archived from the original on 19 December 2023. Retrieved 15 December 2020.
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Ephal 1998, p. 116. Ephal, Israel (1998). "Changes in Palestine during the Persian Period in Light of Epigraphic Sources". Israel Exploration Journal. 48 (1/2): 106–119. JSTOR 27926503. Archived from the original on 1 October 2021. Retrieved 8 December 2020.
Ephal 2000, p. 147. Ephal, Israel (2000). "Syria-Palestine under Achaemenid Rule". The Cambridge Ancient History. Vol. 11. Cambridge University Press. pp. 139–. ISBN 978-0-521-22804-6. Archived from the original on 19 December 2023. Retrieved 16 November 2020.
; Hengel 1984, p. 52: With the exception of the fourth Syrian war (219–217) it was for most of the land a time of peace; Meyers & Chancey 2012, p. 16: Despite the high tension between the rival factions for control of Palestine, the third century may be viewed as a time of relative prosperity and quiet. Hengel, Martin (1984). "The political and social history of Palestine from Alexander to Antiochus III". In Davies, William David; Finkelstein, Louis (eds.). The Cambridge History of Judaism: Volume 2, The Hellenistic Age. Cambridge University Press. pp. 35–78. ISBN 978-0-521-21929-7. Archived from the original on 19 December 2023. Retrieved 14 December 2020. Meyers, Eric M.; Chancey, Mark A. (2012). Alexander to Constantine: Archaeology of the Land of the Bible. Vol. III. Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-14179-5. Archived from the original on 19 December 2023. Retrieved 15 December 2020.
Hengel 1984, p. 49 Hengel, Martin (1984). "The political and social history of Palestine from Alexander to Antiochus III". In Davies, William David; Finkelstein, Louis (eds.). The Cambridge History of Judaism: Volume 2, The Hellenistic Age. Cambridge University Press. pp. 35–78. ISBN 978-0-521-21929-7. Archived from the original on 19 December 2023. Retrieved 14 December 2020.
Hengel 1984, p. 49 Hengel, Martin (1984). "The political and social history of Palestine from Alexander to Antiochus III". In Davies, William David; Finkelstein, Louis (eds.). The Cambridge History of Judaism: Volume 2, The Hellenistic Age. Cambridge University Press. pp. 35–78. ISBN 978-0-521-21929-7. Archived from the original on 19 December 2023. Retrieved 14 December 2020.
Atkinson 2018, p. 20. Atkinson, Kenneth (2018). The Hasmoneans and Their Neighbors. Jewish and Christian texts in contexts and related studies. London; New York: T&T Clark. ISBN 978-0-567-68082-2. Archived from the original on 19 December 2023. Retrieved 5 June 2022.
Grabbe 2010, p. 18; Schäfer 2003, p. 58: The Maccabees had achieved their main political objective and freed Judaea de facto (though not de jure) from the Seleucid confederation. Grabbe, Lester L. (2010). An Introduction to Second Temple Judaism: History and Religion of the Jews in the Time of Nehemiah, the Maccabees, Hillel, and Jesus. A&C Black. ISBN 978-0-567-55248-8. Archived from the original on 19 December 2023. Retrieved 18 December 2020. Schäfer, Peter (2003). The History of the Jews in the Greco-Roman World. Psychology Press. ISBN 978-0-415-30585-3.
Schwartz 2009, p. 14. Schwartz, Seth (2009). Imperialism and Jewish Society: 200 B.C.E. to 640 C.E. Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-1-4008-2485-4. Archived from the original on 19 December 2023. Retrieved 16 December 2020.
Schwartz 2009, p. 38. Schwartz, Seth (2009). Imperialism and Jewish Society: 200 B.C.E. to 640 C.E. Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-1-4008-2485-4. Archived from the original on 19 December 2023. Retrieved 16 December 2020.
Magness 2012, p. 96; Schwartz 2009, p. 43; Schäfer 2003, p. 78 Magness, Jodi (2012). The Archaeology of the Holy Land: From the Destruction of Solomon's Temple to the Muslim Conquest. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-12413-3. Schwartz, Seth (2009). Imperialism and Jewish Society: 200 B.C.E. to 640 C.E. Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-1-4008-2485-4. Archived from the original on 19 December 2023. Retrieved 16 December 2020. Schäfer, Peter (2003). The History of the Jews in the Greco-Roman World. Psychology Press. ISBN 978-0-415-30585-3.
Schwartz 2009, p. 43: He then named Hyrcanus high priest (but not king; Sartre 2005, p. 41: Hyrcanos II was confirmed as high priest but denied a royal title Schwartz, Seth (2009). Imperialism and Jewish Society: 200 B.C.E. to 640 C.E. Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-1-4008-2485-4. Archived from the original on 19 December 2023. Retrieved 16 December 2020. Sartre, Maurice (2005). The Middle East Under Rome. Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-674-01683-5.
Schwartz 2009, p. 43: He ... removed the Greek cities conquered by Alexander Yannai from Jewish rule, and restored their Greek constitutions. Sartre 2005, p. 42: Pompey restored damaged and destroyed cities everywhere. Above all, he guaranteed the independence of cities formerly occupied by the Hasmoneans; Butcher 2003, p. 112: Many of the cities further south had fallen under the influence of the Hasmoneans ... Pompey and his successors restored the "freedom" of the subject cities, ; Gabba 2008, p. 97: Pompey, and Gabinius after him, restored many of the liberated cities which the Hasmonaean kings had destroyed Schwartz, Seth (2009). Imperialism and Jewish Society: 200 B.C.E. to 640 C.E. Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-1-4008-2485-4. Archived from the original on 19 December 2023. Retrieved 16 December 2020. Sartre, Maurice (2005). The Middle East Under Rome. Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-674-01683-5. Butcher, Kevin (2003). Roman Syria and the Near East. Getty Publications. ISBN 978-0-89236-715-3. Gabba, Emilio (2008). "The social, economic and political history of Palestine 63 BCE – CE 70". In Davies, William David; Finkelstein, Louis; Horbury, William (eds.). The Cambridge History of Judaism: The early Roman period. Cambridge University Press. pp. 94–167. ISBN 978-0-521-24377-3.
Butcher 2003, p. 113: To commemorate their restoration they sometimes adopted the names of those governors who had honoured them, ; Sartre 2005, p. 43: a new era known as "Pompeian," an indication that the city-states considered Pompey's achievements, ..., as amounting to a rebirth. Chancey 2004, pp. 109–110: It did not take long after Rome's arrival ... for cities to acknowledge their new rulers on their coins. For some cities, this acknowledgment took the form of adopting a new dating system commemorating Rome's advent. ... a few cities renamed themselves after Roman officials. Butcher, Kevin (2003). Roman Syria and the Near East. Getty Publications. ISBN 978-0-89236-715-3. Sartre, Maurice (2005). The Middle East Under Rome. Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-674-01683-5. Chancey, Mark A. (2004). "City Coins and Roman Power in Palestine: from Pompey to the Great Revolt". In Edwards, Douglas R. (ed.). Religion and Society in Roman Palestine: Old Questions, New Approaches. Taylor & Francis. ISBN 978-0-203-40956-5. Archived from the original on 19 December 2023. Retrieved 19 December 2020.
Schwartz 2009, p. 43; Schäfer 2003, p. 87: In 40 BCE, there was a massive invasion by the Parthians Schwartz, Seth (2009). Imperialism and Jewish Society: 200 B.C.E. to 640 C.E. Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-1-4008-2485-4. Archived from the original on 19 December 2023. Retrieved 16 December 2020. Schäfer, Peter (2003). The History of the Jews in the Greco-Roman World. Psychology Press. ISBN 978-0-415-30585-3.
Schwartz 2009, p. 43; Meyers & Chancey 2012, p. 50: the Senate appointed him king of Judea before sending him back ... to seize Palestine Schwartz, Seth (2009). Imperialism and Jewish Society: 200 B.C.E. to 640 C.E. Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-1-4008-2485-4. Archived from the original on 19 December 2023. Retrieved 16 December 2020. Meyers, Eric M.; Chancey, Mark A. (2012). Alexander to Constantine: Archaeology of the Land of the Bible. Vol. III. Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-14179-5. Archived from the original on 19 December 2023. Retrieved 15 December 2020.
Perowne 1999. Perowne, Stewart Henry (1999). "Herod". Encyclopædia Britannica. Archived from the original on 25 June 2015. Retrieved 19 December 2020.
Schwartz 2009, p. 46: The other twin star of Herod's construction was Jerusalem, which was re-built from top to bottom. Schwartz, Seth (2009). Imperialism and Jewish Society: 200 B.C.E. to 640 C.E. Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-1-4008-2485-4. Archived from the original on 19 December 2023. Retrieved 16 December 2020.
Schwartz 2009, p. 46; Perowne 1999: His most grandiose creation was the Temple, which he wholly rebuilt. ... The great outer court, 35 acres (14 ha) (14 hectares) in extent, is still visible as Al-Ḥaram al-Sharīf. Grabbe 2010, p. 23: Yet the end product was for practical purposes a new temple, a magnificent structure which paled by comparison the previous temples. Schwartz, Seth (2009). Imperialism and Jewish Society: 200 B.C.E. to 640 C.E. Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-1-4008-2485-4. Archived from the original on 19 December 2023. Retrieved 16 December 2020. Perowne, Stewart Henry (1999). "Herod". Encyclopædia Britannica. Archived from the original on 25 June 2015. Retrieved 19 December 2020. Grabbe, Lester L. (2010). An Introduction to Second Temple Judaism: History and Religion of the Jews in the Time of Nehemiah, the Maccabees, Hillel, and Jesus. A&C Black. ISBN 978-0-567-55248-8. Archived from the original on 19 December 2023. Retrieved 18 December 2020.
Grabbe 2010, p. 23: the new temple became a major site of pilgrimage; Levine 2006, p. 25: This institution, which functioned as the center of Jewish sacrificial worship as well as the national bank and a tourist attraction, drew visitors from throughout the empire, Jewish as well as Gentile. Grabbe, Lester L. (2010). An Introduction to Second Temple Judaism: History and Religion of the Jews in the Time of Nehemiah, the Maccabees, Hillel, and Jesus. A&C Black. ISBN 978-0-567-55248-8. Archived from the original on 19 December 2023. Retrieved 18 December 2020. Levine, Amy-Jill, ed. (2006). The Historical Jesus in Context. Princeton University Press. ISBN 1-4008-2737-X. Archived from the original on 19 December 2023. Retrieved 27 December 2020.
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Grabbe 2010, p. 71. Grabbe, Lester L. (2010). An Introduction to Second Temple Judaism: History and Religion of the Jews in the Time of Nehemiah, the Maccabees, Hillel, and Jesus. A&C Black. ISBN 978-0-567-55248-8. Archived from the original on 19 December 2023. Retrieved 18 December 2020.
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Grabbe 2010, p. 25; Gabba 2008, p. 130: His ethnarchy was transformed into a Roman province of the equestrian rank; Shahin 2005, p. 7; Haensch 2010, p. 2: It was only after the expulsion of Archelaus in 6 CE that direct Roman rule was established in Judaea and Samaria. Grabbe, Lester L. (2010). An Introduction to Second Temple Judaism: History and Religion of the Jews in the Time of Nehemiah, the Maccabees, Hillel, and Jesus. A&C Black. ISBN 978-0-567-55248-8. Archived from the original on 19 December 2023. Retrieved 18 December 2020. Gabba, Emilio (2008). "The social, economic and political history of Palestine 63 BCE – CE 70". In Davies, William David; Finkelstein, Louis; Horbury, William (eds.). The Cambridge History of Judaism: The early Roman period. Cambridge University Press. pp. 94–167. ISBN 978-0-521-24377-3. Shahin, Mariam (2005). Palestine: A Guide. Interlink Books. ISBN 1-56656-557-X – via Internet Archive. Haensch, Rudolf (2010). "The Roman Provincial Administration". In Hezser, Catherine (ed.). The Oxford Handbook of Jewish Daily Life in Roman Palestine. OUP Oxford. pp. 1–13. ISBN 978-0-19-921643-7.
Gabba 2008, p. 152; Grabbe 2010, p. 74: It had been a century since the Hasmonaean kingdom had come to an end, but the Jewish Hasmonaean state was no doubt still firm in folk memory. Gabba, Emilio (2008). "The social, economic and political history of Palestine 63 BCE – CE 70". In Davies, William David; Finkelstein, Louis; Horbury, William (eds.). The Cambridge History of Judaism: The early Roman period. Cambridge University Press. pp. 94–167. ISBN 978-0-521-24377-3. Grabbe, Lester L. (2010). An Introduction to Second Temple Judaism: History and Religion of the Jews in the Time of Nehemiah, the Maccabees, Hillel, and Jesus. A&C Black. ISBN 978-0-567-55248-8. Archived from the original on 19 December 2023. Retrieved 18 December 2020.
Zissu 2018, p. 19. Zissu, Boaz (2018). "Interbellum Judea 70–132 CE: An Archaeological Perspective". In Schwartz, Joshua J; Tomson, Peter J. (eds.). Jews and Christians in the First and Second Centuries: The Interbellum 70‒132 CE. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill. pp. 19–49. ISBN 978-90-04-34986-5. OCLC 988856967. Archived from the original on 11 May 2023. Retrieved 21 March 2023.
Schäfer 2003, p. 150: So, according to Pseudo-Spartianus, the Jews started the revolt because they had been forbidden to practice circumcision. Lewin 2005, p. 32: Hadrian had in fact ordered the prohibition on circumcision; Meyers & Chancey 2012, p. 167; Eshel 2008, p. 106 Schäfer, Peter (2003). The History of the Jews in the Greco-Roman World. Psychology Press. ISBN 978-0-415-30585-3. Lewin, Ariel (2005). The Archaeology of Ancient Judea and Palestine. Getty Publications. ISBN 978-0-89236-800-6. Archived from the original on 19 December 2023. Retrieved 23 December 2020. Meyers, Eric M.; Chancey, Mark A. (2012). Alexander to Constantine: Archaeology of the Land of the Bible. Vol. III. Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-14179-5. Archived from the original on 19 December 2023. Retrieved 15 December 2020. Eshel, Hanan (2008). "The Bar Kochba Revolt, 132–135". In Katz, Steven T. (ed.). The Cambridge History of Judaism: Volume 4, The Late Roman-Rabbinic Period. Cambridge University Press. pp. 105–127. ISBN 978-0-521-77248-8. Archived from the original on 19 December 2023. Retrieved 24 December 2020.
Meyers & Chancey 2012, p. 167; Eshel 2008, p. 106; Schäfer 2003, p. 150: The historian Dio Cassius ... states ... that the reason for the war was Hadrian's intention to refound the city of Jerusalem as a Roman colony ... containing a new, pagan temple. Lewin 2005, p. 32: he also gave orders that a colony to be called Aelia Capitolina ... be founded on the soil of Jerusalem. A grand temple to Zeus was to be built on the ruins of the Jewish Temple. Meyers, Eric M.; Chancey, Mark A. (2012). Alexander to Constantine: Archaeology of the Land of the Bible. Vol. III. Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-14179-5. Archived from the original on 19 December 2023. Retrieved 15 December 2020. Eshel, Hanan (2008). "The Bar Kochba Revolt, 132–135". In Katz, Steven T. (ed.). The Cambridge History of Judaism: Volume 4, The Late Roman-Rabbinic Period. Cambridge University Press. pp. 105–127. ISBN 978-0-521-77248-8. Archived from the original on 19 December 2023. Retrieved 24 December 2020. Schäfer, Peter (2003). The History of the Jews in the Greco-Roman World. Psychology Press. ISBN 978-0-415-30585-3. Lewin, Ariel (2005). The Archaeology of Ancient Judea and Palestine. Getty Publications. ISBN 978-0-89236-800-6. Archived from the original on 19 December 2023. Retrieved 23 December 2020.
Lewin 2005, p. 33. Lewin, Ariel (2005). The Archaeology of Ancient Judea and Palestine. Getty Publications. ISBN 978-0-89236-800-6. Archived from the original on 19 December 2023. Retrieved 23 December 2020.
Schäfer 2003, p. 163: The entire spiritual and economic life of the Palestinian Jews moved to Galilee. Meyers & Chancey 2012, p. 173: Galilee became the all-important focus of Jewish life Schäfer, Peter (2003). The History of the Jews in the Greco-Roman World. Psychology Press. ISBN 978-0-415-30585-3. Meyers, Eric M.; Chancey, Mark A. (2012). Alexander to Constantine: Archaeology of the Land of the Bible. Vol. III. Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-14179-5. Archived from the original on 19 December 2023. Retrieved 15 December 2020.
Meyers & Chancey 2012, p. 169. Meyers, Eric M.; Chancey, Mark A. (2012). Alexander to Constantine: Archaeology of the Land of the Bible. Vol. III. Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-14179-5. Archived from the original on 19 December 2023. Retrieved 15 December 2020.
Taylor 2012. Taylor, Joan E. (2012). The Essenes, the Scrolls, and the Dead Sea. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-955448-5. Archived from the original on 19 December 2023. Retrieved 16 February 2022. Up until this date the Bar Kokhba documents indicate that towns, villages and ports where Jews lived were busy with industry and activity. Afterwards there is an eerie silence, and the archaeological record testifies to little Jewish presence until the Byzantine era, in En Gedi. This picture coheres with what we have already determined in Part I of this study, that the crucial date for what can only be described as genocide, and the devastation of Jews and Judaism within central Judea, was 135 CE and not, as usually assumed, 70 CE, despite the siege of Jerusalem and the Temple's destruction
Lewin 2005, p. 33: It seems clear that by choosing a seemingly neutral name ... of an ancient geographical entity (Palestine), ... Hadrian was intending to suppress any connection between the Jewish people and that land. Safrai 1976, p. 334: In an effort to wipe out all memory of the bond between the Jews and the land Lewin, Ariel (2005). The Archaeology of Ancient Judea and Palestine. Getty Publications. ISBN 978-0-89236-800-6. Archived from the original on 19 December 2023. Retrieved 23 December 2020. Safrai, Schmuel (1976). "The Jews in the Land of Israel (70–335)". In Ben-Sasson, H. H. (ed.). A History of the Jewish People. Harvard University Press. pp. 314–342. ISBN 978-0-674-39731-6. Archived from the original on 19 January 2023. Retrieved 23 December 2020.
Jacobson 2001, pp. 44–45: commonly viewed as a move intended to sever the connection of the Jews to their historical homeland. ... Hadrian's choice of Syria Palaestina may be more correctly seen as a rationalization of the name of the new province, in accordance with its area being far larger than geographical Judea. Foster 2017, pp. 95–110: the name change had little to do with Jew hatred ... he called the place what it was called. ... The decision to change the name to Palestine may have been a banal bureaucratic choice. ... If the administrative reorganization was indeed banal, then we might have expected both names to have persisted after the change, which is exactly what happened. Jacobson, David (2001), "When Palestine Meant Israel", Biblical Archaeology Review, 27 (3), archived from the original on 25 July 2011 Foster, Zachary (2017). The Invention of Palestine (thesis). Princeton University. p. 278. ISBN 978-0-355-48023-8. Docket 10634618. Archived from the original on 29 July 2021. Retrieved 9 February 2018.
Seligman 2017, p. 116. Seligman, Jon (2017). "'Absence of Evidence' or 'Evidence of Absence' Was Jerusalem the Legionary Camp and Where Was Civilian Aelia Capitolina?". In Avni, Gideon; Stiebel, Guy (eds.). Roman Jerusalem: A New Old City. Journal of Roman Archaeology. pp. 107–116. ISBN 978-0-9913730-9-3. Archived from the original on 19 December 2023. Retrieved 24 December 2020.
Schwartz 2016, p. 248. Schwartz, Seth (2016). "The Impact of the Jewish Rebellions, 66–135 CE: Destruction or Provincialization?". Revolt and Resistance in the Ancient Classical World and the Near East: In the Crucible of Empire. Brill. pp. 234–252. ISBN 978-90-04-33018-4. Archived from the original on 19 December 2023. Retrieved 17 December 2020.
Britannica: Palestine – Roman Palestine: Although this ban was officially still in force as late as the 4th century CE, there is some evidence that from the Severan period onward (after 193) Jews visited the city more frequently, especially at certain festival times, and even that there may have been some Jews in residence. Seligman 2017, p. 114: there seems to have been a slow trickle into the city over subsequent centuries, although the actual numbers probably remained rather insignificant. Towards the beginning of the 4th c., sources identify a synagogue in Jerusalem "Palestine – Roman Palestine". Encyclopædia Britannica. Archived from the original on 30 October 2023. Retrieved 24 December 2020. Seligman, Jon (2017). "'Absence of Evidence' or 'Evidence of Absence' Was Jerusalem the Legionary Camp and Where Was Civilian Aelia Capitolina?". In Avni, Gideon; Stiebel, Guy (eds.). Roman Jerusalem: A New Old City. Journal of Roman Archaeology. pp. 107–116. ISBN 978-0-9913730-9-3. Archived from the original on 19 December 2023. Retrieved 24 December 2020.
Shahin 2005, p. 7: new cities were founded at Eleutheropolis (Beit Jibrin), Diospolis (Lydd), and Nicopolis (Emmaus). Britannica: Palestine – Roman Palestine Shahin, Mariam (2005). Palestine: A Guide. Interlink Books. ISBN 1-56656-557-X – via Internet Archive. "Palestine – Roman Palestine". Encyclopædia Britannica. Archived from the original on 30 October 2023. Retrieved 24 December 2020.
Dignas & Winter 2007, p. 161. Dignas, Beate; Winter, Engelbert (2007) [First published 2001]. Rome and Persia in Late Antiquity: Neighbours and Rivals. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-84925-8. Archived from the original on 19 December 2023. Retrieved 25 December 2020.
Britannica: Jesus – The Context of Jesus Career. "Jesus – The context of Jesus' career". Encyclopædia Britannica. Archived from the original on 11 November 2020. Retrieved 27 December 2020.
Britannica: Jesus – The Jewish religion in the 1st century: there were three small but important religious parties that differed from each other in several ways: the Pharisees (numbering about 6,000 at the time of Herod), Essenes (about 4,000), and Sadducees ("a few men," according to Flavius Josephus, in The Antiquities of the Jews 18.17) ... Although the vast majority of Jews did not belong to a party, the study of these parties reveals the substantial variety within the general framework of Judaism. Schwartz 2009, p. 91: Though Josephus speaks of three (and in one polemical passage of four) sects, it seems certain that there were many more sectarian groups in first-century Palestine. "Jesus – The Jewish religion in the 1st century". Encyclopædia Britannica. Archived from the original on 11 December 2020. Retrieved 27 December 2020. Schwartz, Seth (2009). Imperialism and Jewish Society: 200 B.C.E. to 640 C.E. Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-1-4008-2485-4. Archived from the original on 19 December 2023. Retrieved 16 December 2020.
Britannica: Christianity – The history of Christianity: Christianity has never succeeded in gaining the allegiance of more than a small minority of Jews; Britannica: Christianity – The relation of the early church to the career and intentions of Jesus: Gospel sayings that make the Jews' refusal to recognize Jesus' authority as the ground for extending the kingdom of God to the Gentiles must, therefore, have been cast by the early community. "Christianity – The history of Christianity". Encyclopædia Britannica. 2020. Archived from the original on 25 January 2021. Retrieved 28 December 2020. "The relation of the early church to the career and intentions of Jesus". Encyclopædia Britannica. 2020. Archived from the original on 18 January 2021. Retrieved 27 December 2020.
Grabbe 2010, p. 40. Grabbe, Lester L. (2010). An Introduction to Second Temple Judaism: History and Religion of the Jews in the Time of Nehemiah, the Maccabees, Hillel, and Jesus. A&C Black. ISBN 978-0-567-55248-8. Archived from the original on 19 December 2023. Retrieved 18 December 2020.
Schäfer 2003, p. 170: The dissolution of a society dominated by cult and priest; Grabbe 2010, p. 40: temple worship went back many centuries; Neusner 2003, p. 12: When the temple was destroyed, ..., the foundations of the country's religious-cultural life were destroyed. Schäfer 2003, pp. 136–137: a second very important state and religious institution was also affected: the Synhedrion. ... It was headed by the High Priest and, ... was undoubtedly dominated largely by the aristocratic and economically influential Sadducee families. With the destruction of Jerusalem and the Temple, the administrative authority of the Synhedrion and the Sadducee "party" also disappeared. Grabbe 2010, pp. 26–27: Those sections of Judaism which had their base in the temple dwindled in importance: the priesthood and probably the Sadducees (2.7). Schäfer, Peter (2003). The History of the Jews in the Greco-Roman World. Psychology Press. ISBN 978-0-415-30585-3. Grabbe, Lester L. (2010). An Introduction to Second Temple Judaism: History and Religion of the Jews in the Time of Nehemiah, the Maccabees, Hillel, and Jesus. A&C Black. ISBN 978-0-567-55248-8. Archived from the original on 19 December 2023. Retrieved 18 December 2020. Neusner, Jacob (2003). Understanding Rabbinic Judaism: From Talmudic to Modern Times. Wipf and Stock Publishers. ISBN 978-1-59244-213-3. Archived from the original on 19 December 2023. Retrieved 28 December 2020. Schäfer, Peter (2003). The History of the Jews in the Greco-Roman World. Psychology Press. ISBN 978-0-415-30585-3. Grabbe, Lester L. (2010). An Introduction to Second Temple Judaism: History and Religion of the Jews in the Time of Nehemiah, the Maccabees, Hillel, and Jesus. A&C Black. ISBN 978-0-567-55248-8. Archived from the original on 19 December 2023. Retrieved 18 December 2020.
Kimelman 2008, p. 573: Nonetheless, all agree to some extent that from tannaitic (70–220 CE) to amoraic times (220–500 CE) there occurred a "templization of the synagogue" and "a sacrificization of prayer."; Zucker 2005, p. 133: verbal prayer and study replaced the cult of ... sacrifice; Allen 2013, p. 75: the study of Scripture and Talmud replace the actual temple after its destruction Kimelman, Reuven (2008). "Rabbinic Prayer in Late Antiquity". In Katz, Steven T. (ed.). The Cambridge History of Judaism: Volume 4, The Late Roman-Rabbinic Period. Cambridge University Press. pp. 573–611. ISBN 978-0-521-77248-8. Archived from the original on 19 December 2023. Retrieved 24 December 2020. Zucker, David J. (2005). The Torah: An Introduction for Christians and Jews. Paulist Press. ISBN 978-0-8091-4349-8. Allen, Joel S. (2013). Jewish Biblical Legends: Rabbinic Wisdom for Christian Readers. Wipf and Stock Publishers. ISBN 978-1-62189-890-0. Archived from the original on 19 December 2023. Retrieved 30 December 2020.
Scheindlin 2000, p. 62: the Babylonian Talmud, compiled around 499 CE. Scheindlin, Raymond P. (2000). A Short History of the Jewish People: From Legendary Times to Modern Statehood. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-513941-9. Archived from the original on 19 December 2023. Retrieved 30 December 2020.
Köstenberger, Kellum & Quarles 2016, p. 929: Christians abhorred the imperial cult as idolatry Köstenberger, Andreas J.; Kellum, L. Scott; Quarles, Charles L (2016). The Cradle, the Cross, and the Crown: An Introduction to the New Testament. B&H Publishing Group. ISBN 978-1-4336-8401-2. Archived from the original on 19 December 2023. Retrieved 31 December 2020.
Lendering: Fiscus Judaicus: those paying the fiscus Judaicus would not be forced to sacrifice to the emperor. Bibliowicz 2019, p. 40: They were Jewish ... and would have paid the "Jewish tax" (Fiscus Judaicus). Being Jews, they would be exempt from sacrificing to the Roman Gods Lendering, Jona (28 April 2020). "Fiscus Judaicus". Livius. Archived from the original on 27 November 2022. Retrieved 31 December 2020. Bibliowicz, Abel M. (2019). Jewish-Christian Relations-The First Centuries. WA: Mascarat. ISBN 978-1-5136-1648-3. Archived from the original on 16 November 2021. Retrieved 31 December 2020.
Lendering: Fiscus Judaicus. Lendering, Jona (28 April 2020). "Fiscus Judaicus". Livius. Archived from the original on 27 November 2022. Retrieved 31 December 2020.
Gaddis 1999, p. 29. Gaddis, Michael (1999). There is No Crime for Those who Have Christ: Religious Violence in the Christian Roman Empire. Princeton University. ISBN 978-0-520-24104-6. Archived from the original on 19 December 2023. Retrieved 5 January 2021.
Britannica: Constantine I – Commitment to Christianity. "Constantine I – Commitment to Christianity". Encyclopædia Britannica. 2020. Archived from the original on 15 April 2017. Retrieved 3 January 2021.
Cohen 2015. Cohen, Shaye I.D. (18 November 2015). "Why Did Christianity Succeed? – Legimitization Under Constantine". PBS. Archived from the original on 14 January 2021. Retrieved 31 December 2020.
Shahin 2005, p. 8; Britannica: Palestine – Roman Palestine: The emperor ... built a ... church on the site of the Holy Sepulchre, the most sacred of Christian holy places; his mother, Saint Helena, built two others – at the place of the Nativity at Bethlehem and of the Ascension in Jerusalem – and his mother-in-law, Eutropia, built a church at Mamre. Shahin, Mariam (2005). Palestine: A Guide. Interlink Books. ISBN 1-56656-557-X – via Internet Archive. "Palestine – Roman Palestine". Encyclopædia Britannica. Archived from the original on 30 October 2023. Retrieved 24 December 2020.
Britannica: Palestine – Roman Palestine. "Palestine – Roman Palestine". Encyclopædia Britannica. Archived from the original on 30 October 2023. Retrieved 24 December 2020.
Masalha 2018, p. 110: This decree of elevating the Palestine Church led to the Church of Aelia Capitolina not only becoming an independent Patriarchate, but also to becoming ... one of the five Patriarchates of Christendom, ... the five major Patriarchs of the empire: Constantinople, Rome, Alexandria, Antioch and Aelia Capitolina. Horn & Phenix 2008, p. lxxxviii: Council of Chalcedon ..., at which Jerusalem was granted the status of patriarchate; Britannica: Palestine – Roman Palestine: Juvenal, bishop of Jerusalem from 421 to 458 ... was recognized by the Council of Chalcedon (451) as patriarch of the three provinces of Palestine. Masalha, Nur (2018). Palestine: A Four Thousand Year History. Bloomsbury Academic. ISBN 978-1-78699-274-1. Horn, Cornelia B.; Phenix, Robert R. Jr. (2008). The Lives of Peter the Iberian, Theodosius of Jerusalem, and the Monk Romanus. Society of Biblical Lit. ISBN 978-1-58983-200-8. Archived from the original on 19 December 2023. Retrieved 7 January 2021. "Palestine – Roman Palestine". Encyclopædia Britannica. Archived from the original on 30 October 2023. Retrieved 24 December 2020.
Schwartz 2009, p. 214: In sum, it is not unlikely that late antiquity was a period of unprecedented prosperity in Palestine, as in Syria. Masalha 2018, p. 99: The Christian era of Byzantine Palestine ..., was an extraordinary time of cultural flourishing and of great expansion and prosperity in Late Antiquity. Lewin 2005, p. 41: Palaestina reached a peak of prosperity in the late fifth and early sixth century Schwartz, Seth (2009). Imperialism and Jewish Society: 200 B.C.E. to 640 C.E. Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-1-4008-2485-4. Archived from the original on 19 December 2023. Retrieved 16 December 2020. Masalha, Nur (2018). Palestine: A Four Thousand Year History. Bloomsbury Academic. ISBN 978-1-78699-274-1. Lewin, Ariel (2005). The Archaeology of Ancient Judea and Palestine. Getty Publications. ISBN 978-0-89236-800-6. Archived from the original on 19 December 2023. Retrieved 23 December 2020.
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Masalha 2018, p. 40: the diverse population of the "Three Palestines" may have reached as many as one and a half million. Goodblatt 2008, p. 406: the country reached its highest population density ever (until the twentieth century) precisely in the Byzantine period. Masalha, Nur (2018). Palestine: A Four Thousand Year History. Bloomsbury Academic. ISBN 978-1-78699-274-1. Goodblatt, David (2008). "The political and social history of the Jewish community in the Land of Israel, c. 235–638". In Katz, Steven T. (ed.). The Cambridge History of Judaism: Volume 4, The Late Roman-Rabbinic Period. Cambridge University Press. pp. 404–430. ISBN 978-0-521-77248-8. Archived from the original on 19 December 2023. Retrieved 24 December 2020.
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Britannica: Vulgate; Masalha 2018, p. 49: St Jerome relocated physically to Judaea in Provincia Palaestina while working on the Vulgate translation. Jerome, ... was the first person to ... translate the Old Testament from Hebrew rather than from the Septuagint "Vulgate". Encyclopædia Britannica. Archived from the original on 13 March 2022. Retrieved 8 January 2021. Masalha, Nur (2018). Palestine: A Four Thousand Year History. Bloomsbury Academic. ISBN 978-1-78699-274-1.
Hughes 2020, p. 15; Harries 2012, p. 50: Diocletian sought to head off potential threats to his personal security but he also saw the potential for improving efficiency by operating through smaller provincial units. Larger provinces were therefore divided, on an ad hoc basis, into smaller entities, each with its own provincial governor, usually called a praeses – but in Italy a corrector, later a consularis – and administrative capital. Hughes, Ian (2020). A Military Life of Constantine the Great. Pen and Sword Military. ISBN 978-1-5267-2426-7. Harries, Jill (2012). Imperial Rome AD 284 to 363: The New Empire. Edinburgh University Press. ISBN 978-0-7486-2052-4. Archived from the original on 19 December 2023. Retrieved 2 January 2021.
Harries 2012, p. 51. Harries, Jill (2012). Imperial Rome AD 284 to 363: The New Empire. Edinburgh University Press. ISBN 978-0-7486-2052-4. Archived from the original on 19 December 2023. Retrieved 2 January 2021.
Lewis 2011, p. 155. Lewis, Bernard (2011). Islam in History: Ideas, People, and Events in the Middle East. Open Court. ISBN 978-0-8126-9757-5. Archived from the original on 19 December 2023. Retrieved 2 January 2021.
Lewis 2011, p. 155; Britannica: Palestine – Roman Palestine: At the end of the 4th century, an enlarged Palestine was divided into three provinces: Prima, with its capital at Caesarea; Secunda, with its capital at Scythopolis (Bet Sheʾan); and Salutaris, with its capital at Petra or possibly for a time at Elusa. Shahin 2005, p. 8 Lewis, Bernard (2011). Islam in History: Ideas, People, and Events in the Middle East. Open Court. ISBN 978-0-8126-9757-5. Archived from the original on 19 December 2023. Retrieved 2 January 2021. "Palestine – Roman Palestine". Encyclopædia Britannica. Archived from the original on 30 October 2023. Retrieved 24 December 2020. Shahin, Mariam (2005). Palestine: A Guide. Interlink Books. ISBN 1-56656-557-X – via Internet Archive.
Goodblatt 2008, p. 406. Goodblatt, David (2008). "The political and social history of the Jewish community in the Land of Israel, c. 235–638". In Katz, Steven T. (ed.). The Cambridge History of Judaism: Volume 4, The Late Roman-Rabbinic Period. Cambridge University Press. pp. 404–430. ISBN 978-0-521-77248-8. Archived from the original on 19 December 2023. Retrieved 24 December 2020.
Goodblatt 2008, pp. 407–410. Goodblatt, David (2008). "The political and social history of the Jewish community in the Land of Israel, c. 235–638". In Katz, Steven T. (ed.). The Cambridge History of Judaism: Volume 4, The Late Roman-Rabbinic Period. Cambridge University Press. pp. 404–430. ISBN 978-0-521-77248-8. Archived from the original on 19 December 2023. Retrieved 24 December 2020.
Goodblatt 2008, pp. 407–408. Goodblatt, David (2008). "The political and social history of the Jewish community in the Land of Israel, c. 235–638". In Katz, Steven T. (ed.). The Cambridge History of Judaism: Volume 4, The Late Roman-Rabbinic Period. Cambridge University Press. pp. 404–430. ISBN 978-0-521-77248-8. Archived from the original on 19 December 2023. Retrieved 24 December 2020.
Goodblatt 2008, p. 407. Goodblatt, David (2008). "The political and social history of the Jewish community in the Land of Israel, c. 235–638". In Katz, Steven T. (ed.). The Cambridge History of Judaism: Volume 4, The Late Roman-Rabbinic Period. Cambridge University Press. pp. 404–430. ISBN 978-0-521-77248-8. Archived from the original on 19 December 2023. Retrieved 24 December 2020.
Goodblatt 2008, p. 409. Goodblatt, David (2008). "The political and social history of the Jewish community in the Land of Israel, c. 235–638". In Katz, Steven T. (ed.). The Cambridge History of Judaism: Volume 4, The Late Roman-Rabbinic Period. Cambridge University Press. pp. 404–430. ISBN 978-0-521-77248-8. Archived from the original on 19 December 2023. Retrieved 24 December 2020.
Goodblatt 2008, p. 410. Goodblatt, David (2008). "The political and social history of the Jewish community in the Land of Israel, c. 235–638". In Katz, Steven T. (ed.). The Cambridge History of Judaism: Volume 4, The Late Roman-Rabbinic Period. Cambridge University Press. pp. 404–430. ISBN 978-0-521-77248-8. Archived from the original on 19 December 2023. Retrieved 24 December 2020.
Lewin 2005, pp. 36–38: In 351, there was a rebellion in Palestine, ... Its epicenter was Sepphoris, but it also affected Diospolis. Schäfer 2003, p. 186: In 351, ... a local Jewish revolt seems to have broken out in Palestine, but little information on this has come down to us. Goodblatt 2008, pp. 410–411; Britannica: Palestine – Roman Palestine Lewin, Ariel (2005). The Archaeology of Ancient Judea and Palestine. Getty Publications. ISBN 978-0-89236-800-6. Archived from the original on 19 December 2023. Retrieved 23 December 2020. Schäfer, Peter (2003). The History of the Jews in the Greco-Roman World. Psychology Press. ISBN 978-0-415-30585-3. Goodblatt, David (2008). "The political and social history of the Jewish community in the Land of Israel, c. 235–638". In Katz, Steven T. (ed.). The Cambridge History of Judaism: Volume 4, The Late Roman-Rabbinic Period. Cambridge University Press. pp. 404–430. ISBN 978-0-521-77248-8. Archived from the original on 19 December 2023. Retrieved 24 December 2020. "Palestine – Roman Palestine". Encyclopædia Britannica. Archived from the original on 30 October 2023. Retrieved 24 December 2020.
Pummer 2016, p. 135: Due to the scant sources, the motives of the uprising are unknown as are the consequences, and it is not even certain that there was a Jewish revolt. Goodblatt 2008, pp. 410–413 Pummer, Reinhard (2016). The Samaritans: A Profile. Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing. pp. 132–. ISBN 978-0-8028-6768-1. Goodblatt, David (2008). "The political and social history of the Jewish community in the Land of Israel, c. 235–638". In Katz, Steven T. (ed.). The Cambridge History of Judaism: Volume 4, The Late Roman-Rabbinic Period. Cambridge University Press. pp. 404–430. ISBN 978-0-521-77248-8. Archived from the original on 19 December 2023. Retrieved 24 December 2020.
Fredriksen & Irshai 2008, p. 1003. Fredriksen, Paula; Irshai, Oded (2008). "Christian anti-Judaism: polemics and policies". In Katz, Steven T. (ed.). The Cambridge History of Judaism: Volume 4, The Late Roman-Rabbinic Period. Cambridge University Press. pp. 997–1034. ISBN 978-0-521-77248-8. Archived from the original on 19 December 2023. Retrieved 24 December 2020.
Browning 1976, p. 176: It was not so much a matter of favouring the Jews ... as of demonstrating by concrete example the falsity of the Bible. Several passages in the gospels ... were usually interpreted as prophecies that the temple would never be rebuilt. Neusner 2008, p. 21: Christians had long cited the destruction of the Temple of Jerusalem as proof of the prophetic powers of Jesus, who, in Christian record, had predicted the matter before it happened. Browning, Robert (1976). The Emperor Julian. University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-03731-1. Archived from the original on 19 December 2023. Retrieved 3 January 2021. Neusner, Jacob (2008). Judaism and Christianity in the Age of Constantine: History, Messiah, Israel, and the Initial Confrontation. University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0-226-57647-3.
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