Languages of Europe (English Wikipedia)

A motion to recognise Venetian as an official regional language has been approved by the Regional Council of Veneto in 2007. "Consiglio Regionale Veneto – Leggi Regionali". Consiglioveneto.it. Archived from the original on 26 May 2024. Retrieved 6 May 2009.

armstat.am

"Armenian 2011 census data, chapter 5" (PDF).
"Article" (PDF). armstat.am.
"2011 Armenian Census" (PDF).

azstat.org

Censuses of Republic of Azerbaijan 1979, 1989, 1999, 2009 Archived 30 November 2012 at the Wayback Machine

bbc.com

Dansby, Angela (16 December 2020). "The last speakers of ancient Sparta". BBC Home. Retrieved 6 February 2024.
Contemporary Latin: People fluent in Latin as a second language are probably in the dozens, not hundreds. Reginald Foster (as of 2013) estimated "no more than 100" according to Robin Banerji, Pope resignation: Who speaks Latin these days?, BBC News, 12 February 2013.

books.google.com

Friedman, Lawrence; Perez-Perdomo, Rogelio (2003). Legal Culture in the Age of Globalization: Latin America and Latin Europe. Stanford University Press. p. 1. ISBN 0-8047-6695-9.
Protsyk, Oleh; Harzl, Benedikt (7 May 2013). Managing Ethnic Diversity in Russia. Routledge. p. 42. ISBN 978-1-136-26774-1.
Assembly, Council of Europe: Parliamentary (8 November 2006). Documents: working papers, 2006 ordinary session (first part), 23 -27 January 2006, Vol. 1: Documents 10711, 10712, 10715-10769. Council of Europe. p. 235. ISBN 978-92-871-5932-8.

britannica.com

"Scots language | History, Examples, & Facts | Britannica". www.britannica.com. 5 December 2023. Retrieved 23 December 2023.
"Dutch language | Definition, Origin, History, Countries, Examples, & Facts | Britannica". www.britannica.com. 15 December 2023. Retrieved 23 December 2023.
"Romance languages | Definition, Origin, Characteristics, Classification, Map, & Facts | Britannica". www.britannica.com. 6 February 2025. Retrieved 27 February 2025.
"Slavic languages | List, Definition, Origin, Map, Tree, History, & Number of Speakers | Britannica". www.britannica.com. 2 November 2023. Retrieved 22 December 2023.
"Macedonian Language". Britannica. Encyclopaedia Britannica. 12 January 2024. Retrieved 24 March 2024.
Mažiulis, Vytautas J. (26 July 1999). "Baltic Languages". Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved 18 February 2024.
"Celtic languages | History, Features, Origin, Map, & Facts | Britannica". www.britannica.com. 22 December 2023. Retrieved 23 December 2023.
"Turkic languages | Geography, History, & Comparison | Britannica". www.britannica.com. 28 February 2025. Retrieved 25 March 2025.
"Uralic languages | Finno-Ugric, Samoyedic, & Permic Groups | Britannica". www.britannica.com. 24 February 2025. Retrieved 25 March 2025.
Gudava, T. E. "North Caucasian languages". Britannica. Retrieved 14 June 2025.
"Kartvelian languages | Kartvelian, Georgian, Svan & Laz". Britannica. Retrieved 3 September 2023.

cam.ac.uk

asnc.cam.ac.uk

"Department of Anglo-Saxon, Norse and Celtic". www.asnc.cam.ac.uk. Retrieved 23 December 2023.

cambridge.org

assets.cambridge.org

Sipka, Danko (2022). "The Geography of Words" (PDF). Cambridge University Press. Retrieved 23 December 2023.

coe.int

Zatreanu M, Halwachs DW, ROMANI IN EUROPE (PDF), The Council of Europe
"Common European Framework of Reference for Languages: Learning, Teaching, Assessment (CEFR)". Council of Europe. Archived from the original on 30 October 2009. Retrieved 5 November 2009.
Council of Europe (16 January 2014). European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages. Fourth periodical presented to the Secretary General of the Council of Europe in accordance with Article 15 of the Charter. CYPRUS (PDF) (Report).

conventions.coe.int

"European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages: Strasbourg, 5.XI.1992". Council of Europe. 1992. Archived from the original on 26 February 2011. Retrieved 4 November 2009.

consiglioregionale.calabria.it

"Norme per la tutela e la valorizzazione della lingua e del patrimonio culturale delle minoranze linguistiche e storiche di Calabria". Archived from the original on 6 August 2009. Retrieved 25 June 2020.

consiglioregionale.piemonte.it

Piedmontese was recognised as Piedmont's regional language by the regional parliament in 1999. Motion 1118 in the Piedmontese Regional Parliament, Approvazione da parte del Senato del Disegno di Legge che tutela le minoranze linguistiche sul territorio nazionale – Approfondimenti, approved unanimously on 15 December 1999, Text of motion 1118 in the Piedmontese Regional Parliament, Consiglio Regionale del Piemonte, Ordine del Giorno 1118.

consiglioveneto.it

A motion to recognise Venetian as an official regional language has been approved by the Regional Council of Veneto in 2007. "Consiglio Regionale Veneto – Leggi Regionali". Consiglioveneto.it. Archived from the original on 26 May 2024. Retrieved 6 May 2009.

csu.edu.au

news.csu.edu.au

Andrews, Bruce. "The rich diversity of sign languages explained". news.csu.edu.au. Retrieved 22 December 2023.

demoscope.ru

Падение статуса русского языка на постсоветском пространстве. Demoscope.ru. Archived from the original on 25 October 2016. Retrieved 19 August 2016.
Русскоязычие распространено не только там, где живут русские. demoscope.ru. Archived from the original on 23 October 2016.

denaro.it

In 2008, law was passed by the Region of Campania, stating that the Neapolitan language was to be legally protected. "Tutela del dialetto, primo via libera al Ddl campano". Il Denaro (in Italian). 15 October 2008. Archived from the original on 27 July 2011. Retrieved 22 June 2013.

devplan.org

nufussayimi.devplan.org

"Census.XLS" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 16 January 2013. Retrieved 14 February 2014.

doi.org

Versloot, Arjen; Adamczyk, Elzbieta (1 January 2017). "The Geography and Dialects of Old Saxon: River-basin communication networks and the distributional patterns of North Sea Germanic features in Old Saxon". Frisians and Their North Sea Neighbours: 125. doi:10.1515/9781787440630-014.
Kuipers-Zandberg, Helga; Kircher, Ruth (1 November 2020). "The Objective and Subjective Ethnolinguistic Vitality of West Frisian: Promotion and Perception of a Minority Language in the Netherlands". Sustainable Multilingualism. 17 (1): 1–25. doi:10.2478/sm-2020-0011. S2CID 227129146.
Winter, Christoph (21 December 2022), "Frisian", Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Linguistics, doi:10.1093/acrefore/9780199384655.013.938, ISBN 978-0-19-938465-5, retrieved 21 May 2023
Russ, Charles (13 September 2013). The Dialects of Modern German. doi:10.4324/9781315001777. ISBN 9781315001777.
Louden, Mark L. (2020). "Minority Germanic Languages". The Cambridge Handbook of Germanic Linguistics. Cambridge University Press. pp. 807–832. ISBN 978-1-108-42186-7.
Gooskens, Charlotte; Kürschner, Sebastian; Heuven, Vincent J. van (4 August 2021). "The role of loanwords in the intelligibility of written Danish among Swedes". Nordic Journal of Linguistics. 45 (1): 4–29. doi:10.1017/S0332586521000111. hdl:1887/3205273. ISSN 0332-5865.
Gooskens, Charlotte; van Heuven, Vincent J.; Golubović, Jelena; Schüppert, Anja; Swarte, Femke; Voigt, Stefanie (3 April 2018). "Mutual intelligibility between closely related languages in Europe". International Journal of Multilingualism. 15 (2): 169–193. doi:10.1080/14790718.2017.1350185. hdl:1887/79190. ISSN 1479-0718.
Vaba, Lembit (July 2014). "Curonian linguistic elements in Livonian". Eesti ja Soome-Ugri Keeleteaduse Ajakiri. 5 (1): 173–191. doi:10.12697/jeful.2014.5.1.09. Retrieved 18 February 2024.
Nomachi, Motoki (2019). "Placing Kashubian in the Circum-Baltic (CB) area". Prace Filologiczne. LXXIV (2019): 315–328. doi:10.32798/pf.470. Retrieved 18 February 2024.
Szatkowski, Piotr (January 2022). "Language Practices in a Family of Prussian Language Revivalists: Conclusions Based on Short-Term Participant Observation". Adeptus (2626): 173. doi:10.11649/a.2626. Retrieved 18 February 2024.
Çerpja, Adelina; Çepani, Anila (December 2023). "Albanian Dialect Classifications" (PDF). Dialectologia. 11 (2023): 51–87. doi:10.1344/dialectologia2023.2023.3. Retrieved 8 March 2025.
Yükselen Peler, Gökçe (2018). "Tarih İçinde Yunanistan'da Türk Dili: Hun-Avar-Bulgar Dönemi". Journal of Turkish Language and Literature. 58 (2): 429–448. doi:10.26650/TUDED2018-0004.
Aquilina, J. (1958). "Maltese as a Mixed Language". Journal of Semitic Studies. 3 (1): 58–79. doi:10.1093/jss/3.1.58.
Aquilina, Joseph (July–September 1960). "The Structure of Maltese". Journal of the American Oriental Society. 80 (3): 267–68. doi:10.2307/596187. JSTOR 596187.
Reagan, Timothy (2014). "Language Policy for Sign Languages". The Encyclopedia of Applied Linguistics. pp. 1–6. doi:10.1002/9781405198431.wbeal1417. ISBN 9781405194730.
Murray, Joseph J. (2015). "Linguistic Human Rights Discourse in Deaf Community Activism". Sign Language Studies. 15 (4): 379–410. doi:10.1353/sls.2015.0012. JSTOR 26190995. PMC 4490244. PMID 26190995.
Reagan, Timothy (2021). "Historical Linguistics and the Case for Sign Language Families". Sign Language Studies. 21 (4): 427–454. doi:10.1353/sls.2021.0006. ISSN 1533-6263. S2CID 236778280.
Power, Justin M. (2022). "Historical Linguistics of Sign Languages: Progress and Problems". Frontiers in Psychology. 13. doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2022.818753. ISSN 1664-1078. PMC 8959496. PMID 35356353.
"Chapter 2. The Linguistic Setup of Sign Languages – The Case of Irish Sign Language (ISL)", Mouth Actions in Sign Languages (in German), De Gruyter Mouton, 28 July 2014, pp. 4–30, doi:10.1515/9781614514978.4, ISBN 978-1-61451-497-8
Counelis, James Steve (March 1976). "Review [untitled] of Ariadna Camariano-Cioran, Les Academies Princieres de Bucarest et de Jassy et leur Professeurs". Church History. 45 (1): 115–116. doi:10.2307/3164593. JSTOR 3164593. S2CID 162293323. ...Greek, the lingua franca of commerce and religion, provided a cultural unity to the Balkans...Greek penetrated Moldavian and Wallachian territories as early as the fourteenth century.... The heavy influence of Greek culture upon the intellectual and academic life of Bucharest and Jassy was longer termed than historians once believed.
Kahane, Henry (September 1986). "A Typology of the Prestige Language". Language. 62 (3): 495–508. doi:10.2307/415474. JSTOR 415474.
Darquennes, Jeroen; Nelde, Peter (2006). "German as a Lingua Franca". Annual Review of Applied Linguistics. 26: 61–77. doi:10.1017/s0267190506000043 (inactive 18 December 2024). S2CID 61449212.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of December 2024 (link)
Ozek, Fatih; Saglam, Bilgit; Gooskens, Charlotte (1 December 2021). "Mutual intelligibility of a Kurmanji and a Zazaki dialect spoken in the province of Elazığ, Turkey". Applied Linguistics Review. 14 (5). De Gruyter academic publishing: 1411–1449. doi:10.1515/applirev-2020-0151. S2CID 244782650.
Özkan, Hakan (2013). "The Pontic Greek spoken by Muslims in the villages of Beşköy in the province of present-day Trabzon". Byzantine and Modern Greek Studies. 37 (1): 130–150. doi:10.1179/0307013112z.00000000023.

dx.doi.org

Russ, Charles (13 September 2013). The Dialects of Modern German. doi:10.4324/9781315001777. ISBN 9781315001777.

doomby.com

maxia-mail.doomby.com

This includes all of the varieties of Sardinian, written with any orthography (the LSC, used for all of Sardinian, or the Logudorese, Nugorese and Campidanese orthographies, only used for some dialects of it) but does not include Gallurese and Sassarese, that even though they have sometimes been included in a supposed Sardinian "macro-language" are actually considered by all Sardinian linguists two different transitional languages between Sardinian and Corsican (or, in the case of Gallurese, are sometimes classified as a variant of Corsican). For Gallurese: ATTI DEL II CONVEGNO INTERNAZIONALE DI STUDI Ciurrata di la Linga Gadduresa, 2014, for Sassarese: Maxia, Mauro (2010). Studi sardo-corsi. Dialettologia e storia della lingua tra le due isole (in Italian). Sassari: Taphros. p. 58. La tesi che individua nel sassarese una base essenzialmente toscana deve essere riesaminata alla luce delle cospicue migrazioni corse che fin dall'età giudicale interessarono soprattutto il nord della Sardegna. In effetti, che il settentrione della Sardegna, almeno dalla metà del Quattrocento, fosse interessato da un forte presenza corsa si può desumere da diversi punti di osservazione. Una delle prove più evidenti è costituita dall'espressa citazione che di questo fenomeno fa il cap. 42 del secondo libro degli Statuti del comune di Sassari, il quale fu aggiunto nel 1435 o subito dopo. Se si tiene conto di questa massiccia presenza corsa e del fatto che la presenza pisana nel regno di Logudoro cessò definitivamente entro il Duecento, l'origine del fondo toscano non andrà attribuita a un influsso diretto del pisano antico ma del corso che rappresenta, esso stesso, una conseguenza dell'antica toscanizzazione della Corsica). They are legally considered two different languages by the Sardinian Regional Government too (Autonomous Region of Sardinia (15 October 1997). "Legge Regionale 15 ottobre 1997, n. 26" (in Italian). pp. Art. 2, paragraph 4. Archived from the original on 1 March 2021. Retrieved 16 June 2008.).

ecml.at

edl.ecml.at

"European Day of Languages > Facts > Language Facts". edl.ecml.at. Retrieved 23 December 2023.

ehu.eus

III Sociolinguistic Study of Asturias (2017). Euskobarometro.

endangeredlanguages.com

ethnologue.com

"Ethnologue: Statistics". Ethnologue (26 ed.). Retrieved 23 December 2023.
"German, Standard | Ethnologue Free". Ethnologue (Free All). Retrieved 23 December 2023.
Polish at Ethnologue (27th ed., 2024)
Ukrainian at Ethnologue (27th ed., 2024)
Serbo-Croatian at Ethnologue (27th ed., 2024)
Czech at Ethnologue (27th ed., 2024)
Bulgarian at Ethnologue (27th ed., 2024)
Slovak at Ethnologue (27th ed., 2024)
Belarusian at Ethnologue (27th ed., 2024)
Slovene at Ethnologue (27th ed., 2024)
"Slavic | Ethnologue Free". Ethnologue (Free All). Retrieved 22 December 2023.
"Cornish | Ethnologue Free". Ethnologue (Free All). Retrieved 23 December 2023.
"Breton | Ethnologue Free". Ethnologue (Free All). Retrieved 23 December 2023.
"Irish | Ethnologue Free". Ethnologue (Free All). Retrieved 23 December 2023.
"Scottish Gaelic | Ethnologue Free". Ethnologue (Free All). Retrieved 23 December 2023.
"Manx | Ethnologue Free". Ethnologue (Free All). Retrieved 23 December 2023.
"Assyrian Neo-Aramaic | Ethnologue Free". Ethnologue (Free All). Retrieved 22 December 2023.
Abaza at Ethnologue (18th ed., 2015) (subscription required)
Adyghe at Ethnologue (18th ed., 2015) (subscription required)
Aghul at Ethnologue (18th ed., 2015) (subscription required)
Akhvakh at Ethnologue (18th ed., 2015) (subscription required)
Albanian at Ethnologue (18th ed., 2015) (subscription required)
"Albanian". Ethnologue. Retrieved 12 December 2018. Population total of all languages of the Albanian macrolanguage.
Andi at Ethnologue (18th ed., 2015) (subscription required)
Archi at Ethnologue (18th ed., 2015) (subscription required)
Aromanian at Ethnologue (18th ed., 2015) (subscription required)
c. 130,000 in Dagestan. In addition, there are about 0.5 million speakers in immigrant communities in Russia, see #Immigrant communities. Azerbaijani at Ethnologue (18th ed., 2015) (subscription required)
Bagvalal at Ethnologue (18th ed., 2015) (subscription required)
Bashkort at Ethnologue (18th ed., 2015) (subscription required)
German dialect, Bavarian at Ethnologue (18th ed., 2015) (subscription required)
Belarusian at Ethnologue (18th ed., 2015) (subscription required)
Bezhta at Ethnologue (18th ed., 2015) (subscription required)
Bosnian at Ethnologue (18th ed., 2015) (subscription required)
Botlikh at Ethnologue (18th ed., 2015) (subscription required)
Breton at Ethnologue (18th ed., 2015) (subscription required)
Bulgarian at Ethnologue (18th ed., 2015) (subscription required)
"Catalan". 19 November 2019.
Chamalal at Ethnologue (18th ed., 2015) (subscription required)
Chechen at Ethnologue (18th ed., 2015) (subscription required)
Chuvash at Ethnologue (18th ed., 2015) (subscription required)
German dialect, Cimbrian at Ethnologue (18th ed., 2015) (subscription required)
Corsican at Ethnologue (18th ed., 2015) (subscription required)
Crimean Tatar at Ethnologue (18th ed., 2015) (subscription required)
Croatian at Ethnologue (18th ed., 2015) (subscription required)
Czech at Ethnologue (18th ed., 2015) (subscription required)
Danish at Ethnologue (18th ed., 2015) (subscription required)
Dargwa at Ethnologue (18th ed., 2015) (subscription required)
Dutch at Ethnologue (18th ed., 2015) (subscription required)
English at Ethnologue (18th ed., 2015) (subscription required)
Erzya at Ethnologue (18th ed., 2015) (subscription required)
Estonian at Ethnologue (18th ed., 2015) (subscription required)
Extremaduran at Ethnologue (18th ed., 2015) (subscription required)
Fala at Ethnologue (18th ed., 2015) (subscription required)
Faroese at Ethnologue (18th ed., 2015) (subscription required)
Finnish at Ethnologue (18th ed., 2015) (subscription required)
Franco-Provençal at Ethnologue (18th ed., 2015) (subscription required)
French at Ethnologue (18th ed., 2015) (subscription required)
Frisian at Ethnologue (18th ed., 2015) (subscription required)
Gagauz at Ethnologue (18th ed., 2015) (subscription required)
Galician at Ethnologue (18th ed., 2015) (subscription required)
Godoberi at Ethnologue (18th ed., 2015) (subscription required)
11 million in Greece, out of 13.4 million in total. Greek at Ethnologue (18th ed., 2015) (subscription required)
Hinuq at Ethnologue (18th ed., 2015) (subscription required)
Hungarian at Ethnologue (18th ed., 2015) (subscription required)
Hunzib at Ethnologue (18th ed., 2015) (subscription required)
Icelandic at Ethnologue (18th ed., 2015) (subscription required)
Ingrian at Ethnologue (18th ed., 2015) (subscription required)
Ingush at Ethnologue (18th ed., 2015) (subscription required)
Irish at Ethnologue (18th ed., 2015) (subscription required)
Istriot at Ethnologue (18th ed., 2015) (subscription required)
Istro-Romanian at Ethnologue (18th ed., 2015) (subscription required)
Italian at Ethnologue (18th ed., 2015) (subscription required)
Judeo-Italian at Ethnologue (18th ed., 2015) (subscription required)
Judaeo-Spanish at Ethnologue (18th ed., 2015) (subscription required)
Kabardian at Ethnologue (18th ed., 2015) (subscription required)
Kaitag at Ethnologue (18th ed., 2015) (subscription required)
Oirat at Ethnologue (18th ed., 2015) (subscription required)
Karata at Ethnologue (18th ed., 2015) (subscription required)
Karelian at Ethnologue (18th ed., 2015) (subscription required)
Karachay-Balkar at Ethnologue (18th ed., 2015) (subscription required)
Kashubian at Ethnologue (18th ed., 2015) (subscription required)
About 10 million in Kazakhstan. Kazakh at Ethnologue (18th ed., 2015) (subscription required). Technically, the westernmost portions of Kazakhstan (Atyrau Region, West Kazakhstan Region) are in Europe, with a total population of less than one million.
Khwarshi at Ethnologue (18th ed., 2015) (subscription required)
220,000 native speakers out of an ethnic population of 550,000. Combines Komi-Permyak (koi) with 65,000 speakers and Komi-Zyrian (kpv) with 156,000 speakers. Komi at Ethnologue (18th ed., 2015) (subscription required)
Kubachi at Ethnologue (18th ed., 2015) (subscription required)
Lak at Ethnologue (18th ed., 2015) (subscription required)
Latvian at Ethnologue (18th ed., 2015) (subscription required)
Lezgic at Ethnologue (18th ed., 2015) (subscription required)
Ligurian at Ethnologue (18th ed., 2015) (subscription required)
"Redirected". Ethnologue. 19 November 2019. Retrieved 12 March 2021.
Lithuanian at Ethnologue (18th ed., 2015) (subscription required)
Lombard at Ethnologue (18th ed., 2015) (subscription required)
2.6 million cited as estimate of all Germans who speak Platt "well or very well" (including L2; 4.3 million cited as the number of all speakers including those with "moderate" knowledge) in 2009. Heute in Bremen. „Ohne Zweifel gefährdet". Frerk Möller im Interview, taz, 21. Februar 2009. However, Wirrer (1998) described Low German as "moribund".Jan Wirrer: Zum Status des Niederdeutschen. In: Zeitschrift für Germanistische Linguistik. 26, 1998, S. 309. The number of native speakers is unknown, estimated at 1 million by SIL Ethnologue. Low German at Ethnologue (18th ed., 2015) (subscription required), Westphalian at Ethnologue (18th ed., 2015) (subscription required)
Ludic at Ethnologue (18th ed., 2015) (subscription required)
Luxembourgish at Ethnologue (18th ed., 2015) (subscription required)
Macedonian at Ethnologue (18th ed., 2015) (subscription required)
German dialect, Main-Franconian at Ethnologue (18th ed., 2015) (subscription required)
Maltese at Ethnologue (18th ed., 2015) (subscription required)
Manx at Ethnologue (18th ed., 2015) (subscription required)
Mari at Ethnologue (18th ed., 2015) (subscription required)
Megleno-Romanian at Ethnologue (18th ed., 2015) (subscription required)
Minderico at Ethnologue (18th ed., 2015) (subscription required)
Mirandese at Ethnologue (18th ed., 2015) (subscription required)
Moksha at Ethnologue (18th ed., 2015) (subscription required)
"Montenegro". Ethnologue. Retrieved 29 April 2018.
Neapolitan at Ethnologue (18th ed., 2015) (subscription required)
Nogai at Ethnologue (18th ed., 2015) (subscription required)
Jèrriais at Ethnologue (18th ed., 2015) (subscription required)
"Norwegian". Ethnologue. Retrieved 6 August 2018.
Occitan at Ethnologue (18th ed., 2015) (subscription required). Includes Auvergnat, Gascon, Languedocien, Limousin, Provençal, Vivaro-Alpine. Most native speakers are in France; their number is unknown, as varieties of Occitan are treated as French dialects with no official status.
Total 570,000, of which 450,000 in the Russian Federation. Ossetian at Ethnologue (18th ed., 2015) (subscription required)
German dialect, Palatinate German at Ethnologue (18th ed., 2015) (subscription required)
Picard at Ethnologue (18th ed., 2015) (subscription required)
Piedmontese at Ethnologue (18th ed., 2015) (subscription required)
Polish at Ethnologue (18th ed., 2015) (subscription required)
Portuguese at Ethnologue (18th ed., 2015) (subscription required)
Includes Friulian, Romansh, Ladin. Friulian at Ethnologue (18th ed., 2015) (subscription required) Ladin at Ethnologue (18th ed., 2015) (subscription required) Romansch at Ethnologue (18th ed., 2015) (subscription required)
German dialect, Kölsch at Ethnologue (18th ed., 2015) (subscription required)
Romani, Balkan at Ethnologue (18th ed., 2015) (subscription required) Romani, Baltic at Ethnologue (18th ed., 2015) (subscription required) Romani, Carpathian at Ethnologue (18th ed., 2015) (subscription required) Romani, Finnish at Ethnologue (18th ed., 2015) (subscription required) Romani, Sinte at Ethnologue (18th ed., 2015) (subscription required) Romani, Vlax at Ethnologue (18th ed., 2015) (subscription required) Romani, Welsh at Ethnologue (18th ed., 2015) (subscription required)
Romanian at Ethnologue (18th ed., 2015) (subscription required)
L1: 119 million in the Russian Federation (of which c. 83 million in European Russia), 14.3 million in Ukraine, 6.67 million in Belarus, 0.67 million in Latvia, 0.38 million in Estonia, 0.38 million in Moldova. L1+L2: c. 100 million in European Russia, 39 million in Ukraine, 7 million in Belarus, 7 million in Poland, 2 million in Latvia, c. 2 million in the European portion of Kazakhstan, 1.8 million in Moldova, 1.1 million in Estonia. Russian at Ethnologue (18th ed., 2015) (subscription required).
Rusyn at Ethnologue (18th ed., 2015) (subscription required)
Rutul at Ethnologue (18th ed., 2015) (subscription required)
mostly Northern Sami (sma), ca. 20,000 speakers; smaller communities of Lule Sami (smj, c. 2,000 speakers) and other variants. Northern Sami at Ethnologue (18th ed., 2015) (subscription required), Lule Sami at Ethnologue (18th ed., 2015) (subscription required) Southern Sami at Ethnologue (18th ed., 2015) (subscription required), Kildin Sami at Ethnologue (18th ed., 2015) (subscription required), Skolt Sami at Ethnologue (18th ed., 2015) (subscription required), Inari Sami at Ethnologue (18th ed., 2015) (subscription required).
Scots at Ethnologue (18th ed., 2015) (subscription required)
Gaelic, Scottish at Ethnologue (18th ed., 2015) (subscription required)
Serbian at Ethnologue (18th ed., 2015) (subscription required)
Sicilian at Ethnologue (18th ed., 2015) (subscription required)
Silesian at Ethnologue (19th ed., 2016)
German dialect, Lower Silesian at Ethnologue (18th ed., 2015) (subscription required)
Slovak at Ethnologue (18th ed., 2015) (subscription required)
Slovene at Ethnologue (18th ed., 2015) (subscription required)
Sorbian, Upper at Ethnologue (18th ed., 2015) (subscription required)
Spanish at Ethnologue (18th ed., 2015) (subscription required)
German dialect, Swabian German at Ethnologue (18th ed., 2015) (subscription required)
Swedish at Ethnologue (18th ed., 2015) (subscription required)
German dialect, Swiss German at Ethnologue (18th ed., 2015) (subscription required)
Tabassaran at Ethnologue (18th ed., 2015) (subscription required)
Tat at Ethnologue (18th ed., 2015) (subscription required), Judeo-Tat at Ethnologue (18th ed., 2015) (subscription required) 2,000 speakers in the Russian Federation according to the 2010 census (including Judeo-Tat). About 28,000 speakers in Azerbaijan; most speakers live along or just north of the Caucasus ridge (and are thus technically in Europe), with some also settling just south of the Caucasus ridge, in the South Caucasus.
Tatar at Ethnologue (18th ed., 2015) (subscription required)
Tindi at Ethnologue (18th ed., 2015) (subscription required)
Tsez at Ethnologue (18th ed., 2015) (subscription required)
Udmurt at Ethnologue (18th ed., 2015) (subscription required)
Ukrainian at Ethnologue (18th ed., 2015) (subscription required)
German dialect, Upper Saxon German at Ethnologue (18th ed., 2015) (subscription required)
Russian Census 2010. Veps at Ethnologue (18th ed., 2015) (subscription required)
Venetian at Ethnologue (18th ed., 2015) (subscription required)
Võro at Ethnologue (18th ed., 2015) (subscription required)
Walloon at Ethnologue (18th ed., 2015) (subscription required)
Highest Alemannic dialects, Walser German at Ethnologue (18th ed., 2015) (subscription required)
Welsh at Ethnologue (18th ed., 2015) (subscription required)
Moribund German dialect spoken in Wilamowice, Poland. 70 speakers recorded in 2006. Wymysorys at Ethnologue (18th ed., 2015) (subscription required)
Yenish at Ethnologue (18th ed., 2015) (subscription required)
Total population estimated at 1.5 million as of 1991, of which c. 40% in Ukraine. Yiddish at Ethnologue (18th ed., 2015) (subscription required), Eastern Yiddish at Ethnologue (18th ed., 2015) (subscription required), Western Yiddish at Ethnologue (18th ed., 2015) (subscription required)
Zeelandic at Ethnologue (18th ed., 2015) (subscription required)
Abkhazian at Ethnologue (18th ed., 2015) (subscription required)
"Laz". Ethnologue.
France: 4,000,000, Germany: 500k (2015), Spain: 200k UK: 159k (2011 census)
Germany: 1,510k, France: 444k, Netherlands: 388k, Austria: 197k, Russia: 146k, UK: 99k, Switzerland: 44k, Sweden: 44.
830k in Russia (2010 census), 100k in Ukraine (SIL Ethnologue 2015).
Germany: 541k
France: 500k
UK: 101k, Germany: 35k, Switzerland: 22k.
UK: 86k, Sweden: 53k, Italy: 50k

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Lewis, M. Paul, ed. (2009). "Ethnologue report for Turkey (Asia)". Ethnologue: Languages of the World. SIL International. Archived from the original on 7 July 2010. Retrieved 8 September 2009.

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"Languages of Europe: Official EU languages". European Commission, European Union. 2009. Archived from the original on 2 February 2009. Retrieved 5 November 2009.
"Europeans and Their Languages" (PDF). European Commission. 2006. p. 8. Retrieved 5 November 2009.
Europeans and their Languages Archived 6 January 2016 at the Wayback Machine, Data for EU27 Archived 29 April 2013 at the Wayback Machine, published in 2012.
"Cyprus" (PDF). Euromosaic III. Retrieved 3 July 2013.

fondationpourlaudition.org

"La Langue des signes française (LSF) | Fondation pour l'audition". www.fondationpourlaudition.org. Retrieved 22 December 2023.

geostat.ge

"2014 Georgian census" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 5 February 2017.

gioventurapiemonteisa.net

Piedmontese was recognised as Piedmont's regional language by the regional parliament in 1999. Motion 1118 in the Piedmontese Regional Parliament, Approvazione da parte del Senato del Disegno di Legge che tutela le minoranze linguistiche sul territorio nazionale – Approfondimenti, approved unanimously on 15 December 1999, Text of motion 1118 in the Piedmontese Regional Parliament, Consiglio Regionale del Piemonte, Ordine del Giorno 1118.

gks.ru

"2010 Russian Census". Archived from the original on 6 October 2021. Retrieved 27 May 2022.

glottolog.org

"Glottolog 4.5 - Zaza". glottolog.org. Retrieved 21 May 2022.

gtelocalize.com

"All You Need To Know About The Official Languages Of Germany". gtelocalize.com. 28 December 2023. Retrieved 13 January 2025.

handle.net

hdl.handle.net

Gooskens, Charlotte; Kürschner, Sebastian; Heuven, Vincent J. van (4 August 2021). "The role of loanwords in the intelligibility of written Danish among Swedes". Nordic Journal of Linguistics. 45 (1): 4–29. doi:10.1017/S0332586521000111. hdl:1887/3205273. ISSN 0332-5865.
Gooskens, Charlotte; van Heuven, Vincent J.; Golubović, Jelena; Schüppert, Anja; Swarte, Femke; Voigt, Stefanie (3 April 2018). "Mutual intelligibility between closely related languages in Europe". International Journal of Multilingualism. 15 (2): 169–193. doi:10.1080/14790718.2017.1350185. hdl:1887/79190. ISSN 1479-0718.

iec.cat

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"Informe sobre la Situació de la Llengua Catalana | Xarxa CRUSCAT. Coneixements, usos i representacions del català". blogs.iec.cat.

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"Kalmyk". Center for Language Technology. Retrieved 29 August 2024.

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Thordarson, Fridrik (1 January 2000). "CAUCASUS ii. Language contact". Encyclopaedia Iranica. Retrieved 22 June 2025.

isof.se

"Meänkieli nu och då". www.isof.se (in Swedish). Retrieved 8 January 2025.

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Yükselen Peler, Gökçe (2018). "Tarih İçinde Yunanistan'da Türk Dili: Hun-Avar-Bulgar Dönemi". Journal of Turkish Language and Literature. 58 (2): 429–448. doi:10.26650/TUDED2018-0004.

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muse.jhu.edu

Reagan, Timothy (2021). "Historical Linguistics and the Case for Sign Language Families". Sign Language Studies. 21 (4): 427–454. doi:10.1353/sls.2021.0006. ISSN 1533-6263. S2CID 236778280.

jstor.org

Aquilina, Joseph (July–September 1960). "The Structure of Maltese". Journal of the American Oriental Society. 80 (3): 267–68. doi:10.2307/596187. JSTOR 596187.
Murray, Joseph J. (2015). "Linguistic Human Rights Discourse in Deaf Community Activism". Sign Language Studies. 15 (4): 379–410. doi:10.1353/sls.2015.0012. JSTOR 26190995. PMC 4490244. PMID 26190995.
Counelis, James Steve (March 1976). "Review [untitled] of Ariadna Camariano-Cioran, Les Academies Princieres de Bucarest et de Jassy et leur Professeurs". Church History. 45 (1): 115–116. doi:10.2307/3164593. JSTOR 3164593. S2CID 162293323. ...Greek, the lingua franca of commerce and religion, provided a cultural unity to the Balkans...Greek penetrated Moldavian and Wallachian territories as early as the fourteenth century.... The heavy influence of Greek culture upon the intellectual and academic life of Bucharest and Jassy was longer termed than historians once believed.
Kahane, Henry (September 1986). "A Typology of the Prestige Language". Language. 62 (3): 495–508. doi:10.2307/415474. JSTOR 415474.

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Constitution of Kosovo, p. 8 Archived 11 October 2017 at the Wayback Machine

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"Kvensk språk". Norske kveners forbund (in Norwegian Bokmål). Retrieved 8 January 2025.

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c. 12 million in European Turkey, 0.6 million in Bulgaria, 0.6 million in Cyprus and Northern Cyprus; and 2,679,765 L1 speakers in other countries in Europe according to a Eurobarometer survey in 2012: https://languageknowledge.eu/languages/turkish

lexsoft.de

recognized as official language in Nordfriesland, Schleswig-Flensburg, Flensburg and Rendsburg-Eckernförde (§ 82b LVwG)
recognized as official language in the Nordfriesland district and in Helgoland (§ 82b LVwG).
The question whether Low German should be considered as subsumed under "German" as the official language of Germany has a complicated legal history. In the wake of the ratification of the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages (1998), Schleswig-Holstein has explicitly recognized Low German as a regional language with official status (§ 82b LVwG).

ligaturix.de

Facsimile of Bormann's Memorandum (in German)
The memorandum itself is typed in Antiqua, but the NSDAP letterhead is printed in Fraktur.
"For general attention, on behalf of the Führer, I make the following announcement:
It is wrong to regard or to describe the so‑called Gothic script as a German script. In reality, the so‑called Gothic script consists of Schwabach Jew letters. Just as they later took control of the newspapers, upon the introduction of printing the Jews residing in Germany took control of the printing presses and thus in Germany the Schwabach Jew letters were forcefully introduced.
Today the Führer, talking with Herr Reichsleiter Amann and Herr Book Publisher Adolf Müller, has decided that in the future the Antiqua script is to be described as normal script. All printed materials are to be gradually converted to this normal script. As soon as is feasible in terms of textbooks, only the normal script will be taught in village and state schools.
The use of the Schwabach Jew letters by officials will in future cease; appointment certifications for functionaries, street signs, and so forth will in future be produced only in normal script.
On behalf of the Führer, Herr Reichsleiter Amann will in future convert those newspapers and periodicals that already have foreign distribution, or whose foreign distribution is desired, to normal script".

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"Multitree | The LINGUIST List". linguistlist.org. Retrieved 20 May 2023.

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"LĪBIEŠU VALODAS SITUĀCIJA". Archived from the original on 2 February 2014. Retrieved 19 January 2012.

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"Welsh | Llywodraeth Cymru". Llywodraeth Cymru (Free All) (in cym). Retrieved 14 June 2025.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: unrecognized language (link)

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""Kūldaläpš. Zeltabērns" – izdota lībiešu valodas grāmata bērniem un vecākiem". Latvijas Sabiedriskie Mediji (LSM.lv). 18 October 2022. Retrieved 22 October 2022.

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(in French) VI° Enquête Sociolinguistique en Euskal herria (Communauté Autonome d'Euskadi, Navarre et Pays Basque Nord) Archived 21 August 2018 at the Wayback Machine (2016).

mof.gov.cy

Στατιστική Υπηρεσία – Πληθυσμός και Κοινωνικές Συνθήκες – Απογραφή Πληθυσμού – Ανακοινώσεις – Αποτελέσματα Απογραφής Πληθυσμού, 2011 (in Greek). Demoscope.ru. Archived from the original on 7 May 2013. Retrieved 18 June 2013.
"Population enumerated by age, sex, language spoken and district (1.10.2011) (sheet D1A)". Population – Country of Birth, Citizenship Category, Country of Citizenship, Language, 2011. CYstat. June 2013.^{[permanent dead link]}

narod.ru

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"Ethno-Caucasus – Население Кавказа – Республика Абхазия – Население Абхазии".

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Murray, Joseph J. (2015). "Linguistic Human Rights Discourse in Deaf Community Activism". Sign Language Studies. 15 (4): 379–410. doi:10.1353/sls.2015.0012. JSTOR 26190995. PMC 4490244. PMID 26190995.
Power, Justin M. (2022). "Historical Linguistics of Sign Languages: Progress and Problems". Frontiers in Psychology. 13. doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2022.818753. ISSN 1664-1078. PMC 8959496. PMID 35356353.

pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov

Murray, Joseph J. (2015). "Linguistic Human Rights Discourse in Deaf Community Activism". Sign Language Studies. 15 (4): 379–410. doi:10.1353/sls.2015.0012. JSTOR 26190995. PMC 4490244. PMID 26190995.
Power, Justin M. (2022). "Historical Linguistics of Sign Languages: Progress and Problems". Frontiers in Psychology. 13. doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2022.818753. ISSN 1664-1078. PMC 8959496. PMID 35356353.

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"Linguistic variety in the Nordics". nordics.info. 21 February 2019. Retrieved 6 November 2023.

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"Main language (detailed)". Office for National Statistics. Retrieved 31 July 2023. (UK 2021 Census)

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John M. Clifton, Gabriela Deckinga, Laura Lucht, Calvin Tiessen, "Sociolinguistic Situation of the Tat and Mountain Jews in Azerbaijan," In Clifton, ed., Studies in Languages of Azerbaijan, vol. 2 (Azerbaijan & St Petersburg, Russia: Academy of Sciences of Azerbaijan & SIL International 2005). Page 3.

regione.fvg.it

"Official website of the Autonomous Region of Friuli-Venezia Giulia".

regione.sardegna.it

This includes all of the varieties of Sardinian, written with any orthography (the LSC, used for all of Sardinian, or the Logudorese, Nugorese and Campidanese orthographies, only used for some dialects of it) but does not include Gallurese and Sassarese, that even though they have sometimes been included in a supposed Sardinian "macro-language" are actually considered by all Sardinian linguists two different transitional languages between Sardinian and Corsican (or, in the case of Gallurese, are sometimes classified as a variant of Corsican). For Gallurese: ATTI DEL II CONVEGNO INTERNAZIONALE DI STUDI Ciurrata di la Linga Gadduresa, 2014, for Sassarese: Maxia, Mauro (2010). Studi sardo-corsi. Dialettologia e storia della lingua tra le due isole (in Italian). Sassari: Taphros. p. 58. La tesi che individua nel sassarese una base essenzialmente toscana deve essere riesaminata alla luce delle cospicue migrazioni corse che fin dall'età giudicale interessarono soprattutto il nord della Sardegna. In effetti, che il settentrione della Sardegna, almeno dalla metà del Quattrocento, fosse interessato da un forte presenza corsa si può desumere da diversi punti di osservazione. Una delle prove più evidenti è costituita dall'espressa citazione che di questo fenomeno fa il cap. 42 del secondo libro degli Statuti del comune di Sassari, il quale fu aggiunto nel 1435 o subito dopo. Se si tiene conto di questa massiccia presenza corsa e del fatto che la presenza pisana nel regno di Logudoro cessò definitivamente entro il Duecento, l'origine del fondo toscano non andrà attribuita a un influsso diretto del pisano antico ma del corso che rappresenta, esso stesso, una conseguenza dell'antica toscanizzazione della Corsica). They are legally considered two different languages by the Sardinian Regional Government too (Autonomous Region of Sardinia (15 October 1997). "Legge Regionale 15 ottobre 1997, n. 26" (in Italian). pp. Art. 2, paragraph 4. Archived from the original on 1 March 2021. Retrieved 16 June 2008.).
"Legge Regionale 15 ottobre 1997, n. 26". Regione autonoma della Sardegna – Regione Autònoma de Sardigna. Archived from the original on 26 February 2021. Retrieved 21 October 2021.
"Legge Regionale 3 Luglio 2018, n. 22". Regione autonoma della Sardegna – Regione Autònoma de Sardigna. Archived from the original on 5 March 2019. Retrieved 21 October 2021.

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Statuto Speciale Per Il Trentino-Alto Adige Archived 26 November 2018 at the Wayback Machine (1972), Art. 99–101.
Statuto Speciale Per Il Trentino-Alto Adige Archived 26 November 2018 at the Wayback Machine (1972), Art. 102.

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Vaba, Lembit (July 2014). "Curonian linguistic elements in Livonian". Eesti ja Soome-Ugri Keeleteaduse Ajakiri. 5 (1): 173–191. doi:10.12697/jeful.2014.5.1.09. Retrieved 18 February 2024.
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"Итоги Всероссийской переписи населения 2020 года. Таблица 6. Население по родному языку" [Results of the All-Russian population census 2020. Table 6. population according to native language.]. rosstat.gov.ru. Archived from the original on 24 January 2020. Retrieved 1 November 2023.

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"Linguist makes sensational claim: English is a Scandinavian language". ScienceDaily. Retrieved 6 March 2016.

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Kuipers-Zandberg, Helga; Kircher, Ruth (1 November 2020). "The Objective and Subjective Ethnolinguistic Vitality of West Frisian: Promotion and Perception of a Minority Language in the Netherlands". Sustainable Multilingualism. 17 (1): 1–25. doi:10.2478/sm-2020-0011. S2CID 227129146.
Reagan, Timothy (2021). "Historical Linguistics and the Case for Sign Language Families". Sign Language Studies. 21 (4): 427–454. doi:10.1353/sls.2021.0006. ISSN 1533-6263. S2CID 236778280.
Counelis, James Steve (March 1976). "Review [untitled] of Ariadna Camariano-Cioran, Les Academies Princieres de Bucarest et de Jassy et leur Professeurs". Church History. 45 (1): 115–116. doi:10.2307/3164593. JSTOR 3164593. S2CID 162293323. ...Greek, the lingua franca of commerce and religion, provided a cultural unity to the Balkans...Greek penetrated Moldavian and Wallachian territories as early as the fourteenth century.... The heavy influence of Greek culture upon the intellectual and academic life of Bucharest and Jassy was longer termed than historians once believed.
Darquennes, Jeroen; Nelde, Peter (2006). "German as a Lingua Franca". Annual Review of Applied Linguistics. 26: 61–77. doi:10.1017/s0267190506000043 (inactive 18 December 2024). S2CID 61449212.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of December 2024 (link)
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2.6 million cited as estimate of all Germans who speak Platt "well or very well" (including L2; 4.3 million cited as the number of all speakers including those with "moderate" knowledge) in 2009. Heute in Bremen. „Ohne Zweifel gefährdet". Frerk Möller im Interview, taz, 21. Februar 2009. However, Wirrer (1998) described Low German as "moribund".Jan Wirrer: Zum Status des Niederdeutschen. In: Zeitschrift für Germanistische Linguistik. 26, 1998, S. 309. The number of native speakers is unknown, estimated at 1 million by SIL Ethnologue. Low German at Ethnologue (18th ed., 2015) (subscription required), Westphalian at Ethnologue (18th ed., 2015) (subscription required)

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"A troubadour literary koiné?".

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Çerpja, Adelina; Çepani, Anila (December 2023). "Albanian Dialect Classifications" (PDF). Dialectologia. 11 (2023): 51–87. doi:10.1344/dialectologia2023.2023.3. Retrieved 8 March 2025.

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Alexander, Marie; et al. (2009). "2nd International Conference of Maltese Linguistics: Saturday, September 19 – Monday, September 21, 2009". International Association of Maltese Linguistics. Archived from the original on 23 June 2008. Retrieved 2 November 2009.

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Nomachi, Motoki (2019). "Placing Kashubian in the Circum-Baltic (CB) area". Prace Filologiczne. LXXIV (2019): 315–328. doi:10.32798/pf.470. Retrieved 18 February 2024.

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This includes all of the varieties of Sardinian, written with any orthography (the LSC, used for all of Sardinian, or the Logudorese, Nugorese and Campidanese orthographies, only used for some dialects of it) but does not include Gallurese and Sassarese, that even though they have sometimes been included in a supposed Sardinian "macro-language" are actually considered by all Sardinian linguists two different transitional languages between Sardinian and Corsican (or, in the case of Gallurese, are sometimes classified as a variant of Corsican). For Gallurese: ATTI DEL II CONVEGNO INTERNAZIONALE DI STUDI Ciurrata di la Linga Gadduresa, 2014, for Sassarese: Maxia, Mauro (2010). Studi sardo-corsi. Dialettologia e storia della lingua tra le due isole (in Italian). Sassari: Taphros. p. 58. La tesi che individua nel sassarese una base essenzialmente toscana deve essere riesaminata alla luce delle cospicue migrazioni corse che fin dall'età giudicale interessarono soprattutto il nord della Sardegna. In effetti, che il settentrione della Sardegna, almeno dalla metà del Quattrocento, fosse interessato da un forte presenza corsa si può desumere da diversi punti di osservazione. Una delle prove più evidenti è costituita dall'espressa citazione che di questo fenomeno fa il cap. 42 del secondo libro degli Statuti del comune di Sassari, il quale fu aggiunto nel 1435 o subito dopo. Se si tiene conto di questa massiccia presenza corsa e del fatto che la presenza pisana nel regno di Logudoro cessò definitivamente entro il Duecento, l'origine del fondo toscano non andrà attribuita a un influsso diretto del pisano antico ma del corso che rappresenta, esso stesso, una conseguenza dell'antica toscanizzazione della Corsica). They are legally considered two different languages by the Sardinian Regional Government too (Autonomous Region of Sardinia (15 October 1997). "Legge Regionale 15 ottobre 1997, n. 26" (in Italian). pp. Art. 2, paragraph 4. Archived from the original on 1 March 2021. Retrieved 16 June 2008.).
Gerhard Rohlfs; Salvatore Sicuro. "Grammatica storica dei dialetti italogreci". (No Title) (in Italian). Archived from the original on 20 April 2024. Retrieved 8 June 2024.
Alexander, Marie; et al. (2009). "2nd International Conference of Maltese Linguistics: Saturday, September 19 – Monday, September 21, 2009". International Association of Maltese Linguistics. Archived from the original on 23 June 2008. Retrieved 2 November 2009.
Werner, Louis; Calleja, Alan (November–December 2004). "Europe's New Arabic Connection". Saudi Aramco World. Archived from the original on 29 September 2012. Retrieved 5 February 2016.
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Le Statut spécial de la Vallée d'Aoste, Article 38, Title VI. Region Vallée d'Aoste. Archived from the original on 4 November 2011. Retrieved 2 May 2014.
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"2010 Russian Census". Archived from the original on 6 October 2021. Retrieved 27 May 2022.
"Legge Regionale 15 ottobre 1997, n. 26". Regione autonoma della Sardegna – Regione Autònoma de Sardigna. Archived from the original on 26 February 2021. Retrieved 21 October 2021.
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