History of artificial intelligence (English Wikipedia)

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This account is based on Crevier 1993, pp. 115–116. Other views include McCorduck 2004, pp. 306–313 and NRC 1999 under "Success in Speech Recognition". Crevier D (1993). AI: The Tumultuous Search for Artificial Intelligence. New York, NY: BasicBooks. ISBN 0-465-02997-3. McCorduck P (2004), Machines Who Think (2nd ed.), Natick, MA: A. K. Peters, Ltd., ISBN 978-1-56881-205-2, OCLC 52197627. NRC (1999), "Developments in Artificial Intelligence", Funding a Revolution: Government Support for Computing Research, National Academy Press, ISBN 978-0-309-06278-7, OCLC 246584055
Wason & Shapiro (1966) showed that people do poorly on completely abstract problems, but if the problem is restated to allow the use of intuitive social intelligence, performance dramatically improves. (See Wason selection task) Kahneman, Slovic & Tversky (1982) have shown that people are terrible at elementary problems that involve uncertain reasoning. (See list of cognitive biases for several examples). Eleanor Rosch's work is described in Lakoff 1987. Kahnmann published a more general theory of symbolic cognition and other kinds of thinking in his book Thinking Fast and Slow (2011) Wason PC, Shapiro D (1966). "Reasoning". In Foss, B. M. (ed.). New horizons in psychology. Harmondsworth: Penguin. Retrieved 18 November 2019. Kahneman D, Slovic D, Tversky A (1982). "Judgment under uncertainty: Heuristics and biases". Science. 185 (4157). New York: Cambridge University Press: 1124–1131. Bibcode:1974Sci...185.1124T. doi:10.1126/science.185.4157.1124. ISBN 978-0-521-28414-1. PMID 17835457. S2CID 143452957. Lakoff G (1987), Women, Fire, and Dangerous Things: What Categories Reveal About the Mind, University of Chicago Press., ISBN 978-0-226-46804-4.
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Crevier 1993, pp. 52–107; Moravec 1988, p. 9 Crevier D (1993). AI: The Tumultuous Search for Artificial Intelligence. New York, NY: BasicBooks. ISBN 0-465-02997-3. Moravec H (1988), Mind Children, Harvard University Press, ISBN 978-0-674-57618-6, OCLC 245755104
Crevier 1993, pp. 52–107; Moravec 1988, p. 9 Crevier D (1993). AI: The Tumultuous Search for Artificial Intelligence. New York, NY: BasicBooks. ISBN 0-465-02997-3. Moravec H (1988), Mind Children, Harvard University Press, ISBN 978-0-674-57618-6, OCLC 245755104
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Moravec 1988, pp. 15–16. Moravec H (1988), Mind Children, Harvard University Press, ISBN 978-0-674-57618-6, OCLC 245755104
NRC 1999, under "Shift to Applied Research Increases Investment.". NRC (1999), "Developments in Artificial Intelligence", Funding a Revolution: Government Support for Computing Research, National Academy Press, ISBN 978-0-309-06278-7, OCLC 246584055
NRC 1999. NRC (1999), "Developments in Artificial Intelligence", Funding a Revolution: Government Support for Computing Research, National Academy Press, ISBN 978-0-309-06278-7, OCLC 246584055
NRC 1999. NRC (1999), "Developments in Artificial Intelligence", Funding a Revolution: Government Support for Computing Research, National Academy Press, ISBN 978-0-309-06278-7, OCLC 246584055
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Dreyfus & Dreyfus 1986. Dreyfus H, Dreyfus S (1986). Mind over Machine: The Power of Human Intuition and Expertise in the Era of the Computer. Oxford, UK: Blackwell. ISBN 978-0-02-908060-3. Retrieved 22 August 2020.
NRC 1999, under "Shift to Applied Research Increases Investment". NRC (1999), "Developments in Artificial Intelligence", Funding a Revolution: Government Support for Computing Research, National Academy Press, ISBN 978-0-309-06278-7, OCLC 246584055
Moravec 1988, p. 20. Moravec H (1988), Mind Children, Harvard University Press, ISBN 978-0-674-57618-6, OCLC 245755104
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Wason & Shapiro (1966) showed that people do poorly on completely abstract problems, but if the problem is restated to allow the use of intuitive social intelligence, performance dramatically improves. (See Wason selection task) Kahneman, Slovic & Tversky (1982) have shown that people are terrible at elementary problems that involve uncertain reasoning. (See list of cognitive biases for several examples). Eleanor Rosch's work is described in Lakoff 1987. Kahnmann published a more general theory of symbolic cognition and other kinds of thinking in his book Thinking Fast and Slow (2011) Wason PC, Shapiro D (1966). "Reasoning". In Foss, B. M. (ed.). New horizons in psychology. Harmondsworth: Penguin. Retrieved 18 November 2019. Kahneman D, Slovic D, Tversky A (1982). "Judgment under uncertainty: Heuristics and biases". Science. 185 (4157). New York: Cambridge University Press: 1124–1131. Bibcode:1974Sci...185.1124T. doi:10.1126/science.185.4157.1124. ISBN 978-0-521-28414-1. PMID 17835457. S2CID 143452957. Lakoff G (1987), Women, Fire, and Dangerous Things: What Categories Reveal About the Mind, University of Chicago Press., ISBN 978-0-226-46804-4.
An early example of McCarthy's position was in the journal Science where he said "This is AI, so we don't care if it's psychologically real" (Kolata 1982), and he recently reiterated his position at the AI@50 conference where he said "Artificial intelligence is not, by definition, simulation of human intelligence" (Maker 2006). Kolata G (1982), "How can computers get common sense?", Science, 217 (4566): 1237–1238, Bibcode:1982Sci...217.1237K, doi:10.1126/science.217.4566.1237, PMID 17837639. Maker MH (2006), AI@50: AI Past, Present, Future, Dartmouth College, archived from the original on 8 October 2008, retrieved 16 October 2008
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Image adapted from Saygin 2000 Saygin AP, Cicekli I, Akman V (2000), "Turing Test: 50 Years Later" (PDF), Minds and Machines, 10 (4): 463–518, doi:10.1023/A:1011288000451, hdl:11693/24987, S2CID 990084, archived from the original (PDF) on 9 April 2011, retrieved 7 January 2004. Reprinted in Moor (2003, pp. 23–78).
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An early example of McCarthy's position was in the journal Science where he said "This is AI, so we don't care if it's psychologically real" (Kolata 1982), and he recently reiterated his position at the AI@50 conference where he said "Artificial intelligence is not, by definition, simulation of human intelligence" (Maker 2006). Kolata G (1982), "How can computers get common sense?", Science, 217 (4566): 1237–1238, Bibcode:1982Sci...217.1237K, doi:10.1126/science.217.4566.1237, PMID 17837639. Maker MH (2006), AI@50: AI Past, Present, Future, Dartmouth College, archived from the original on 8 October 2008, retrieved 16 October 2008

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Image adapted from Saygin 2000 Saygin AP, Cicekli I, Akman V (2000), "Turing Test: 50 Years Later" (PDF), Minds and Machines, 10 (4): 463–518, doi:10.1023/A:1011288000451, hdl:11693/24987, S2CID 990084, archived from the original (PDF) on 9 April 2011, retrieved 7 January 2004. Reprinted in Moor (2003, pp. 23–78).
Image adapted from Saygin 2000 Saygin AP, Cicekli I, Akman V (2000), "Turing Test: 50 Years Later" (PDF), Minds and Machines, 10 (4): 463–518, doi:10.1023/A:1011288000451, hdl:11693/24987, S2CID 990084, archived from the original (PDF) on 9 April 2011, retrieved 7 January 2004. Reprinted in Moor (2003, pp. 23–78).

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Wason & Shapiro (1966) showed that people do poorly on completely abstract problems, but if the problem is restated to allow the use of intuitive social intelligence, performance dramatically improves. (See Wason selection task) Kahneman, Slovic & Tversky (1982) have shown that people are terrible at elementary problems that involve uncertain reasoning. (See list of cognitive biases for several examples). Eleanor Rosch's work is described in Lakoff 1987. Kahnmann published a more general theory of symbolic cognition and other kinds of thinking in his book Thinking Fast and Slow (2011) Wason PC, Shapiro D (1966). "Reasoning". In Foss, B. M. (ed.). New horizons in psychology. Harmondsworth: Penguin. Retrieved 18 November 2019. Kahneman D, Slovic D, Tversky A (1982). "Judgment under uncertainty: Heuristics and biases". Science. 185 (4157). New York: Cambridge University Press: 1124–1131. Bibcode:1974Sci...185.1124T. doi:10.1126/science.185.4157.1124. ISBN 978-0-521-28414-1. PMID 17835457. S2CID 143452957. Lakoff G (1987), Women, Fire, and Dangerous Things: What Categories Reveal About the Mind, University of Chicago Press., ISBN 978-0-226-46804-4.
An early example of McCarthy's position was in the journal Science where he said "This is AI, so we don't care if it's psychologically real" (Kolata 1982), and he recently reiterated his position at the AI@50 conference where he said "Artificial intelligence is not, by definition, simulation of human intelligence" (Maker 2006). Kolata G (1982), "How can computers get common sense?", Science, 217 (4566): 1237–1238, Bibcode:1982Sci...217.1237K, doi:10.1126/science.217.4566.1237, PMID 17837639. Maker MH (2006), AI@50: AI Past, Present, Future, Dartmouth College, archived from the original on 8 October 2008, retrieved 16 October 2008
LeCun, Bengio & Hinton 2015. LeCun Y, Bengio Y, Hinton G (2015). "Deep learning" (PDF). Nature. 521 (7553): 436–444. Bibcode:2015Natur.521..436L. doi:10.1038/nature14539. PMID 26017442. S2CID 3074096.

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Russell & Norvig 2021, pp. 6 & 7. Russell SJ, Norvig P (2021). Artificial Intelligence: A Modern Approach (4th ed.). Hoboken: Pearson. ISBN 978-0-13-461099-3. LCCN 20190474.
Russell & Norvig 2021, p. 6. Russell SJ, Norvig P (2021). Artificial Intelligence: A Modern Approach (4th ed.). Hoboken: Pearson. ISBN 978-0-13-461099-3. LCCN 20190474.
Russell & Norvig 2021, p. 8. Russell SJ, Norvig P (2021). Artificial Intelligence: A Modern Approach (4th ed.). Hoboken: Pearson. ISBN 978-0-13-461099-3. LCCN 20190474.
Russell & Norvig 2021, p. 9. Russell SJ, Norvig P (2021). Artificial Intelligence: A Modern Approach (4th ed.). Hoboken: Pearson. ISBN 978-0-13-461099-3. LCCN 20190474.
Russell & Norvig 2021, p. 15. Russell SJ, Norvig P (2021). Artificial Intelligence: A Modern Approach (4th ed.). Hoboken: Pearson. ISBN 978-0-13-461099-3. LCCN 20190474.
Quoted in Russell & Norvig (2021, p. 15) Russell SJ, Norvig P (2021). Artificial Intelligence: A Modern Approach (4th ed.). Hoboken: Pearson. ISBN 978-0-13-461099-3. LCCN 20190474.
Russell & Norvig 2021, p. 14. Russell SJ, Norvig P (2021). Artificial Intelligence: A Modern Approach (4th ed.). Hoboken: Pearson. ISBN 978-0-13-461099-3. LCCN 20190474.
Russell & Norvig 2021, p. 981. Russell SJ, Norvig P (2021). Artificial Intelligence: A Modern Approach (4th ed.). Hoboken: Pearson. ISBN 978-0-13-461099-3. LCCN 20190474.
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Russell & Norvig 2021, p. 18. Russell SJ, Norvig P (2021). Artificial Intelligence: A Modern Approach (4th ed.). Hoboken: Pearson. ISBN 978-0-13-461099-3. LCCN 20190474.
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Russell & Norvig 2021, p. 20. Russell SJ, Norvig P (2021). Artificial Intelligence: A Modern Approach (4th ed.). Hoboken: Pearson. ISBN 978-0-13-461099-3. LCCN 20190474.
McCorduck 2004, p. 286, Crevier 1993, pp. 76–79, Russell & Norvig 2021, p. 20 McCorduck P (2004), Machines Who Think (2nd ed.), Natick, MA: A. K. Peters, Ltd., ISBN 978-1-56881-205-2, OCLC 52197627. Crevier D (1993). AI: The Tumultuous Search for Artificial Intelligence. New York, NY: BasicBooks. ISBN 0-465-02997-3. Russell SJ, Norvig P (2021). Artificial Intelligence: A Modern Approach (4th ed.). Hoboken: Pearson. ISBN 978-0-13-461099-3. LCCN 20190474.
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Russell & Norvig 2021, p. 21. Russell SJ, Norvig P (2021). Artificial Intelligence: A Modern Approach (4th ed.). Hoboken: Pearson. ISBN 978-0-13-461099-3. LCCN 20190474.
Russell & Norvig 2021, p. 23. Russell SJ, Norvig P (2021). Artificial Intelligence: A Modern Approach (4th ed.). Hoboken: Pearson. ISBN 978-0-13-461099-3. LCCN 20190474.
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