History of artificial intelligence (English Wikipedia)

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This account is based on Crevier 1993, pp. 115–116. Other views include McCorduck 2004, pp. 306–313 and NRC 1999 under "Success in Speech Recognition". Crevier D (1993). AI: The Tumultuous Search for Artificial Intelligence. New York, NY: BasicBooks. ISBN 0-465-02997-3. McCorduck P (2004), Machines Who Think (2nd ed.), Natick, MA: A. K. Peters, Ltd., ISBN 978-1-56881-205-2, OCLC 52197627. NRC (1999), "Developments in Artificial Intelligence", Funding a Revolution: Government Support for Computing Research, National Academy Press, ISBN 978-0-309-06278-7, OCLC 246584055
Wason & Shapiro (1966) showed that people do poorly on completely abstract problems, but if the problem is restated to allow the use of intuitive social intelligence, performance dramatically improves. (See Wason selection task) Kahneman, Slovic & Tversky (1982) have shown that people are terrible at elementary problems that involve uncertain reasoning. (See list of cognitive biases for several examples). Eleanor Rosch's work is described in Lakoff 1987. Kahnmann published a more general theory of symbolic cognition and other kinds of thinking in his book Thinking Fast and Slow (2011) Wason PC, Shapiro D (1966). "Reasoning". In Foss, B. M. (ed.). New horizons in psychology. Harmondsworth: Penguin. Retrieved 18 November 2019. Kahneman D, Slovic D, Tversky A (1982). "Judgment under uncertainty: Heuristics and biases". Science. 185 (4157). New York: Cambridge University Press: 1124–1131. Bibcode:1974Sci...185.1124T. doi:10.1126/science.185.4157.1124. ISBN 978-0-521-28414-1. PMID 17835457. S2CID 143452957. Lakoff G (1987), Women, Fire, and Dangerous Things: What Categories Reveal About the Mind, University of Chicago Press., ISBN 978-0-226-46804-4.
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Moravec 1988, p. 9. Moravec H (1988), Mind Children, Harvard University Press, ISBN 978-0-674-57618-6, OCLC 245755104
Crevier 1993, pp. 52–107; Moravec 1988, p. 9 Crevier D (1993). AI: The Tumultuous Search for Artificial Intelligence. New York, NY: BasicBooks. ISBN 0-465-02997-3. Moravec H (1988), Mind Children, Harvard University Press, ISBN 978-0-674-57618-6, OCLC 245755104
Crevier 1993, pp. 52–107; Moravec 1988, p. 9 Crevier D (1993). AI: The Tumultuous Search for Artificial Intelligence. New York, NY: BasicBooks. ISBN 0-465-02997-3. Moravec H (1988), Mind Children, Harvard University Press, ISBN 978-0-674-57618-6, OCLC 245755104
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Moravec 1988, pp. 15–16. Moravec H (1988), Mind Children, Harvard University Press, ISBN 978-0-674-57618-6, OCLC 245755104
Moravec 1988, pp. 15–16. Moravec H (1988), Mind Children, Harvard University Press, ISBN 978-0-674-57618-6, OCLC 245755104
NRC 1999, under "Shift to Applied Research Increases Investment.". NRC (1999), "Developments in Artificial Intelligence", Funding a Revolution: Government Support for Computing Research, National Academy Press, ISBN 978-0-309-06278-7, OCLC 246584055
NRC 1999. NRC (1999), "Developments in Artificial Intelligence", Funding a Revolution: Government Support for Computing Research, National Academy Press, ISBN 978-0-309-06278-7, OCLC 246584055
NRC 1999. NRC (1999), "Developments in Artificial Intelligence", Funding a Revolution: Government Support for Computing Research, National Academy Press, ISBN 978-0-309-06278-7, OCLC 246584055
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Dreyfus & Dreyfus 1986. Dreyfus H, Dreyfus S (1986). Mind over Machine: The Power of Human Intuition and Expertise in the Era of the Computer. Oxford, UK: Blackwell. ISBN 978-0-02-908060-3. Retrieved 22 August 2020.
Dreyfus & Dreyfus 1986. Dreyfus H, Dreyfus S (1986). Mind over Machine: The Power of Human Intuition and Expertise in the Era of the Computer. Oxford, UK: Blackwell. ISBN 978-0-02-908060-3. Retrieved 22 August 2020.
NRC 1999, under "Shift to Applied Research Increases Investment". NRC (1999), "Developments in Artificial Intelligence", Funding a Revolution: Government Support for Computing Research, National Academy Press, ISBN 978-0-309-06278-7, OCLC 246584055
Moravec 1988, p. 20. Moravec H (1988), Mind Children, Harvard University Press, ISBN 978-0-674-57618-6, OCLC 245755104
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Wason & Shapiro (1966) showed that people do poorly on completely abstract problems, but if the problem is restated to allow the use of intuitive social intelligence, performance dramatically improves. (See Wason selection task) Kahneman, Slovic & Tversky (1982) have shown that people are terrible at elementary problems that involve uncertain reasoning. (See list of cognitive biases for several examples). Eleanor Rosch's work is described in Lakoff 1987. Kahnmann published a more general theory of symbolic cognition and other kinds of thinking in his book Thinking Fast and Slow (2011) Wason PC, Shapiro D (1966). "Reasoning". In Foss, B. M. (ed.). New horizons in psychology. Harmondsworth: Penguin. Retrieved 18 November 2019. Kahneman D, Slovic D, Tversky A (1982). "Judgment under uncertainty: Heuristics and biases". Science. 185 (4157). New York: Cambridge University Press: 1124–1131. Bibcode:1974Sci...185.1124T. doi:10.1126/science.185.4157.1124. ISBN 978-0-521-28414-1. PMID 17835457. S2CID 143452957. Lakoff G (1987), Women, Fire, and Dangerous Things: What Categories Reveal About the Mind, University of Chicago Press., ISBN 978-0-226-46804-4.
An early example of McCarthy's position was in the journal Science where he said "This is AI, so we don't care if it's psychologically real" (Kolata 1982), and he recently reiterated his position at the AI@50 conference where he said "Artificial intelligence is not, by definition, simulation of human intelligence" (Maker 2006). Kolata G (1982), "How can computers get common sense?", Science, 217 (4566): 1237–1238, Bibcode:1982Sci...217.1237K, doi:10.1126/science.217.4566.1237, PMID 17837639. Maker MH (2006), AI@50: AI Past, Present, Future, Dartmouth College, archived from the original on 8 October 2008, retrieved 16 October 2008
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Randall (1982, pp. 6, 11–13); Quevedo (1914); Quevedo (1915) Randall B (1982), "From Analytical Engine to Electronic Digital Computer: The Contributions of Ludgate, Torres, and Bush", IEEE Annals of the History of Computing, 4 (4): 327, Bibcode:1982IAHC....4d.327R, doi:10.1109/MAHC.1982.10042, retrieved 29 October 2018 Quevedo LT (1914), "Revista de la Academia de Ciencias Exacta", Ensayos sobre Automática – Su definición. Extension teórica de sus aplicaciones, vol. 12, pp. 391–418 Quevedo LT (1915), "Revue Génerale des Sciences Pures et Appliquées", Essais sur l'Automatique – Sa définition. Etendue théorique de ses applications, vol. 2, pp. 601–611
Randall 1982, pp. 13, 16–17. Randall B (1982), "From Analytical Engine to Electronic Digital Computer: The Contributions of Ludgate, Torres, and Bush", IEEE Annals of the History of Computing, 4 (4): 327, Bibcode:1982IAHC....4d.327R, doi:10.1109/MAHC.1982.10042, retrieved 29 October 2018
Image adapted from Saygin 2000 Saygin AP, Cicekli I, Akman V (2000), "Turing Test: 50 Years Later" (PDF), Minds and Machines, 10 (4): 463–518, doi:10.1023/A:1011288000451, hdl:11693/24987, S2CID 990084, archived from the original (PDF) on 9 April 2011, retrieved 7 January 2004 Reprinted in Moor (2003, pp. 23–78)
Image adapted from Saygin 2000 Saygin AP, Cicekli I, Akman V (2000), "Turing Test: 50 Years Later" (PDF), Minds and Machines, 10 (4): 463–518, doi:10.1023/A:1011288000451, hdl:11693/24987, S2CID 990084, archived from the original (PDF) on 9 April 2011, retrieved 7 January 2004 Reprinted in Moor (2003, pp. 23–78)
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An early example of McCarthy's position was in the journal Science where he said "This is AI, so we don't care if it's psychologically real" (Kolata 1982), and he recently reiterated his position at the AI@50 conference where he said "Artificial intelligence is not, by definition, simulation of human intelligence" (Maker 2006). Kolata G (1982), "How can computers get common sense?", Science, 217 (4566): 1237–1238, Bibcode:1982Sci...217.1237K, doi:10.1126/science.217.4566.1237, PMID 17837639. Maker MH (2006), AI@50: AI Past, Present, Future, Dartmouth College, archived from the original on 8 October 2008, retrieved 16 October 2008

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Randall (1982, pp. 4–5); Byrne (2012); Mulvihill (2012) Randall B (1982), "From Analytical Engine to Electronic Digital Computer: The Contributions of Ludgate, Torres, and Bush", IEEE Annals of the History of Computing, 4 (4): 327, Bibcode:1982IAHC....4d.327R, doi:10.1109/MAHC.1982.10042, retrieved 29 October 2018 Byrne JG (8 December 2012). "The John Gabriel Byrne Computer Science Collection" (PDF). Archived from the original on 16 April 2019. Retrieved 8 August 2019. Mulvihill M (17 October 2012). "1907: was the first portable computer design Irish?". Ingenious Ireland.
Randall (1982, pp. 6, 11–13); Quevedo (1914); Quevedo (1915) Randall B (1982), "From Analytical Engine to Electronic Digital Computer: The Contributions of Ludgate, Torres, and Bush", IEEE Annals of the History of Computing, 4 (4): 327, Bibcode:1982IAHC....4d.327R, doi:10.1109/MAHC.1982.10042, retrieved 29 October 2018 Quevedo LT (1914), "Revista de la Academia de Ciencias Exacta", Ensayos sobre Automática – Su definición. Extension teórica de sus aplicaciones, vol. 12, pp. 391–418 Quevedo LT (1915), "Revue Génerale des Sciences Pures et Appliquées", Essais sur l'Automatique – Sa définition. Etendue théorique de ses applications, vol. 2, pp. 601–611
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Image adapted from Saygin 2000 Saygin AP, Cicekli I, Akman V (2000), "Turing Test: 50 Years Later" (PDF), Minds and Machines, 10 (4): 463–518, doi:10.1023/A:1011288000451, hdl:11693/24987, S2CID 990084, archived from the original (PDF) on 9 April 2011, retrieved 7 January 2004 Reprinted in Moor (2003, pp. 23–78)
Image adapted from Saygin 2000 Saygin AP, Cicekli I, Akman V (2000), "Turing Test: 50 Years Later" (PDF), Minds and Machines, 10 (4): 463–518, doi:10.1023/A:1011288000451, hdl:11693/24987, S2CID 990084, archived from the original (PDF) on 9 April 2011, retrieved 7 January 2004 Reprinted in Moor (2003, pp. 23–78)

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Wason & Shapiro (1966) showed that people do poorly on completely abstract problems, but if the problem is restated to allow the use of intuitive social intelligence, performance dramatically improves. (See Wason selection task) Kahneman, Slovic & Tversky (1982) have shown that people are terrible at elementary problems that involve uncertain reasoning. (See list of cognitive biases for several examples). Eleanor Rosch's work is described in Lakoff 1987. Kahnmann published a more general theory of symbolic cognition and other kinds of thinking in his book Thinking Fast and Slow (2011) Wason PC, Shapiro D (1966). "Reasoning". In Foss, B. M. (ed.). New horizons in psychology. Harmondsworth: Penguin. Retrieved 18 November 2019. Kahneman D, Slovic D, Tversky A (1982). "Judgment under uncertainty: Heuristics and biases". Science. 185 (4157). New York: Cambridge University Press: 1124–1131. Bibcode:1974Sci...185.1124T. doi:10.1126/science.185.4157.1124. ISBN 978-0-521-28414-1. PMID 17835457. S2CID 143452957. Lakoff G (1987), Women, Fire, and Dangerous Things: What Categories Reveal About the Mind, University of Chicago Press., ISBN 978-0-226-46804-4.
An early example of McCarthy's position was in the journal Science where he said "This is AI, so we don't care if it's psychologically real" (Kolata 1982), and he recently reiterated his position at the AI@50 conference where he said "Artificial intelligence is not, by definition, simulation of human intelligence" (Maker 2006). Kolata G (1982), "How can computers get common sense?", Science, 217 (4566): 1237–1238, Bibcode:1982Sci...217.1237K, doi:10.1126/science.217.4566.1237, PMID 17837639. Maker MH (2006), AI@50: AI Past, Present, Future, Dartmouth College, archived from the original on 8 October 2008, retrieved 16 October 2008
Randall (1982, pp. 4–5); Byrne (2012); Mulvihill (2012) Randall B (1982), "From Analytical Engine to Electronic Digital Computer: The Contributions of Ludgate, Torres, and Bush", IEEE Annals of the History of Computing, 4 (4): 327, Bibcode:1982IAHC....4d.327R, doi:10.1109/MAHC.1982.10042, retrieved 29 October 2018 Byrne JG (8 December 2012). "The John Gabriel Byrne Computer Science Collection" (PDF). Archived from the original on 16 April 2019. Retrieved 8 August 2019. Mulvihill M (17 October 2012). "1907: was the first portable computer design Irish?". Ingenious Ireland.
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Carl Hewitt's Actor model anticipated the modern definition of intelligent agents. (Hewitt, Bishop & Steiger 1973) Both John Doyle (Doyle 1983) and Marvin Minsky's popular classic The Society of Mind (Minsky 1986) used the word "agent". Other "modular" proposals included Rodney Brook's subsumption architecture, object-oriented programming and others. Hewitt C, Bishop P, Steiger R (1973), A Universal Modular Actor Formalism for Artificial Intelligence (PDF), IJCAI, archived from the original (PDF) on 29 December 2009 Doyle J (1983), "What is rational psychology? Toward a modern mental philosophy", AI Magazine, vol. 4, no. 3, pp. 50–53. Minsky M (1986), The Society of Mind, Simon and Schuster, ISBN 978-0-671-65713-0, OCLC 223353010

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Quoted in Russell & Norvig (2021, p. 15) Russell SJ, Norvig P (2021). Artificial Intelligence: A Modern Approach (4th ed.). Hoboken: Pearson. ISBN 978-0-13-461099-3. LCCN 20190474.
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Quoted in Crevier 1993, p. 46 and Russell & Norvig 2021, p. 18 Crevier D (1993). AI: The Tumultuous Search for Artificial Intelligence. New York, NY: BasicBooks. ISBN 0-465-02997-3. Russell SJ, Norvig P (2021). Artificial Intelligence: A Modern Approach (4th ed.). Hoboken: Pearson. ISBN 978-0-13-461099-3. LCCN 20190474.
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Russell & Norvig 2021, p. 20. Russell SJ, Norvig P (2021). Artificial Intelligence: A Modern Approach (4th ed.). Hoboken: Pearson. ISBN 978-0-13-461099-3. LCCN 20190474.
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Russell & Norvig 2021, p. 22. Russell SJ, Norvig P (2021). Artificial Intelligence: A Modern Approach (4th ed.). Hoboken: Pearson. ISBN 978-0-13-461099-3. LCCN 20190474.
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Russell & Norvig 2021, p. 21. Russell SJ, Norvig P (2021). Artificial Intelligence: A Modern Approach (4th ed.). Hoboken: Pearson. ISBN 978-0-13-461099-3. LCCN 20190474.
Russell & Norvig 2021, p. 23. Russell SJ, Norvig P (2021). Artificial Intelligence: A Modern Approach (4th ed.). Hoboken: Pearson. ISBN 978-0-13-461099-3. LCCN 20190474.
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Russell & Norvig 2021, Section 23. Russell SJ, Norvig P (2021). Artificial Intelligence: A Modern Approach (4th ed.). Hoboken: Pearson. ISBN 978-0-13-461099-3. LCCN 20190474.
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This account is based on Crevier 1993, pp. 115–116. Other views include McCorduck 2004, pp. 306–313 and NRC 1999 under "Success in Speech Recognition". Crevier D (1993). AI: The Tumultuous Search for Artificial Intelligence. New York, NY: BasicBooks. ISBN 0-465-02997-3. McCorduck P (2004), Machines Who Think (2nd ed.), Natick, MA: A. K. Peters, Ltd., ISBN 978-1-56881-205-2, OCLC 52197627. NRC (1999), "Developments in Artificial Intelligence", Funding a Revolution: Government Support for Computing Research, National Academy Press, ISBN 978-0-309-06278-7, OCLC 246584055
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McCorduck 2004, pp. 471–478. McCorduck P (2004), Machines Who Think (2nd ed.), Natick, MA: A. K. Peters, Ltd., ISBN 978-1-56881-205-2, OCLC 52197627.
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Kurzweil 2005, p. 274. Kurzweil R (2005), The Singularity is Near, Viking Press, ISBN 978-0-14-303788-0, OCLC 71826177.
Quoted in Christian 2020, p. 22 Christian B (2020). The Alignment Problem: Machine learning and human values. W. W. Norton & Company. ISBN 978-0-393-86833-3. OCLC 1233266753.
Christian 2020, p. 31. Christian B (2020). The Alignment Problem: Machine learning and human values. W. W. Norton & Company. ISBN 978-0-393-86833-3. OCLC 1233266753.
Christian 2020, pp. 22–23. Christian B (2020). The Alignment Problem: Machine learning and human values. W. W. Norton & Company. ISBN 978-0-393-86833-3. OCLC 1233266753.
Christian 2020, p. 6. Christian B (2020). The Alignment Problem: Machine learning and human values. W. W. Norton & Company. ISBN 978-0-393-86833-3. OCLC 1233266753.
Christian 2020, pp. 23–24. Christian B (2020). The Alignment Problem: Machine learning and human values. W. W. Norton & Company. ISBN 978-0-393-86833-3. OCLC 1233266753.
Christian 2020, p. 24. Christian B (2020). The Alignment Problem: Machine learning and human values. W. W. Norton & Company. ISBN 978-0-393-86833-3. OCLC 1233266753.
Russell 2020. Russell SJ (2020). Human compatible: Artificial intelligence and the problem of control. Penguin Random House. ISBN 9780525558637. OCLC 1113410915.
Christian 2020, pp. 60–61. Christian B (2020). The Alignment Problem: Machine learning and human values. W. W. Norton & Company. ISBN 978-0-393-86833-3. OCLC 1233266753.
Christian 2020, pp. 67–70. Christian B (2020). The Alignment Problem: Machine learning and human values. W. W. Norton & Company. ISBN 978-0-393-86833-3. OCLC 1233266753.
Christian 2020, pp. 6–7, 25. Christian B (2020). The Alignment Problem: Machine learning and human values. W. W. Norton & Company. ISBN 978-0-393-86833-3. OCLC 1233266753.
Christian 2020, p. 67. Christian B (2020). The Alignment Problem: Machine learning and human values. W. W. Norton & Company. ISBN 978-0-393-86833-3. OCLC 1233266753.
Christian 2020, pp. 67, 73, 117. Christian B (2020). The Alignment Problem: Machine learning and human values. W. W. Norton & Company. ISBN 978-0-393-86833-3. OCLC 1233266753.
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scmp.com (Global: 362nd place; English: 245th place)

aaai.org (Global: 9,352^nd place; English: 5,696^th place)

academia.edu (Global: 121^st place; English: 142^nd place)

acm.org (Global: 1,185^th place; English: 840^th place)

analyticsindiamag.com (Global: low place; English: 7,637^th place)

apnews.com (Global: 129^th place; English: 89^th place)

archive.org (Global: 6^th place; English: 6^th place)

arstechnica.com (Global: 388^th place; English: 265^th place)

artnews.com (Global: 5,045^th place; English: 2,949^th place)

arxiv.org (Global: 69^th place; English: 59^th place)

automaton-media.com (Global: 7,311^th place; English: low place)

berkeley.edu (Global: 580^th place; English: 462^nd place)

bizjournals.com (Global: 407^th place; English: 241^st place)

books.google.com (Global: 3^rd place; English: 3^rd place)

businessinsider.com (Global: 140^th place; English: 115^th place)

cmu.edu (Global: 1,564^th place; English: 1,028^th place)

cnet.com (Global: 272^nd place; English: 225^th place)

cnn.com (Global: 28^th place; English: 26^th place)

dal.ca (Global: 9,586^th place; English: 6,136^th place)

doi.org (Global: 2^nd place; English: 2^nd place)

ed.ac.uk (Global: 1,871^st place; English: 1,234^th place)

fourmilab.ch (Global: 8,613^th place; English: 6,778^th place)

ft.com (Global: 210^th place; English: 157^th place)

guardian.ng (Global: 2,612^th place; English: 1,418^th place)

handle.net (Global: 102^nd place; English: 76^th place)

harvard.edu (Global: 18^th place; English: 17^th place)

inverse.com (Global: 1,239^th place; English: 760^th place)

loc.gov (Global: 70^th place; English: 63^rd place)

mit.edu (Global: 415^th place; English: 327^th place)

nature.com (Global: 234^th place; English: 397^th place)

newscientist.com (Global: 774^th place; English: 716^th place)

nih.gov (Global: 4^th place; English: 4^th place)

nobelprize.org (Global: 301^st place; English: 478^th place)

nytimes.com (Global: 7^th place; English: 7^th place)

openai.com (Global: 1,559^th place; English: 1,155^th place)

oup.com (Global: 485^th place; English: 440^th place)

pcgamer.com (Global: 428^th place; English: 286^th place)

penguinrandomhouse.com (Global: 2,012^th place; English: 1,135^th place)

princeton.edu (Global: 741^st place; English: 577^th place)

reuters.com (Global: 49^th place; English: 47^th place)

scmp.com (Global: 362^nd place; English: 245^th place)

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