MDMA (English Wikipedia)

Carvalho M, Carmo H, Costa VM, Capela JP, Pontes H, Remião F, et al. (August 2012). "Toxicity of amphetamines: an update". Archives of Toxicology. 86 (8): 1167–1231. Bibcode:2012ArTox..86.1167C. doi:10.1007/s00204-012-0815-5. PMID 22392347. S2CID 2873101.
Zeifman RJ, Kettner H, Pagni BA, Mallard A, Roberts DE, Erritzoe D, et al. (August 2023). "Co-use of MDMA with psilocybin/LSD may buffer against challenging experiences and enhance positive experiences". Scientific Reports. 13 (1) 13645. Bibcode:2023NatSR..1313645Z. doi:10.1038/s41598-023-40856-5. PMC 10444769. PMID 37608057.
Hysek CM, Simmler LD, Nicola VG, Vischer N, Donzelli M, Krähenbühl S, et al. (4 May 2012). Laks J (ed.). "Duloxetine inhibits effects of MDMA ("ecstasy") in vitro and in humans in a randomized placebo-controlled laboratory study". PLOS ONE. 7 (5) e36476. Bibcode:2012PLoSO...736476H. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0036476. PMC 3344887. PMID 22574166. Fig. 7 shows the mean PD effects of MDMA plotted against simultaneous plasma concentrations at the different time points (hysteresis loops). The increases in "any drug effect" (Fig. 7a) and MAP (Fig. 7b) returned to baseline within 6 h when MDMA concentrations were still high. This clockwise hysteresis indicates that a smaller MDMA effect was seen at a given plasma concentration later in time, indicating rapid acute pharmacodynamic tolerance, which was similarly described for cocaine [33]. [...] Figure 7. Pharmacokinetic-pharmacodynamic (PK-PD) relationship. MDMA effects are plotted against simultaneous MDMA plasma concentrations (a, b). The time of sampling is noted next to each point in minutes or hours after MDMA administration. The clockwise hysteresis indicates acute tolerance to the effects of MDMA.
Kuypers KP, Theunissen EL, van Wel JH, de Sousa Fernandes Perna EB, Linssen A, Sambeth A, et al. (2016). "Verbal Memory Impairment in Polydrug Ecstasy Users: A Clinical Perspective". PLOS ONE. 11 (2) e0149438. Bibcode:2016PLoSO..1149438K. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0149438. PMC 4764468. PMID 26907605.
Nutt D, King LA, Saulsbury W, Blakemore C (March 2007). "Development of a rational scale to assess the harm of drugs of potential misuse". Lancet. 369 (9566). London, England: 1047–1053. Bibcode:2007Lanc..369.1047N. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(07)60464-4. PMID 17382831. S2CID 5903121.
Lay summary: "Scientists want new drug rankings". BBC News. 23 March 2007. Archived from the original on 2 December 2007. Retrieved 4 April 2008.
Meamar R, Karamali F, Sadeghi HM, Etebari M, Nasr-Esfahani MH, Baharvand H (June 2010). "Toxicity of ecstasy (MDMA) towards embryonic stem cell-derived cardiac and neural cells". Toxicology in Vitro. 24 (4): 1133–1138. Bibcode:2010ToxVi..24.1133M. doi:10.1016/j.tiv.2010.03.005. PMID 20230888. In summary, MDMA is a moderate teratogen that could influence cardiac and neuronal differentiation in the ESC model and these results are in concordance with previous in vivo and in vitro models.
Singer LT, Moore DG, Fulton S, Goodwin J, Turner JJ, Min MO, et al. (2012). "Neurobehavioral outcomes of infants exposed to MDMA (Ecstasy) and other recreational drugs during pregnancy". Neurotoxicology and Teratology. 34 (3): 303–310. Bibcode:2012NTxT...34..303S. doi:10.1016/j.ntt.2012.02.001. PMC 3367027. PMID 22387807.
Henríquez-Hernández LA, Rojas-Hernández J, Quintana-Hernández DJ, Borkel LF (February 2023). "Hofmann vs. Paracelsus: Do Psychedelics Defy the Basics of Toxicology?-A Systematic Review of the Main Ergolamines, Simple Tryptamines, and Phenylethylamines". Toxics. 11 (2): 148. Bibcode:2023Toxic..11..148H. doi:10.3390/toxics11020148. PMC 9963058. PMID 36851023.
Ray TS (February 2010). "Psychedelics and the human receptorome". PLOS ONE. 5 (2) e9019. Bibcode:2010PLoSO...5.9019R. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0009019. PMC 2814854. PMID 20126400.
Rein B, Raymond K, Boustani C, Tuy S, Zhang J, St Laurent R, et al. (April 2024). "MDMA enhances empathy-like behaviors in mice via 5-HT release in the nucleus accumbens". Science Advances. 10 (17) eadl6554. Bibcode:2024SciA...10L6554R. doi:10.1126/sciadv.adl6554. PMC 11042730. PMID 38657057.
Doly S, Bertran-Gonzalez J, Callebert J, Bruneau A, Banas SM, Belmer A, et al. (23 November 2009). "Role of Serotonin via 5-HT2B Receptors in the Reinforcing Effects of MDMA in Mice". PLOS ONE. 4 (11) e7952. Bibcode:2009PLoSO...4.7952D. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0007952. ISSN 1932-6203. PMC 2775951. PMID 19956756.
Luethi D, Liechti ME (April 2020). "Designer drugs: mechanism of action and adverse effects" (PDF). Archives of Toxicology. 94 (4): 1085–1133. Bibcode:2020ArTox..94.1085L. doi:10.1007/s00204-020-02693-7. PMC 7225206. PMID 32249347.
Farré M, Roset PN, Lopez CH, Mas M, Ortuño J, Menoyo E, et al. (September 2000). "Pharmacology of MDMA in humans". Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences. 914 (1): 225–237. Bibcode:2000NYASA.914..225D. doi:10.1111/j.1749-6632.2000.tb05199.x. PMID 11085324. S2CID 29247621.
Milhazes N, Martins P, Uriarte E, Garrido J, Calheiros R, Marques MP, et al. (July 2007). "Electrochemical and spectroscopic characterisation of amphetamine-like drugs: application to the screening of 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA) and its synthetic precursors". Analytica Chimica Acta. 596 (2): 231–241. Bibcode:2007AcAC..596..231M. doi:10.1016/j.aca.2007.06.027. hdl:10316/45124. PMID 17631101.
Hardman HF, Haavik CO, Seevers MH (June 1973). "Relationship of the structure of mescaline and seven analogs to toxicity and behavior in five species of laboratory animals". Toxicology and Applied Pharmacology. 25 (2): 299–309. Bibcode:1973ToxAP..25..299H. doi:10.1016/S0041-008X(73)80016-X. hdl:2027.42/33868. PMID 4197635. Archived from the original on 21 October 2008. Retrieved 19 April 2009.

amazon.com (Global: 159^th place; English: 105^th place)

Molly Madness. Drugs, Inc. (TV documentary). National Geographic Channel. 13 August 2014. ASIN B00LIC368M.
Manic Molly. Drugs, Inc. (TV documentary). National Geographic Channel. 10 December 2014. ASIN B00LIC368M.

apnews.com (Global: 101^st place; English: 62^nd place)

Baker K (30 May 1985). "DEA To Ban "Ecstasy" – The Drug MDMA". The Associated Press. Archived from the original on 31 August 2018. Retrieved 7 August 2015.

archive.org (Global: 6^th place; English: 6^th place)

Alles GA (1959). "Subjective Reactions to Phenethylamine Hallucinogens". A Pharmacologic Approach to the Study of the Mind. Springfield: CC Thomas. pp. 238–250 (241–246).
Beck J, Rosenbaum M (1994). "The Distribution of Ecstasy". Pursuit of Ecstasy: The MDMA Experience. Albany: State Univ. of New York Press. ISBN 978-0-7914-1817-8.
Doblin R, Rosenbaum M (1991). "Chapter 6: Why MDMA Should Not Have Been Made Illegal" (PDF). In Inciardi JA (ed.). The Drug Legalization Debate (2nd ed.). London: SAGE Publications, Inc. ISBN 978-0-8039-3678-2. Retrieved 10 August 2015.

archives-ouvertes.fr (Global: 1,143^rd place; English: 973^rd place)

hal.archives-ouvertes.fr

Halvorsen JØ, Naudet F, Cristea IA (October 2021). "Challenges with benchmarking of MDMA-assisted psychotherapy" (PDF). Nature Medicine. 27 (10): 1689–1690. doi:10.1038/s41591-021-01525-0. PMID 34635857. S2CID 238636360. Archived (PDF) from the original on 22 May 2022. Retrieved 9 May 2022.

bbc.co.uk (Global: 11^th place; English: 10^th place)

news.bbc.co.uk

Nutt D, King LA, Saulsbury W, Blakemore C (March 2007). "Development of a rational scale to assess the harm of drugs of potential misuse". Lancet. 369 (9566). London, England: 1047–1053. Bibcode:2007Lanc..369.1047N. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(07)60464-4. PMID 17382831. S2CID 5903121.
Lay summary: "Scientists want new drug rankings". BBC News. 23 March 2007. Archived from the original on 2 December 2007. Retrieved 4 April 2008.
"Why ecstasy is 'vanishing' from UK nightclubs". BBC News. 19 January 2010. Archived from the original on 7 September 2017. Retrieved 14 February 2010.

bbc.co.uk

"Ecstasy on Prescription". BBC Business Daily. 29 May 2018. Archived from the original on 10 July 2021. Retrieved 10 July 2021.

bbc.com (Global: 26^th place; English: 23^rd place)

Williamson L (7 March 2025). "MDMA may have protected Nova attack survivors from trauma, study suggests". BBC Home. Retrieved 16 March 2025.

bindingdb.org (Global: low place; English: low place)

Liu T. "BindingDB BDBM50010588 (RS)-3,4-(methylenedioxy)methamphetamine::1-(1,3-Benzodioxol-5-yl)-N-methyl-2-propanamine::1-(1,3-benzodioxol-5-yl)-N-methylpropan-2-amine::3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine::CHEMBL43048::DL-(3,4-Methylenedioxy)methamphetamine::MDMA::N,alpha-dimethyl-1,3-benzodioxole-5-ethanamine::N-Methyl-3,4-methylenedioxyamphetamine::US11767305, Compound MDMA". BindingDB. Retrieved 11 December 2024.

books.google.com (Global: 3^rd place; English: 3^rd place)

Palmer RB (2012). Medical toxicology of drug abuse: synthesized chemicals and psychoactive plants. Hoboken, N.J.: John Wiley & Sons. p. 139. ISBN 978-0-471-72760-6. Archived from the original on 13 January 2023. Retrieved 4 September 2017.
Neuroscience of Psychoactive Substance Use and Dependence. World Health Organization. 2004. pp. 97–. ISBN 978-92-4-156235-5. Archived from the original on 28 April 2016.
Freye E (2009). Pharmacology and Abuse of Cocaine, Amphetamines, Ecstasy and Related Designer Drugs: A comprehensive review on their mode of action, treatment of abuse and intoxication. Springer Science & Business Media. p. 147. ISBN 978-90-481-2448-0. Archived from the original on 13 January 2023. Retrieved 12 May 2020.
Patel V (2010). Mental and neurological public health a global perspective (1st ed.). San Diego, CA: Academic Press/Elsevier. p. 57. ISBN 978-0-12-381527-9. Archived from the original on 10 September 2017.
Reynolds S (1999). Generation Ecstasy: Into the World of Techno and Rave Culture. Routledge. p. 81. ISBN 978-0-415-92373-6. Archived from the original on 8 November 2023. Retrieved 13 October 2020.
McCrady BS, Epstein EE, eds. (2013). Addictions: a comprehensive guidebook (Second ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 299. ISBN 978-0-19-975366-6. Archived from the original on 13 January 2023. Retrieved 11 January 2017.
Patel V (2010). Mental and neurological public health a global perspective (1st ed.). San Diego, CA: Academic Press/Elsevier. p. 57. ISBN 978-0-12-381527-9. Archived from the original on 10 September 2017.
Parrott AC (2012). "13. MDMA and LSD". In Verster J, Brady K, Galanter M, Conrod P (eds.). Drug Abuse and Addiction in Medical Illness: Causes, Consequences and Treatment. Springer Science & Business Media. p. 179. ISBN 978-1-4614-3375-0.
Mack AH, Brady KT, Miller SI, Frances RJ (12 May 2016). Clinical Textbook of Addictive Disorders. Guilford Publications. p. 169. ISBN 978-1-4625-2169-2. MDMA's addictive liability appears to be lower than that of other drugs of abuse....
Ries R, Miller SC, Fiellin DA (2009). Principles of addiction medicine (4th ed.). Philadelphia: Wolters Kluwer/Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. p. 226. ISBN 978-0-7817-7477-2. Archived from the original on 13 January 2023. Retrieved 11 January 2017. MDA and MDMA are less reinforcing than amphetamine...
Mack AH, Brady KT, Miller SI, Frances RJ (12 May 2016). Clinical Textbook of Addictive Disorders. Guilford Publications. p. 171. ISBN 978-1-4625-2169-2. Archived from the original on 19 January 2023. Retrieved 13 October 2020. There are no known pharmacological treatments for MDMA addiction.
Vogt SB, Liechti ME (2025). "Clinical Pharmacology". In Nutt DJ, Thurgur H (eds.). Psychedelics in Psychiatry. International Review of Neurobiology. Vol. 181. London: Academic Press. pp. 99–148. doi:10.1016/bs.irn.2025.02.003. ISBN 9780443343865. PMID 40541320.
Vaughan RA, Henry LK, Foster JD, Brown CR (2024). "Post-translational mechanisms in psychostimulant-induced neurotransmitter efflux". Pharmacological Advances in Central Nervous System Stimulants. Advances in Pharmacology. Vol. 99. pp. 1–33. doi:10.1016/bs.apha.2023.10.003. ISBN 978-0-443-21933-7. PMID 38467478.
Blough B (July 2008). "Dopamine-releasing agents" (PDF). In Trudell ML, Izenwasser S (eds.). Dopamine Transporters: Chemistry, Biology and Pharmacology. Hoboken [NJ]: Wiley. pp. 305–320. ISBN 978-0-470-11790-3. OCLC 181862653. OL 18589888W.
Passie T (29 June 2023). The History of MDMA. Oxford University Press. pp. 6–16, 18, 27, 29, 32, 40. doi:10.1093/oso/9780198867364.001.0001. ISBN 978-0-19-886736-4.
Alles GA (1959). "Some Relations Between Chemical Structure and Physiological Action of Mescaline and Related Compounds / Structure and Action of Phenethylamines". In Abramson HA (ed.). Neuropharmacology: Transactions of the Fourth Conference, September 25, 26, and 27, 1957, Princeton, N. J. New York: Josiah Macy Foundation. pp. 181–268. OCLC 9802642. Archived from the original on 21 March 2025.
Alles GA (1959). "Subjective Reactions to Phenethylamine Hallucinogens". A Pharmacologic Approach to the Study of the Mind. Springfield: CC Thomas. pp. 238–250 (241–246).
Shulgin AT, Nichols DE (1978). "Characterization of Three New Psychotomimetics". In Stillman RC, Willette RE (eds.). The Psychopharmacology of Hallucinogens. Elsevier. pp. 74–83. doi:10.1016/b978-0-08-021938-7.50010-2. ISBN 978-0-08-021938-7.
Eisner B (1994). Ecstasy: The MDMA Story (Expanded 2nd ed.). Berkeley, CA: Ronin Publishing. ISBN 978-0-914171-68-3. Archived from the original on 13 January 2023. Retrieved 1 February 2016.
Beck J, Rosenbaum M (1994). "The Distribution of Ecstasy". Pursuit of Ecstasy: The MDMA Experience. Albany: State Univ. of New York Press. ISBN 978-0-7914-1817-8.
Collin M, Godfrey J (2010). "The Technologies of Pleasure". Altered State: The Story of Ecstasy Culture and Acid House (Updated new ed.). London: Profile Books. ISBN 978-1-84765-641-4.
Power M (2013). Drugs 2.0: the web revolution that's changing how the world gets high (epub file). London: Portobello. ISBN 978-1-84627-459-6.
Moncrieff J (16 January 2025). "Alternative Approaches: The Good, the Bad and the Worrying: Psychedelics for Depression". Chemically Imbalanced: The Making and Unmaking of the Serotonin Myth. Flint. ISBN 978-1-80399-680-6. Retrieved 16 October 2025.

canada.ca (Global: 1,114^th place; English: 605^th place)

"Subsection 56(1) class exemption for practitioners, agents, pharmacists, persons in charge of a hospital, hospital employees, and licensed dealers to conduct activities with psilocybin and MDMA in relation to a special access program authorization". Health Canada. 5 January 2022. Archived from the original on 11 February 2022. Retrieved 20 February 2022.
"Subsection 56(1) class exemption for practitioners, agents, pharmacists, persons in charge of a hospital, hospital employees, and licensed dealers to conduct activities with psilocybin and MDMA in relation to a special access program authorization". Health Canada. 5 January 2022. Archived from the original on 11 February 2022. Retrieved 20 February 2022.

cbc.ca (Global: 110^th place; English: 65^th place)

Freeman L. "Ecstasy's origin story: How a would-be priest introduced MDMA to the world". CBC. Retrieved 21 July 2026.
"B.C. recorded 211 toxic drug deaths — almost 7 a day — in January, coroner reports". CBC.ca. 7 March 2023. Archived from the original on 8 March 2023. Retrieved 8 March 2023.

cell.com (Global: 2,821^st place; English: 4,262^nd place)

Jain MK, Gumpper RH, Slocum ST, Schmitz GP, Madsen JS, Tummino TA, et al. (July 2025). "The polypharmacology of psychedelics reveals multiple targets for potential therapeutics" (PDF). Neuron. 113 (19): 3129–3142.e9. doi:10.1016/j.neuron.2025.06.012. PMID 40683247.

csp.org (Global: low place; English: low place)

Saunders N (29 July 1995). "The Agony and Ecstasy of God's path". Council on Spiritual Practices (CSP). Archived from the original on 24 April 2013. Retrieved 11 June 2011.

d1wqtxts1xzle7.cloudfront.net (Global: 6,438^th place; English: 5,498^th place)

Simmler LD, Buchy D, Chaboz S, Hoener MC, Liechti ME (April 2016). "In Vitro Characterization of Psychoactive Substances at Rat, Mouse, and Human Trace Amine-Associated Receptor 1" (PDF). The Journal of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics. 357 (1): 134–144. doi:10.1124/jpet.115.229765. PMID 26791601. Archived from the original (PDF) on 9 May 2025.

dea.gov (Global: low place; English: 7,442^nd place)

"MDMA (3,4-Methylenedioxymethamphetamine)" (PDF). 2015 National Drug Threat Assessment Summary. United States Department of Justice, Drug Enforcement Administration. October 2015. pp. 85–88. Archived from the original (PDF) on 10 April 2016. Retrieved 10 April 2016.

didyouno.fr (Global: low place; English: low place)

Costa G, Gołembiowska K (January 2022). "Neurotoxicity of MDMA: Main effects and mechanisms" (PDF). Experimental Neurology. 347 113894. doi:10.1016/j.expneurol.2021.113894. hdl:11584/325355. PMID 34655576.

doi.org (Global: 2^nd place; English: 2^nd place)

Luciano RL, Perazella MA (June 2014). "Nephrotoxic effects of designer drugs: synthetic is not better!". Nature Reviews. Nephrology. 10 (6): 314–324. doi:10.1038/nrneph.2014.44. ISSN 1759-5061. PMID 24662435. S2CID 9817771.
Betzler F, Viohl L, Romanczuk-Seiferth N (January 2017). "Decision-making in chronic ecstasy users: a systematic review". The European Journal of Neuroscience. 45 (1): 34–44. doi:10.1111/ejn.13480. PMID 27859780. S2CID 31694072. ...the addictive potential of MDMA itself is relatively small.
Jerome L, Schuster S, Yazar-Klosinski BB (March 2013). "Can MDMA play a role in the treatment of substance abuse?" (PDF). Current Drug Abuse Reviews. 6 (1): 54–62. doi:10.2174/18744737112059990005. PMID 23627786. S2CID 9327169. Archived from the original (PDF) on 3 August 2020. Animal and human studies demonstrate moderate abuse liability for MDMA, and this effect may be of most concern to those treating substance abuse disorders.
Freye E (28 July 2009). "Pharmacological Effects of MDMA in Man". Pharmacology and Abuse of Cocaine, Amphetamines, Ecstasy and Related Designer Drugs. Springer Netherlands. pp. 151–160. doi:10.1007/978-90-481-2448-0_24. ISBN 978-90-481-2448-0.
Carvalho M, Carmo H, Costa VM, Capela JP, Pontes H, Remião F, et al. (August 2012). "Toxicity of amphetamines: an update". Archives of Toxicology. 86 (8): 1167–1231. Bibcode:2012ArTox..86.1167C. doi:10.1007/s00204-012-0815-5. PMID 22392347. S2CID 2873101.
Nakagawa H, Makino Y, Yoshida Y, Ohta S, Hirobe M (August 1993). "A novel metabolite of 3,4-methylenedioxyamphetamine (MDA): formation of 3-methyl-6,7-methylenedioxy-1,2,3,4-tetrahydroisoquinoline and its pharmacological effect". Biological & Pharmaceutical Bulletin. 16 (8): 761–764. doi:10.1248/bpb.16.579. PMID 8364510. S2CID 28148811.
Straumann I, Avedisian I, Klaiber A, Varghese N, Eckert A, Rudin D, et al. (August 2024). "Acute effects of R-MDMA, S-MDMA, and racemic MDMA in a randomized double-blind cross-over trial in healthy participants". Neuropsychopharmacology. 50 (2): 362–371. doi:10.1038/s41386-024-01972-6. PMC 11631982. PMID 39179638.
Dunlap LE, Andrews AM, Olson DE (October 2018). "Dark Classics in Chemical Neuroscience: 3,4-Methylenedioxymethamphetamine" (PDF). ACS Chemical Neuroscience. 9 (10): 2408–2427. doi:10.1021/acschemneuro.8b00155. PMC 6197894. PMID 30001118.
Oeri HE (May 2021). "Beyond ecstasy: Alternative entactogens to 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine with potential applications in psychotherapy". Journal of Psychopharmacology. 35 (5). Oxford, England: 512–536. doi:10.1177/0269881120920420. PMC 8155739. PMID 32909493.
Palamar JJ (7 December 2016). "There's something about Molly: The underresearched yet popular powder form of ecstasy in the United States". Substance Abuse. 38 (1): 15–17. doi:10.1080/08897077.2016.1267070. PMC 5578728. PMID 27925866.
Green AR, Mechan AO, Elliott JM, O'Shea E, Colado MI (September 2003). "The pharmacology and clinical pharmacology of 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA, "ecstasy")". Pharmacological Reviews. 55 (3): 463–508. doi:10.1124/pr.55.3.3. PMID 12869661.
Meyer JS (2013). "3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA): current perspectives". Substance Abuse and Rehabilitation. 4: 83–99. doi:10.2147/SAR.S37258. PMC 3931692. PMID 24648791.
Freudenmann RW, Öxler F, Bernschneider-Reif S (August 2006). "The origin of MDMA (ecstasy) revisited: the true story reconstructed from the original documents" (PDF). Addiction. 101 (9). Abingdon, England: 1241–1245. doi:10.1111/j.1360-0443.2006.01511.x. PMID 16911722. Archived (PDF) from the original on 22 September 2020. Retrieved 23 May 2019. Although MDMA was, in fact, first synthesized at Merck in 1912, it was not tested pharmacologically because it was only an unimportant precursor in a new synthesis for haemostatic substances.
White CM (March 2014). "How MDMA's pharmacology and pharmacokinetics drive desired effects and harms". Journal of Clinical Pharmacology. 54 (3): 245–252. doi:10.1002/jcph.266. PMID 24431106. S2CID 6223741.
Lyles J, Cadet JL (May 2003). "Methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA, Ecstasy) neurotoxicity: cellular and molecular mechanisms". Brain Research. Brain Research Reviews. 42 (2): 155–168. doi:10.1016/S0165-0173(03)00173-5. PMID 12738056. S2CID 45330713.
Yong AS, Bratuskins S, Sultani MS, Blakeley B, Davey CG, Bell JS (April 2025). "Safety and efficacy of methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA)-assisted psychotherapy in post-traumatic stress disorder: An overview of systematic reviews and meta-analyses". The Australian and New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry. 59 (4): 339–360. doi:10.1177/00048674251315642. PMC 11924292. PMID 39979849.
Zeifman RJ, Kettner H, Pagni BA, Mallard A, Roberts DE, Erritzoe D, et al. (August 2023). "Co-use of MDMA with psilocybin/LSD may buffer against challenging experiences and enhance positive experiences". Scientific Reports. 13 (1) 13645. Bibcode:2023NatSR..1313645Z. doi:10.1038/s41598-023-40856-5. PMC 10444769. PMID 37608057.
Hysek CM, Simmler LD, Nicola VG, Vischer N, Donzelli M, Krähenbühl S, et al. (4 May 2012). Laks J (ed.). "Duloxetine inhibits effects of MDMA ("ecstasy") in vitro and in humans in a randomized placebo-controlled laboratory study". PLOS ONE. 7 (5) e36476. Bibcode:2012PLoSO...736476H. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0036476. PMC 3344887. PMID 22574166. Fig. 7 shows the mean PD effects of MDMA plotted against simultaneous plasma concentrations at the different time points (hysteresis loops). The increases in "any drug effect" (Fig. 7a) and MAP (Fig. 7b) returned to baseline within 6 h when MDMA concentrations were still high. This clockwise hysteresis indicates that a smaller MDMA effect was seen at a given plasma concentration later in time, indicating rapid acute pharmacodynamic tolerance, which was similarly described for cocaine [33]. [...] Figure 7. Pharmacokinetic-pharmacodynamic (PK-PD) relationship. MDMA effects are plotted against simultaneous MDMA plasma concentrations (a, b). The time of sampling is noted next to each point in minutes or hours after MDMA administration. The clockwise hysteresis indicates acute tolerance to the effects of MDMA.
Yuki F, Rie I, Miki K, Mitsuhiro W, Naotaka K, Kenichiro N (April 2013). "Warning against co-administration of 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA) with methamphetamine from the perspective of pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic evaluations in rat brain". European Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences. 49 (1): 57–64. doi:10.1016/j.ejps.2013.01.014. PMID 23395913.
Hamida SB, Tracqui A, de Vasconcelos AP, Szwarc E, Lazarus C, Kelche C, et al. (July 2009). "Ethanol increases the distribution of MDMA to the rat brain: possible implications in the ethanol-induced potentiation of the psychostimulant effects of MDMA". The International Journal of Neuropsychopharmacology. 12 (6): 749–759. doi:10.1017/s1461145708009693. PMID 19046482. S2CID 24230367.
Oesterheld JR, Armstrong SC, Cozza KL (1 March 2004). "Ecstasy: pharmacodynamic and pharmacokinetic interactions". Psychosomatics. 45 (1): 84–87. doi:10.1176/appi.psy.45.1.84. PMID 14709765.
Climko RP, Roehrich H, Sweeney DR, Al-Razi J (1986). "Ecstacy: a review of MDMA and MDA". International Journal of Psychiatry in Medicine. 16 (4): 359–372. doi:10.2190/dcrp-u22m-aumd-d84h. PMID 2881902. S2CID 31902958.
Dupuis D, Veissière S (October 2022). "Culture, context, and ethics in the therapeutic use of hallucinogens: Psychedelics as active super-placebos?". Transcultural Psychiatry. 59 (5): 571–578. doi:10.1177/13634615221131465. PMID 36263513.
van Elk M, Yaden DB (September 2022). "Pharmacological, neural, and psychological mechanisms underlying psychedelics: A critical review". Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews. 140 104793. doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2022.104793. hdl:1887/3515020. PMID 35878791. In addition, the strong prior expectations that many people have about psychedelics directly contribute to the psychedelic experience and as a consequence it has been suggested that psychedelics may act as a 'super-placebo' (Hartogsohn, 2016). Specifically, strong prior expectations (e.g., that a specific intervention will likely trigger a mystical experience) will increase the likelihood of having e.g., a mystical-type experience (Maij et al., 2019), and this placebo-effect is further boosted by the psychedelic-induced suggestibility.
Watson L, Beck J (1991). "New age seekers: MDMA use as an adjunct to spiritual pursuit" (PDF). Journal of Psychoactive Drugs. 23 (3): 261–270. doi:10.1080/02791072.1991.10471587. PMID 1685513. Archived from the original (PDF) on 22 November 2004. Retrieved 28 April 2024.
Liechti ME, Gamma A, Vollenweider FX (March 2001). "Gender differences in the subjective effects of MDMA". Psychopharmacology. 154 (2): 161–168. doi:10.1007/s002130000648. PMID 11314678. S2CID 20251888.
Greene SL, Kerr F, Braitberg G (October 2008). "Review article: amphetamines and related drugs of abuse". Emergency Medicine Australasia. 20 (5): 391–402. doi:10.1111/j.1742-6723.2008.01114.x. PMID 18973636. S2CID 20755466.
Baggott MJ, Kirkpatrick MG, Bedi G, de Wit H (June 2015). "Intimate insight: MDMA changes how people talk about significant others". Journal of Psychopharmacology. 29 (6). Oxford, England: 669–677. doi:10.1177/0269881115581962. PMC 4698152. PMID 25922420.
Schmid Y, Hysek CM, Simmler LD, Crockett MJ, Quednow BB, Liechti ME (September 2014). "Differential effects of MDMA and methylphenidate on social cognition" (PDF). Journal of Psychopharmacology. 28 (9). Oxford, England: 847–856. doi:10.1177/0269881114542454. PMID 25052243. S2CID 25713943. Archived (PDF) from the original on 17 September 2020. Retrieved 29 June 2019.
Wardle MC, de Wit H (October 2014). "MDMA alters emotional processing and facilitates positive social interaction". Psychopharmacology. 231 (21): 4219–4229. doi:10.1007/s00213-014-3570-x. PMC 4194242. PMID 24728603.
Kamilar-Britt P, Bedi G (October 2015). "The prosocial effects of 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA): Controlled studies in humans and laboratory animals". Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews. 57: 433–446. doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2015.08.016. PMC 4678620. PMID 26408071.
Keane M (February 2014). "Recognising and managing acute hyponatraemia". Emergency Nurse. 21 (9): 32–6, quiz 37. doi:10.7748/en2014.02.21.9.32.e1128. PMID 24494770.
Spauwen LW, Niekamp AM, Hoebe CJ, Dukers-Muijrers NH (February 2015). "Drug use, sexual risk behaviour and sexually transmitted infections among swingers: a cross-sectional study in The Netherlands". Sexually Transmitted Infections. 91 (1): 31–36. doi:10.1136/sextrans-2014-051626. PMID 25342812. It is known that some recreational drugs (eg, MDMA or GHB) may hamper the potential to ejaculate or maintain an erection.
Garg A, Kapoor S, Goel M, Chopra S, Chopra M, Kapoor A, et al. (2015). "Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging in Abstinent MDMA Users: A Review". Current Drug Abuse Reviews. 8 (1): 15–25. doi:10.2174/1874473708666150303115833. PMID 25731754.
Mueller F, Lenz C, Steiner M, Dolder PC, Walter M, Lang UE, et al. (March 2016). "Neuroimaging in moderate MDMA use: A systematic review". Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews. 62: 21–34. doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2015.12.010. PMID 26746590.
Gouzoulis-Mayfrank E, Daumann J (2009). "Neurotoxicity of drugs of abuse--the case of methylenedioxyamphetamines (MDMA, ecstasy), and amphetamines". Dialogues in Clinical Neuroscience. 11 (3): 305–317. doi:10.31887/DCNS.2009.11.3/egmayfrank. PMC 3181923. PMID 19877498.
Halpin LE, Collins SA, Yamamoto BK (February 2014). "Neurotoxicity of methamphetamine and 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine". Life Sciences. 97 (1): 37–44. doi:10.1016/j.lfs.2013.07.014. PMC 3870191. PMID 23892199. In contrast, MDMA produces damage to serotonergic, but not dopaminergic axon terminals in the striatum, hippocampus, and prefrontal cortex (Battaglia et al., 1987, O'Hearn et al., 1988). The damage associated with Meth and MDMA has been shown to persist for at least 2 years in rodents, non-human primates and humans (Seiden et al., 1988, Woolverton et al., 1989, McCann et al., 1998, Volkow et al., 2001a, McCann et al., 2005)
Szigeti B, Winstock AR, Erritzoe D, Maier LJ (July 2018). "Are ecstasy induced serotonergic alterations overestimated for the majority of users?". Journal of Psychopharmacology. 32 (7). Oxford, England: 741–748. doi:10.1177/0269881118767646. PMID 29733742. S2CID 13660975. Given the dose-response relationship between MDMA exposure and SERT reductions and the statistically non-significant SERT binding differences for users with use levels similar to the majority of real-life users, it can be speculated that SERT levels may not be significantly affected for most recreational ecstasy users.
Roberts CA, Jones A, Montgomery C (April 2016). "Meta-analysis of molecular imaging of serotonin transporters in ecstasy/polydrug users". Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews. 63: 158–167. doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2016.02.003. PMID 26855234.
Parrott AC (2014). "The potential dangers of using MDMA for psychotherapy". Journal of Psychoactive Drugs. 46 (1): 37–43. doi:10.1080/02791072.2014.873690. PMID 24830184. S2CID 23485480.
Rogers G, Elston J, Garside R, Roome C, Taylor R, Younger P, et al. (January 2009). "The harmful health effects of recreational ecstasy: a systematic review of observational evidence". Health Technology Assessment. 13 (6). Winchester, England: iii–iv, ix–xii, 1–315. doi:10.3310/hta13050. hdl:10871/11534. PMID 19195429.
Kuypers KP, Theunissen EL, van Wel JH, de Sousa Fernandes Perna EB, Linssen A, Sambeth A, et al. (2016). "Verbal Memory Impairment in Polydrug Ecstasy Users: A Clinical Perspective". PLOS ONE. 11 (2) e0149438. Bibcode:2016PLoSO..1149438K. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0149438. PMC 4764468. PMID 26907605.
Laws KR, Kokkalis J (August 2007). "Ecstasy (MDMA) and memory function: a meta-analytic update". Human Psychopharmacology. 22 (6): 381–388. doi:10.1002/hup.857. PMID 17621368. S2CID 25353240.
Kousik SM, Napier TC, Carvey PM (2012). "The effects of psychostimulant drugs on blood brain barrier function and neuroinflammation". Frontiers in Pharmacology. 3: 121. doi:10.3389/fphar.2012.00121. PMC 3386512. PMID 22754527.
Boyle NT, Connor TJ (September 2010). "Methylenedioxymethamphetamine ('Ecstasy')-induced immunosuppression: a cause for concern?". British Journal of Pharmacology. 161 (1): 17–32. doi:10.1111/J.1476-5381.2010.00899.X. PMC 2962814. PMID 20718737.
Cavero I, Guillon JM (2014). "Safety Pharmacology assessment of drugs with biased 5-HT(2B) receptor agonism mediating cardiac valvulopathy". Journal of Pharmacological and Toxicological Methods. 69 (2): 150–161. doi:10.1016/j.vascn.2013.12.004. PMID 24361689.
Padhariya K, Bhandare R, Canney D, Velingkar V (2017). "Cardiovascular Concern of 5-HT2B Receptor and Recent Vistas in the Development of Its Antagonists". Cardiovascular & Hematological Disorders Drug Targets. 17 (2): 86–104. doi:10.2174/1871529X17666170703115111. PMID 28676029.
Koczor CA, Ludlow I, Hight RS, Jiao Z, Fields E, Ludaway T, et al. (November 2015). "Ecstasy (MDMA) Alters Cardiac Gene Expression and DNA Methylation: Implications for Circadian Rhythm Dysfunction in the Heart". Toxicological Sciences. 148 (1): 183–191. doi:10.1093/toxsci/kfv170. PMC 4731408. PMID 26251327.
Coray RC, Beliveau V, Zimmermann J, Preller KH, Wunderli M, Baumgartner MR, et al. (April 2026). "Memory deficits of MDMA users are linked to cortical thinning related to 5-HT receptor densities". Brain. 149 (4): 1410–1421. doi:10.1093/brain/awaf391. PMC 13058468. PMID 41123310.
Nutt D, King LA, Saulsbury W, Blakemore C (March 2007). "Development of a rational scale to assess the harm of drugs of potential misuse". Lancet. 369 (9566). London, England: 1047–1053. Bibcode:2007Lanc..369.1047N. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(07)60464-4. PMID 17382831. S2CID 5903121.
Lay summary: "Scientists want new drug rankings". BBC News. 23 March 2007. Archived from the original on 2 December 2007. Retrieved 4 April 2008.
Olausson P, Jentsch JD, Tronson N, Neve RL, Nestler EJ, Taylor JR (September 2006). "DeltaFosB in the nucleus accumbens regulates food-reinforced instrumental behavior and motivation". The Journal of Neuroscience. 26 (36): 9196–9204. doi:10.1523/JNEUROSCI.1124-06.2006. PMC 6674495. PMID 16957076.
Robison AJ, Nestler EJ (October 2011). "Transcriptional and epigenetic mechanisms of addiction". Nature Reviews. Neuroscience. 12 (11): 623–637. doi:10.1038/nrn3111. PMC 3272277. PMID 21989194.
Favrod-Coune T, Broers B (July 2010). "The Health Effect of Psychostimulants: A Literature Review". Pharmaceuticals. 3 (7). Basel, Switzerland: 2333–2361. doi:10.3390/ph3072333. PMC 4036656. PMID 27713356. It seems to present a smaller addiction potential than cocaine or methamphetamine.
Steinkellner T, Freissmuth M, Sitte HH, Montgomery T (January 2011). "The ugly side of amphetamines: short- and long-term toxicity of 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA, 'Ecstasy'), methamphetamine and D-amphetamine". Biological Chemistry. 392 (1–2): 103–115. doi:10.1515/BC.2011.016. PMC 4497800. PMID 21194370. ...approximately 15% of routine MDMA users recently fit the diagnostic criteria for MDMA dependence according to the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual, fourth edition/DSMIV.
Vorhees CV (November 1997). "Methods for detecting long-term CNS dysfunction after prenatal exposure to neurotoxins". Drug and Chemical Toxicology. 20 (4): 387–399. doi:10.3109/01480549709003895. PMID 9433666.
Meamar R, Karamali F, Sadeghi HM, Etebari M, Nasr-Esfahani MH, Baharvand H (June 2010). "Toxicity of ecstasy (MDMA) towards embryonic stem cell-derived cardiac and neural cells". Toxicology in Vitro. 24 (4): 1133–1138. Bibcode:2010ToxVi..24.1133M. doi:10.1016/j.tiv.2010.03.005. PMID 20230888. In summary, MDMA is a moderate teratogen that could influence cardiac and neuronal differentiation in the ESC model and these results are in concordance with previous in vivo and in vitro models.
Singer LT, Moore DG, Fulton S, Goodwin J, Turner JJ, Min MO, et al. (2012). "Neurobehavioral outcomes of infants exposed to MDMA (Ecstasy) and other recreational drugs during pregnancy". Neurotoxicology and Teratology. 34 (3): 303–310. Bibcode:2012NTxT...34..303S. doi:10.1016/j.ntt.2012.02.001. PMC 3367027. PMID 22387807.
Lipton JW, Tolod EG, Thompson VB, Pei L, Paumier KL, Terpstra BT, et al. (October 2008). "3,4-Methylenedioxy-N-methamphetamine (ecstasy) promotes the survival of fetal dopamine neurons in culture". Neuropharmacology. 55 (5): 851–859. doi:10.1016/j.neuropharm.2008.06.062. PMC 2572681. PMID 18655796.
Vanattou-Saïfoudine N, McNamara R, Harkin A (November 2012). "Caffeine provokes adverse interactions with 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA, 'ecstasy') and related psychostimulants: mechanisms and mediators". British Journal of Pharmacology. 167 (5): 946–959. doi:10.1111/j.1476-5381.2012.02065.x. PMC 3492978. PMID 22671762.
Henríquez-Hernández LA, Rojas-Hernández J, Quintana-Hernández DJ, Borkel LF (February 2023). "Hofmann vs. Paracelsus: Do Psychedelics Defy the Basics of Toxicology?-A Systematic Review of the Main Ergolamines, Simple Tryptamines, and Phenylethylamines". Toxics. 11 (2): 148. Bibcode:2023Toxic..11..148H. doi:10.3390/toxics11020148. PMC 9963058. PMID 36851023.
Richards JR, Albertson TE, Derlet RW, Lange RA, Olson KR, Horowitz BZ (May 2015). "Treatment of toxicity from amphetamines, related derivatives, and analogues: a systematic clinical review". Drug and Alcohol Dependence. 150: 1–13. doi:10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2015.01.040. PMID 25724076.
Hysek C, Schmid Y, Rickli A, Simmler LD, Donzelli M, Grouzmann E, et al. (August 2012). "Carvedilol inhibits the cardiostimulant and thermogenic effects of MDMA in humans". British Journal of Pharmacology. 166 (8): 2277–2288. doi:10.1111/j.1476-5381.2012.01936.x. PMC 3448893. PMID 22404145.
Hall AP, Henry JA (June 2006). "Acute toxic effects of 'Ecstasy' (MDMA) and related compounds: overview of pathophysiology and clinical management". British Journal of Anaesthesia. 96 (6): 678–685. doi:10.1093/bja/ael078. PMID 16595612.
de la Torre R, Farré M, Roset PN, Pizarro N, Abanades S, Segura M, et al. (April 2004). "Human pharmacology of MDMA: pharmacokinetics, metabolism, and disposition" (PDF). Therapeutic Drug Monitoring. 26 (2): 137–144. doi:10.1097/00007691-200404000-00009. PMID 15228154. Archived from the original (PDF) on 5 March 2014. Retrieved 25 October 2009.
Pendergraft WF, Herlitz LC, Thornley-Brown D, Rosner M, Niles JL (November 2014). "Nephrotoxic effects of common and emerging drugs of abuse". Clinical Journal of the American Society of Nephrology. 9 (11): 1996–2005. doi:10.2215/CJN.00360114. PMC 4220747. PMID 25035273.
Silins E, Copeland J, Dillon P (August 2007). "Qualitative review of serotonin syndrome, ecstasy (MDMA) and the use of other serotonergic substances: hierarchy of risk". The Australian and New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry. 41 (8): 649–655. doi:10.1080/00048670701449237. PMID 17620161. S2CID 25832516.
Papaseit E, Pérez-Mañá C, Torrens M, Farré A, Poyatos L, Hladun O, et al. (May 2020). "MDMA interactions with pharmaceuticals and drugs of abuse". Expert Opinion on Drug Metabolism & Toxicology. 16 (5): 357–369. doi:10.1080/17425255.2020.1749262. PMID 32228243. S2CID 214750903.
Fonseca DA, Ribeiro DM, Tapadas M, Cotrim MD (July 2021). "Ecstasy (3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine): Cardiovascular effects and mechanisms". European Journal of Pharmacology. 903 174156. doi:10.1016/j.ejphar.2021.174156. PMID 33971177.
Schmid Y, Rickli A, Schaffner A, Duthaler U, Grouzmann E, Hysek CM, et al. (April 2015). "Interactions between bupropion and 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine in healthy subjects". The Journal of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics. 353 (1): 102–111. doi:10.1124/jpet.114.222356. PMID 25655950.
Vuori E, Henry JA, Ojanperä I, Nieminen R, Savolainen T, Wahlsten P, et al. (March 2003). "Death following ingestion of MDMA (ecstasy) and moclobemide". Addiction. 98 (3). Abingdon, England: 365–368. doi:10.1046/j.1360-0443.2003.00292.x. PMID 12603236.
Halberstadt AL, Nichols DE (2020). "Serotonin and serotonin receptors in hallucinogen action". Handbook of the Behavioral Neurobiology of Serotonin. Handbook of Behavioral Neuroscience. Vol. 31. pp. 843–863. doi:10.1016/B978-0-444-64125-0.00043-8. ISBN 978-0-444-64125-0. ISSN 1569-7339. S2CID 241134396.
Mendelson J, Baggott MJ, Li L, Coyle J, Galloway GP (2012). "Poster Session II (PII 1-111): PII-41. MDMA-Induced Increases in Blood Pressure Are Not Mediated by α-Adrenergic Mechanisms and Are Not Due To Elevated Peripheral Vascular Resistance". Clinical Pharmacology & Therapeutics. 91 (S1 [American Society for Clinical Pharmacology and Therapeutics Abstract of papers, 2012 Annual Meeting Gaylord National Hotel and Convention Center National Harbor, Maryland March 14–17, 2012]): S51–S93 (S66–S66). doi:10.1038/clpt.2011.361. ISSN 0009-9236. MDMA increased heart rate (HR) by 25 bpm (p<.001), [cardiac output (CO)] by 1.75 L/min (p<0.01) but did not alter [stroke volume (SV)] or [systemic vascular resistance (SVR)]. Compared to MDMA alone the combination of MDMA + prazosin further increased HR by 24 bpm (p<0.001) and CO by 3.3L/min (p<0.02). MDMA increased systolic and diastolic blood pressure (SBP, DBP) by 26 mmHg (p<0.001 each); prazosin attenuated MDMA effects on DBP by 9.3 mmHg (p<001) but did not alter SBP. [...] MDMA increases HR, producing elevations in CO. The hypertensive effects of MDMA are not due to elevated peripheral vascular resistance and the blood pressure effects of MDMA are not attenuated by α-adrenergic blockade, suggesting that MDMA may produce CV effects through non-α-adrenergic mechanisms.
Liechti ME, Saur MR, Gamma A, Hell D, Vollenweider FX (October 2000). "Psychological and physiological effects of MDMA ("Ecstasy") after pretreatment with the 5-HT(2) antagonist ketanserin in healthy humans". Neuropsychopharmacology. 23 (4): 396–404. doi:10.1016/S0893-133X(00)00126-3. PMID 10989266.
Wsół A (December 2023). "Cardiovascular safety of psychedelic medicine: current status and future directions". Pharmacological Reports. 75 (6): 1362–1380. doi:10.1007/s43440-023-00539-4. PMC 10661823. PMID 37874530.
Neumann J, Dhein S, Kirchhefer U, Hofmann B, Gergs U (2024). "Effects of hallucinogenic drugs on the human heart". Frontiers in Pharmacology. 15 1334218. doi:10.3389/fphar.2024.1334218. PMC 10869618. PMID 38370480.
Ley L, Holze F, Arikci D, Becker AM, Straumann I, Klaiber A, et al. (October 2023). "Comparative acute effects of mescaline, lysergic acid diethylamide, and psilocybin in a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled cross-over study in healthy participants". Neuropsychopharmacology. 48 (11): 1659–1667. doi:10.1038/s41386-023-01607-2. PMC 10517157. PMID 37231080.
Vogt SB, Liechti ME (2025). "Clinical Pharmacology". In Nutt DJ, Thurgur H (eds.). Psychedelics in Psychiatry. International Review of Neurobiology. Vol. 181. London: Academic Press. pp. 99–148. doi:10.1016/bs.irn.2025.02.003. ISBN 9780443343865. PMID 40541320.
Hart XM, Spangemacher M, Defert J, Uchida H, Gründer G (April 2024). "Update Lessons from PET Imaging Part II: A Systematic Critical Review on Therapeutic Plasma Concentrations of Antidepressants". Therapeutic Drug Monitoring. 46 (2): 155–169. doi:10.1097/FTD.0000000000001142. PMID 38287888.
Eap CB, Gründer G, Baumann P, Ansermot N, Conca A, Corruble E, et al. (October 2021). "Tools for optimising pharmacotherapy in psychiatry (therapeutic drug monitoring, molecular brain imaging and pharmacogenetic tests): focus on antidepressants" (PDF). The World Journal of Biological Psychiatry. 22 (8): 561–628. doi:10.1080/15622975.2021.1878427. PMID 33977870. S2CID 234472488. Archived (PDF) from the original on 5 May 2022. Retrieved 10 April 2022.
Hysek CM, Simmler LD, Schillinger N, Meyer N, Schmid Y, Donzelli M, et al. (March 2014). "Pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic effects of methylphenidate and MDMA administered alone or in combination" (PDF). The International Journal of Neuropsychopharmacology. 17 (3): 371–381. doi:10.1017/S1461145713001132. PMID 24103254.
Hysek CM, Vollenweider FX, Liechti ME (August 2010). "Effects of a beta-blocker on the cardiovascular response to MDMA (Ecstasy)" (PDF). Emergency Medicine Journal. 27 (8): 586–589. doi:10.1136/emj.2009.079905. PMID 20378736.
Hysek CM, Brugger R, Simmler LD, Bruggisser M, Donzelli M, Grouzmann E, et al. (February 2012). "Effects of the α₂-adrenergic agonist clonidine on the pharmacodynamics and pharmacokinetics of 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine in healthy volunteers". The Journal of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics. 340 (2): 286–294. doi:10.1124/jpet.111.188425. PMID 22034656.
Hysek CM, Fink AE, Simmler LD, Donzelli M, Grouzmann E, Liechti ME (October 2013). "α₁-Adrenergic receptors contribute to the acute effects of 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine in humans". Journal of Clinical Psychopharmacology. 33 (5): 658–666. doi:10.1097/JCP.0b013e3182979d32. PMID 23857311.
Liechti ME, Vollenweider FX (July 2000). "Acute psychological and physiological effects of MDMA ("Ecstasy") after haloperidol pretreatment in healthy humans". European Neuropsychopharmacology. 10 (4): 289–295. doi:10.1016/s0924-977x(00)00086-9. PMID 10871712.
Richards JR, Hollander JE, Ramoska EA, Fareed FN, Sand IC, Izquierdo Gómez MM, et al. (May 2017). "β-Blockers, Cocaine, and the Unopposed α-Stimulation Phenomenon". Journal of Cardiovascular Pharmacology and Therapeutics. 22 (3): 239–249. doi:10.1177/1074248416681644. PMID 28399647.
Jain MK, Gumpper RH, Slocum ST, Schmitz GP, Madsen JS, Tummino TA, et al. (July 2025). "The polypharmacology of psychedelics reveals multiple targets for potential therapeutics" (PDF). Neuron. 113 (19): 3129–3142.e9. doi:10.1016/j.neuron.2025.06.012. PMID 40683247.
Ray TS (February 2010). "Psychedelics and the human receptorome". PLOS ONE. 5 (2) e9019. Bibcode:2010PLoSO...5.9019R. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0009019. PMC 2814854. PMID 20126400.
Simmler LD, Buser TA, Donzelli M, Schramm Y, Dieu LH, Huwyler J, et al. (January 2013). "Pharmacological characterization of designer cathinones in vitro". British Journal of Pharmacology. 168 (2): 458–470. doi:10.1111/j.1476-5381.2012.02145.x. PMC 3572571. PMID 22897747. β-Keto-analogue cathinones also exhibited approximately 10-fold lower affinity for the TA1 receptor compared with their respective non-β-keto amphetamines. [...] Activation of TA1 receptors negatively modulates dopaminergic neurotransmission. Importantly, methamphetamine decreased DAT surface expression via a TA1 receptor-mediated mechanism and thereby reduced the presence of its own pharmacological target (Xie and Miller, 2009). MDMA and amphetamine have been shown to produce enhanced DA and 5-HT release and locomotor activity in TA1 receptor knockout mice compared with wild-type mice (Lindemann et al., 2008; Di Cara et al., 2011). Because methamphetamine and MDMA auto-inhibit their neurochemical and functional effects via TA1 receptors, low affinity for these receptors may result in stronger effects on monoamine systems by cathinones compared with the classic amphetamines.
Simmler LD, Rickli A, Hoener MC, Liechti ME (April 2014). "Monoamine transporter and receptor interaction profiles of a new series of designer cathinones". Neuropharmacology. 79: 152–160. doi:10.1016/j.neuropharm.2013.11.008. PMID 24275046.
Rickli A, Kopf S, Hoener MC, Liechti ME (July 2015). "Pharmacological profile of novel psychoactive benzofurans". British Journal of Pharmacology. 172 (13): 3412–3425. doi:10.1111/bph.13128. PMC 4500375. PMID 25765500.
Luethi D, Kolaczynska KE, Walter M, Suzuki M, Rice KC, Blough BE, et al. (July 2019). "Metabolites of the ring-substituted stimulants MDMA, methylone and MDPV differentially affect human monoaminergic systems". Journal of Psychopharmacology. 33 (7). Oxford, England: 831–841. doi:10.1177/0269881119844185. PMC 8269116. PMID 31038382.
Eshleman AJ, Forster MJ, Wolfrum KM, Johnson RA, Janowsky A, Gatch MB (March 2014). "Behavioral and neurochemical pharmacology of six psychoactive substituted phenethylamines: mouse locomotion, rat drug discrimination and in vitro receptor and transporter binding and function". Psychopharmacology. 231 (5): 875–888. doi:10.1007/s00213-013-3303-6. PMC 3945162. PMID 24142203.
Gainetdinov RR, Hoener MC, Berry MD (July 2018). "Trace Amines and Their Receptors". Pharmacological Reviews. 70 (3): 549–620. doi:10.1124/pr.117.015305. PMID 29941461.
Simmler LD, Buchy D, Chaboz S, Hoener MC, Liechti ME (April 2016). "In Vitro Characterization of Psychoactive Substances at Rat, Mouse, and Human Trace Amine-Associated Receptor 1" (PDF). The Journal of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics. 357 (1): 134–144. doi:10.1124/jpet.115.229765. PMID 26791601. Archived from the original (PDF) on 9 May 2025.
Sotnikova TD, Caron MG, Gainetdinov RR (August 2009). "Trace amine-associated receptors as emerging therapeutic targets". Molecular Pharmacology. 76 (2): 229–235. doi:10.1124/mol.109.055970. PMC 2713119. PMID 19389919.
Nichols DE (2022). "Entactogens: How the Name for a Novel Class of Psychoactive Agents Originated". Frontiers in Psychiatry. 13 863088. doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2022.863088. PMC 8990025. PMID 35401275.
Docherty JR, Alsufyani HA (August 2021). "Pharmacology of Drugs Used as Stimulants". Journal of Clinical Pharmacology. 61 (Suppl 2): S53–S69. doi:10.1002/jcph.1918. PMID 34396557. Receptor-mediated actions of amphetamine and other amphetamine derivatives [...] may involve trace amine-associated receptors (TAARs) at which amphetamine and MDMA also have significant potency.85–87 Many stimulants have potency at the rat TAAR1 in the micromolar range but tend to be about 5 to 10 times less potent at the human TAAR1, [...] Activation of the TAAR1 receptor causes inhibition of dopaminergic transmission in the mesocorticolimbic system, and TAAR1 agonists attenuated psychostimulant abuse-related behaviors.89 It is likely that TAARs contribute to the actions of specific stimulants to modulate dopaminergic, serotonergic, and glutamate signaling,90 and drugs acting on the TAAR1 may have therapeutic potential.91 In the periphery, stimulants such as MDMA and cathinone produce vasoconstriction, part of which may involve TAARs, although only relatively high concentrations produced vascular contractions resistant to a cocktail of monoamine antagonist drugs.86
Rothman RB, Baumann MH (October 2003). "Monoamine transporters and psychostimulant drugs". European Journal of Pharmacology. 479 (1–3): 23–40. doi:10.1016/j.ejphar.2003.08.054. PMID 14612135.
Rothman RB, Baumann MH (2006). "Therapeutic potential of monoamine transporter substrates". Current Topics in Medicinal Chemistry. 6 (17): 1845–1859. doi:10.2174/156802606778249766. PMID 17017961.
Sulzer D, Sonders MS, Poulsen NW, Galli A (April 2005). "Mechanisms of neurotransmitter release by amphetamines: a review". Progress in Neurobiology. 75 (6): 406–433. doi:10.1016/j.pneurobio.2005.04.003. PMID 15955613.
Reith ME, Gnegy ME (2020). "Molecular Mechanisms of Amphetamines". Substance Use Disorders. Handbook of Experimental Pharmacology. Vol. 258. pp. 265–297. doi:10.1007/164_2019_251. ISBN 978-3-030-33678-3. PMID 31286212.
Vaughan RA, Henry LK, Foster JD, Brown CR (2024). "Post-translational mechanisms in psychostimulant-induced neurotransmitter efflux". Pharmacological Advances in Central Nervous System Stimulants. Advances in Pharmacology. Vol. 99. pp. 1–33. doi:10.1016/bs.apha.2023.10.003. ISBN 978-0-443-21933-7. PMID 38467478.
Casey AB, Heifets BD (October 2025). "History, pharmacology and therapeutic mechanisms of 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA)". Br J Pharmacol. doi:10.1111/bph.70225. PMC 12873472. PMID 41121647. Unlike structurally related psychostimulants such as amphetamine and methamphetamine (Figure 1), which primarily release noradrenaline and dopamine over 5-HT via an identical mechanism, MDMA preferentially releases 5-HT and noradrenaline (Rothman et al., 2001) (Table 1). However, the selectivity by which MDMA releases monoamines is species-dependent. For example, in rat brain synaptosomes, MDMA preferentially releases 5-HT with modest selectivity (<10-fold) over noradrenaline and dopamine (Rothman et al., 2001; Setola et al., 2003). In contrast, studies using cloned human transporters in heterologous cells indicate that MDMA preferentially inhibits the release of noradrenaline with modest selectivity over 5-HT and dopamine (Han & Gu, 2006; Verrico et al., 2007). These species differences are most prominent for SERT, as MDMA more potently inhibits rodent over human SERT, with no species differences at NET and DAT (Han & Gu, 2006).
Pitts EG, Curry DW, Hampshire KN, Young MB, Howell LL (February 2018). "(±)-MDMA and its enantiomers: potential therapeutic advantages of R(-)-MDMA". Psychopharmacology. 235 (2): 377–392. doi:10.1007/s00213-017-4812-5. PMID 29248945.
Setola V, Hufeisen SJ, Grande-Allen KJ, Vesely I, Glennon RA, Blough B, et al. (June 2003). "3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA, "Ecstasy") induces fenfluramine-like proliferative actions on human cardiac valvular interstitial cells in vitro". Molecular Pharmacology. 63 (6): 1223–1229. doi:10.1124/mol.63.6.1223. PMID 12761331. S2CID 839426.
Nash JF, Roth BL, Brodkin JD, Nichols DE, Gudelsky GA (August 1994). "Effect of the R(-) and S(+) isomers of MDA and MDMA on phosphatidyl inositol turnover in cultured cells expressing 5-HT2A or 5-HT2C receptors". Neuroscience Letters. 177 (1–2): 111–115. doi:10.1016/0304-3940(94)90057-4. PMID 7824160.
Lewin AH, Miller GM, Gilmour B (December 2011). "Trace amine-associated receptor 1 is a stereoselective binding site for compounds in the amphetamine class". Bioorganic & Medicinal Chemistry. 19 (23): 7044–7048. doi:10.1016/j.bmc.2011.10.007. PMC 3236098. PMID 22037049.
Espinoza S, Gainetdinov RR (2014). "Neuronal Functions and Emerging Pharmacology of TAAR1". Taste and Smell. Topics in Medicinal Chemistry. Vol. 23. Cham: Springer International Publishing. pp. 175–194. doi:10.1007/7355_2014_78. ISBN 978-3-319-48925-4. Interestingly, the concentrations of amphetamine found to be necessary to activate TAAR1 are in line with what was found in drug abusers [3, 51, 52]. Thus, it is likely that some of the effects produced by amphetamines could be mediated by TAAR1. Indeed, in a study in mice, MDMA effects were found to be mediated in part by TAAR1, in a sense that MDMA auto-inhibits its neurochemical and functional actions [46]. Based on this and other studies (see other section), it has been suggested that TAAR1 could play a role in reward mechanisms and that amphetamine activity on TAAR1 counteracts their known behavioral and neurochemical effects mediated via dopamine neurotransmission.
Kuropka P, Zawadzki M, Szpot P (May 2023). "A narrative review of the neuropharmacology of synthetic cathinones-Popular alternatives to classical drugs of abuse". Human Psychopharmacology. 38 (3) e2866. doi:10.1002/hup.2866. PMID 36866677. Another feature that distinguishes [synthetic cathinones (SCs)] from amphetamines is their negligible interaction with the trace amine associated receptor 1 (TAAR1). Activation of this receptor reduces the activity of dopaminergic neurones, thereby reducing psychostimulatory effects and addictive potential (Miller, 2011; Simmler et al., 2016). Amphetamines are potent agonists of this receptor, making them likely to self‐inhibit their stimulating effects. In contrast, SCs show negligible activity towards TAAR1 (Kolaczynska et al., 2021; Rickli et al., 2015; Simmler et al., 2014, 2016). [...] It is worth noting, however, that for TAAR1 there is considerable species variability in its interaction with ligands, and it is possible that the in vitro activity of [rodent TAAR1 agonists] may not translate into activity in the human body (Simmler et al., 2016). The lack of self‐regulation by TAAR1 may partly explain the higher addictive potential of SCs compared to amphetamines (Miller, 2011; Simmler et al., 2013).
Di Cara B, Maggio R, Aloisi G, Rivet JM, Lundius EG, Yoshitake T, et al. (November 2011). "Genetic deletion of trace amine 1 receptors reveals their role in auto-inhibiting the actions of ecstasy (MDMA)". The Journal of Neuroscience. 31 (47): 16928–16940. doi:10.1523/JNEUROSCI.2502-11.2011. PMC 6623861. PMID 22114263.
Rein B, Raymond K, Boustani C, Tuy S, Zhang J, St Laurent R, et al. (April 2024). "MDMA enhances empathy-like behaviors in mice via 5-HT release in the nucleus accumbens". Science Advances. 10 (17) eadl6554. Bibcode:2024SciA...10L6554R. doi:10.1126/sciadv.adl6554. PMC 11042730. PMID 38657057.
Esaki H, Sasaki Y, Nishitani N, Kamada H, Mukai S, Ohshima Y, et al. (May 2023). "Role of 5-HT1A receptors in the basolateral amygdala on 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine-induced prosocial effects in mice". European Journal of Pharmacology. 946 175653. doi:10.1016/j.ejphar.2023.175653. PMID 36907260.
Heifets BD, Salgado JS, Taylor MD, Hoerbelt P, Cardozo Pinto DF, Steinberg EE, et al. (December 2019). "Distinct neural mechanisms for the prosocial and rewarding properties of MDMA". Science Translational Medicine. 11 (522) eaaw6435. doi:10.1126/scitranslmed.aaw6435. PMC 7123941. PMID 31826983.
Pitts EG, Minerva AR, Chandler EB, Kohn JN, Logun MT, Sulima A, et al. (September 2017). "3,4-Methylenedioxymethamphetamine Increases Affiliative Behaviors in Squirrel Monkeys in a Serotonin 2A Receptor-Dependent Manner". Neuropsychopharmacology. 42 (10): 1962–1971. doi:10.1038/npp.2017.80. PMC 5561347. PMID 28425496.
Blanco-Gandía MC, Mateos-García A, García-Pardo MP, Montagud-Romero S, Rodríguez-Arias M, Miñarro J, et al. (September 2015). "Effect of drugs of abuse on social behaviour: a review of animal models". Behavioural Pharmacology. 26 (6): 541–570. doi:10.1097/FBP.0000000000000162. PMID 26221831.
Heifets BD, Olson DE (January 2024). "Therapeutic mechanisms of psychedelics and entactogens". Neuropsychopharmacology. 49 (1): 104–118. doi:10.1038/s41386-023-01666-5. PMC 10700553. PMID 37488282.
Atila C, Refardt J, Christ-Crain M (March 2026). "Arginine Vasopressin Deficiency and Oxytocin Deficiency in the Endocrine Clinic". J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 111 (4): 922–937. doi:10.1210/clinem/dgaf651. PMC 13017940. PMID 41363127. A recent study used 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA) as a pharmacological provocation agent (196, 197). A single 100-mg dose of MDMA led to an 8-fold increase in plasma OXT in healthy individuals, but elicited no OXT increase in patients with AVP deficiency (197). Correspondingly, controls experienced characteristic psychoactive effects such as empathy, trust, openness, and reduced anxiety, whereas patients displayed blunted or absent responses, both emotionally and physiologically.
Atila C, Holze F, Murugesu R, Rommers N, Hutter N, Varghese N, et al. (July 2023). "Oxytocin in response to MDMA provocation test in patients with arginine vasopressin deficiency (central diabetes insipidus): a single-centre, case-control study with nested, randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled crossover trial". Lancet Diabetes Endocrinol. 11 (7): 454–464. doi:10.1016/S2213-8587(23)00120-1. PMID 37192642.
Kaur H, Karabulut S, Gauld JW, Fagot SA, Holloway KN, Shaw HE, et al. (2023). "Balancing Therapeutic Efficacy and Safety of MDMA and Novel MDXX Analogues as Novel Treatments for Autism Spectrum Disorder". Psychedelic Medicine. 1 (3). New Rochelle, N.Y.: 166–185. doi:10.1089/psymed.2023.0023. PMC 11661495. PMID 40046567. It is postulated that MDMA-induced neuronal apoptosis arises from directly stimulating the 5HT2A receptor. However, it is unclear whether MDMA binds here directly or whether one of its active metabolites (for example, MDA exhibits a 5-HT2A affinity almost 10-fold better than MDMA) is responsible.70,80,81 In addition, R-MDMA more potently activates 5-HT2A second messenger signaling, with S-MDMA having a minimal effect and racemic MDMA acting as a weak partial agonist.
Bankson MG, Cunningham KA (June 2001). "3,4-Methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA) as a unique model of serotonin receptor function and serotonin-dopamine interactions". The Journal of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics. 297 (3): 846–852. doi:10.1016/S0022-3565(24)29607-5. PMID 11356903. Archived from the original on 9 December 2024.
Baumann MH, Clark RD, Rothman RB (August 2008). "Locomotor stimulation produced by 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA) is correlated with dialysate levels of serotonin and dopamine in rat brain". Pharmacology, Biochemistry, and Behavior. 90 (2): 208–217. doi:10.1016/j.pbb.2008.02.018. PMC 2491560. PMID 18403002. Determining the role of specific 5-HT receptors in MDMA's effects in vivo is complicated by the presence of 14 different 5-HT receptor subtypes (Barnes and Sharp, 1999; Hoyer et al., 2002), many of which affect DA function (Alex and Pehek, 2007; Bubar and Cunningham, 2006). Nonetheless, there is general agreement that 5-HT1B, 5-HT2A and 5-HT2C receptor subtypes influence locomotor effects of MDMA. Hyperactivity produced by MDMA is mimicked by administration of the 5-HT1B agonist RU-24969 (Rempel et al., 1993), and 5-HT1B antagonists inhibit MDMA-induced ambulation (Callaway and Geyer, 1992b; Fletcher et al., 2002; McCreary et al., 1999). 5-HT2A antagonists reduce ambulation produced by MDMA (Fletcher et al., 2002; Kehne et al., 1996), whereas 5-HT2C antagonists markedly enhance it (Bankson and Cunningham, 2002; Fletcher et al., 2006). Taken together, these data reveal that 5-HT1B and 5-HT2A receptors facilitate, while 5-HT2C receptors suppress, forward locomotion evoked by MDMA administration. Importantly, the neural circuits underlying serotonergic modulation of MDMA-induced activity are largely unexplored.
Bankson MG, Cunningham KA (January 2002). "Pharmacological studies of the acute effects of (+)-3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine on locomotor activity: role of 5-HT(1B/1D) and 5-HT(2) receptors". Neuropsychopharmacology. 26 (1): 40–52. doi:10.1016/S0893-133X(01)00345-1. PMID 11751031.
Cole JC, Sumnall HR (May 2003). "The pre-clinical behavioural pharmacology of 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA)". Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews. 27 (3): 199–217. doi:10.1016/s0149-7634(03)00031-9. PMID 12788333. [...] 5-HT1B receptor agonists elicit locomotor hyperactivity similar to MDMA [247] and transgenic mice lacking the SERT or 5-HT1B receptor show no or reduced MDMA-induced locomotion and a behavioural pattern qualitatively reminiscent of other amphetamines [262,27]. Prior 5-HT depletion or pre-treatment of animals with SSRIs or 5-HT1B receptor antagonists block low dose MDMA hyperkinesis [42,44]. Activation of this receptor subtype may be fundamental in defining MDMAspecific locomotor activity. The 5-HT2A antagonist MDL 100,907 blocked high dose (20 mg/kg) but not low dose (3 mg/kg) MDMA-induced locomotion [157].5-HT2C receptor antagonists potentiated locomotor activation after low dose MDMA [20,115]. It has been proposed that unmasking of 5-HT1B receptor-mediated hyperactivity via 5-HT2C antagonism is only possible in the presence of the elevated DA and 5-HT concentrations seen after MDMA [19].
Pomrenze MB, Vaillancourt S, Salgado JS, Raymond KB, Llorach P, Sacai H, et al. (July 2025). "5-HT2C receptors in the nucleus accumbens constrain the rewarding effects of MDMA". Molecular Psychiatry. 30 (11): 5405–5416. doi:10.1038/s41380-025-03128-4. PMC 12532699. PMID 40707786.
Canal CE, Murnane KS (January 2017). "The serotonin 5-HT2C receptor and the non-addictive nature of classic hallucinogens". Journal of Psychopharmacology. 31 (1). Oxford, England: 127–143. doi:10.1177/0269881116677104. PMC 5445387. PMID 27903793.
Martinez-Price D, Krebs-Thomson K, Geyer M (1 January 2002). "Behavioral Psychopharmacology of MDMA and MDMA-Like Drugs: A Review of Human and Animal Studies". Addiction Research & Theory. 10 (1). Informa UK Limited: 43–67. doi:10.1080/16066350290001704. ISSN 1606-6359.
Stove CP, De Letter EA, Piette MH, Lambert WE (August 2010). "Mice in ecstasy: advanced animal models in the study of MDMA". Current Pharmaceutical Biotechnology. 11 (5): 421–433. doi:10.2174/138920110791591508. PMID 20420576.
Doly S, Valjent E, Setola V, Callebert J, Hervé D, Launay JM, et al. (March 2008). "Serotonin 5-HT2B receptors are required for 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine-induced hyperlocomotion and 5-HT release in vivo and in vitro". The Journal of Neuroscience. 28 (11): 2933–2940. doi:10.1523/JNEUROSCI.5723-07.2008. PMC 6670669. PMID 18337424. Here we show that acute pharmacological inhibition or genetic ablation of the 5-HT2B receptor in mice completely abolishes MDMA-induced hyperlocomotion and 5-HT release in nucleus accumbens and ventral tegmental area. Furthermore, the 5-HT2B receptor dependence of MDMA-stimulated release of endogenous 5-HT from superfused midbrain synaptosomes suggests that 5-HT2B receptors act, unlike any other 5-HT receptor, presynaptically to affect MDMA-stimulated 5-HT release.
Doly S, Bertran-Gonzalez J, Callebert J, Bruneau A, Banas SM, Belmer A, et al. (23 November 2009). "Role of Serotonin via 5-HT2B Receptors in the Reinforcing Effects of MDMA in Mice". PLOS ONE. 4 (11) e7952. Bibcode:2009PLoSO...4.7952D. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0007952. ISSN 1932-6203. PMC 2775951. PMID 19956756.
Belmer A, Quentin E, Diaz SL, Guiard BP, Fernandez SP, Doly S, et al. (2018). "Positive regulation of raphe serotonin neurons by serotonin 2B receptors". Neuropsychopharmacology. 43 (7): 1623–1632. doi:10.1038/s41386-018-0013-0. ISSN 0893-133X. PMC 5983540. PMID 29453444.
Rothman RB, Baumann MH (July 2002). "Therapeutic and adverse actions of serotonin transporter substrates". Pharmacology & Therapeutics. 95 (1): 73–88. doi:10.1016/s0163-7258(02)00234-6. PMID 12163129.
Luethi D, Liechti ME (April 2020). "Designer drugs: mechanism of action and adverse effects" (PDF). Archives of Toxicology. 94 (4): 1085–1133. Bibcode:2020ArTox..94.1085L. doi:10.1007/s00204-020-02693-7. PMC 7225206. PMID 32249347.
Liechti ME, Vollenweider FX (December 2001). "Which neuroreceptors mediate the subjective effects of MDMA in humans? A summary of mechanistic studies". Human Psychopharmacology. 16 (8): 589–598. doi:10.1002/hup.348. PMID 12404538.
Schenk S, Newcombe D (December 2018). "Methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA) in Psychiatry: Pros, Cons, and Suggestions". Journal of Clinical Psychopharmacology. 38 (6): 632–638. doi:10.1097/JCP.0000000000000962. PMID 30303861.
Puxty DJ, Ramaekers JG, de la Torre R, Farré M, Pizarro N, Pujadas M, et al. (2017). "MDMA-Induced Dissociative State not Mediated by the 5-HT2A Receptor". Frontiers in Pharmacology. 8 455. doi:10.3389/fphar.2017.00455. PMC 5504523. PMID 28744219.
Meyer JS (2013). "3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA): current perspectives". Substance Abuse and Rehabilitation. 4: 83–99. doi:10.2147/SAR.S37258. PMC 3931692. PMID 24648791.
Liechti ME, Baumann C, Gamma A, Vollenweider FX (May 2000). "Acute psychological effects of 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA, "Ecstasy") are attenuated by the serotonin uptake inhibitor citalopram". Neuropsychopharmacology. 22 (5): 513–521. doi:10.1016/S0893-133X(99)00148-7. PMID 10731626.
Simmler LD, Liechti ME (2018). "Pharmacology of MDMA- and Amphetamine-Like New Psychoactive Substances". New Psychoactive Substances. Handbook of Experimental Pharmacology. Vol. 252. pp. 143–164. doi:10.1007/164_2018_113. ISBN 978-3-030-10560-0. PMID 29633178. MDMA is also a low-potency partial agonist of the 5-HT2A receptor. Although not frequent, mild hallucinogen-like effects of MDMA have been reported, which may be attributable to 5-HT2A agonism (Nichols 2004; Liechti et al. 2000). MDA, the active metabolite of MDMA (Hysek et al. 2011), shows a tenfold higher potency for 5-HT2A agonism than MDMA (Rickli et al. 2015c). MDA likely contributes to the mode of action of MDMA and might contribute to the mild hallucinogenic effects of MDMA.
Nichols DE (2018). Chemistry and Structure-Activity Relationships of Psychedelics. Current Topics in Behavioral Neurosciences. Vol. 36. pp. 1–43. doi:10.1007/7854_2017_475. ISBN 978-3-662-55878-2. PMID 28401524. Although the most active tryptamine hallucinogens are N,N-dialkylated, the phenethylamines generally cannot tolerate even a single N-substitution. Even small groups such as methyl or ethyl (see Table 2) abolish their hallucinogenic activity.
Halberstadt AL, Geyer MA (2018). "Effect of Hallucinogens on Unconditioned Behavior". Behavioral Neurobiology of Psychedelic Drugs. Current Topics in Behavioral Neurosciences. Vol. 36. pp. 159–199. doi:10.1007/7854_2016_466. ISBN 978-3-662-55878-2. PMC 5787039. PMID 28224459. [MDxx] have been assessed in head twitch studies. Racemic [MDA] and S-(+)-MDA reportedly induce WDS in monkeys and rats, respectively (Schlemmer and Davis 1986; Hiramatsu et al. 1989). Although [MDMA] does not induce the HTR in mice, both of the stereoisomers of MDMA have been shown to elicit the response (Fantegrossi et al. 2004, 2005b). 5-HT depletion inhibits the response to S-(+)-MDMA but does not alter the response to R-(−)-MDMA, suggesting the isomers act through different mechanisms (Fantegrossi et al. 2005b). This suggestion is consistent with the fact that S-(+)- and R-(−)-MDMA exhibit qualitatively distinct pharmacological profiles, with the S-(+)isomer working primarily as a monoamine releaser (Johnson et al. 1986; Baumann et al. 2008; Murnane et al. 2010) and the R-(−)-enantiomer acting directly through 5-HT2A receptors (Lyon et al. 1986; Nash et al. 1994). In contrast to their effects in mice, Hiramatsu reported that S-(+)- and R-(−)-MDMA fail to produce WDS in rats (Hiramatsu et al. 1989). The discrepant findings with MDMA in mice and rats may reflect species differences in sensitivity to the HTR (see below for further discussion).
Rosado AF, Yu AL, Yang JH, Rondeau J, Floris G, Basu A, et al. (July 2026). "α2-Adrenergic receptor modulates 5-HT2A-mediated behavioral effects of MDMA and psilocybin in mice". Mol Psychiatry. doi:10.1038/s41380-026-03713-1. PMID 42414551.
Nichols DE (2016). "Psychedelics". Pharmacological Reviews. 68 (2): 264–355. doi:10.1124/pr.115.011478. ISSN 0031-6997. PMC 4813425. PMID 26841800.
Nichols DE, Oberlender R (1990). "Structure-activity relationships of MDMA and related compounds: a new class of psychoactive drugs?". Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences. 600: 613–23, discussion 623–5. doi:10.1007/978-1-4613-1485-1_7. PMID 1979214.
McIntyre RS (2023). "Serotonin 5-HT2B receptor agonism and valvular heart disease: implications for the development of psilocybin and related agents". Expert Opinion on Drug Safety. 22 (10): 881–883. doi:10.1080/14740338.2023.2248883. PMID 37581427.
Tagen M, Mantuani D, van Heerden L, Holstein A, Klumpers LE, Knowles R (September 2023). "The risk of chronic psychedelic and MDMA microdosing for valvular heart disease" (PDF). Journal of Psychopharmacology. 37 (9). Oxford, England: 876–890. doi:10.1177/02698811231190865. PMID 37572027. [...] Both [MDMA and MDA] bind to the human 5-HT2B receptor, although with a 5-fold lower Ki value for MDA compared to MDMA (Ray, 2010; Setola et al., 2003). Both compounds were agonists in an assay of PI hydrolysis, with MDA (EC50=190nM) 10-fold more potent than MDMA (EC50=2000 nM) in addition to greater intrinsic efficacy (90% vs 32%) (Setola et al., 2003). [...] A 50mg dose of MDMA resulted in a mean plasma Cmax 266nM for MDMA and 28.5nM for MDA (de la Torre et al., 2000).
Rothman RB, Baumann MH (May 2009). "Serotonergic drugs and valvular heart disease". Expert Opinion on Drug Safety. 8 (3): 317–329. doi:10.1517/14740330902931524. PMC 2695569. PMID 19505264.
Rothman RB, Baumann MH (April 2002). "Serotonin releasing agents. Neurochemical, therapeutic and adverse effects". Pharmacology, Biochemistry, and Behavior. 71 (4): 825–836. doi:10.1016/s0091-3057(01)00669-4. PMID 11888573.
Costa G, Gołembiowska K (January 2022). "Neurotoxicity of MDMA: Main effects and mechanisms" (PDF). Experimental Neurology. 347 113894. doi:10.1016/j.expneurol.2021.113894. hdl:11584/325355. PMID 34655576.
Green AR, Mechan AO, Elliott JM, O'Shea E, Colado MI (September 2003). "The pharmacology and clinical pharmacology of 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA, "ecstasy")". Pharmacol Rev. 55 (3): 463–508. doi:10.1124/pr.55.3.3. PMID 12869661.
Gudelsky GA, Yamamoto BK, Nash JF (November 1994). "Potentiation of 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine-induced dopamine release and serotonin neurotoxicity by 5-HT2 receptor agonists". Eur J Pharmacol. 264 (3): 325–330. doi:10.1016/0014-2999(94)90669-6. PMID 7698172.
Schmidt CJ, Black CK, Abbate GM, Taylor VL (October 1990). "Methylenedioxymethamphetamine-induced hyperthermia and neurotoxicity are independently mediated by 5-HT2 receptors". Brain Res. 529 (1–2): 85–90. doi:10.1016/0006-8993(90)90813-q. PMID 1980848.
Armstrong BD, Paik E, Chhith S, Lelievre V, Waschek JA, Howard SG (2004). "Potentiation of (DL)-3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA)-induced toxicity by the serotonin 2A receptior partial agonist d-lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD), and the protection of same by the serotonin 2A/2C receptor antagonist MDL 11,939". Neuroscience Research Communications. 35 (2): 83–95. doi:10.1002/nrc.20023.
Acquas E, Pisanu A, Spiga S, Plumitallo A, Zernig G, Di Chiara G (July 2007). "Differential effects of intravenous R,S-(+/-)-3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA, Ecstasy) and its S(+)- and R(-)-enantiomers on dopamine transmission and extracellular signal regulated kinase phosphorylation (pERK) in the rat nucleus accumbens shell and core". Journal of Neurochemistry. 102 (1): 121–132. doi:10.1111/j.1471-4159.2007.04451.x. PMID 17564678.
Curry DW, Young MB, Tran AN, Daoud GE, Howell LL (January 2018). "Separating the agony from ecstasy: R(-)-3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine has prosocial and therapeutic-like effects without signs of neurotoxicity in mice". Neuropharmacology. 128: 196–206. doi:10.1016/j.neuropharm.2017.10.003. PMC 5714650. PMID 28993129.
Bedi G (October 2024). "Is the stereoisomer R-MDMA a safer version of MDMA?". Neuropsychopharmacology. 50 (2): 360–361. doi:10.1038/s41386-024-02009-8. PMC 11631934. PMID 39448866.
Luethi D, Liechti ME (2021). "Drugs of Abuse Affecting 5-HT2B Receptors". 5-HT2B Receptors. The Receptors. Vol. 35. Cham: Springer International Publishing. pp. 277–289. doi:10.1007/978-3-030-55920-5_16. ISBN 978-3-030-55919-9. Notably, in a study by Rickli and colleagues, MDMA did not activate the 5-HT2B receptor in the functional assay at investigated concentrations (EC50 > 20 μM); however, [MDA], the main psychoactive N-demethylated phase I metabolite of MDMA, potently activated the receptor at submicromolar concentrations [14]. This suggests that the metabolite MDA rather than MDMA itself may lead to valvulopathy and that there could be a significant metabolic contribution to MDMA-induced effects and adverse effect.
Mead J, Parrott A (May 2020). "Mephedrone and MDMA: A comparative review". Brain Research. 1735 146740. doi:10.1016/j.brainres.2020.146740. PMID 32087112. A controlled study on eight experienced MDMA users reported that 1.5 mg/kg (comparable to what was deemed a typical dosage amount) consumed orally resulted in the subjective effects peaking within 2 h of ingestion (Harris et al., 2002). Other research indicates effects to emerge between 20 and 60 min, with them peaking between 60 and 90 min and lasting up to 5 h (Green et al., 2003). A dose of 100 mg has a half-life of 8–9h(De la Torre et al., 2004), although as mentioned above, users are unaware of the dose they ingest.
Ermer JC, Pennick M, Frick G (May 2016). "Lisdexamfetamine Dimesylate: Prodrug Delivery, Amphetamine Exposure and Duration of Efficacy". Clinical Drug Investigation. 36 (5): 341–356. doi:10.1007/s40261-015-0354-y. PMC 4823324. PMID 27021968.
Cruickshank CC, Dyer KR (July 2009). "A review of the clinical pharmacology of methamphetamine". Addiction. 104 (7). Abingdon, England: 1085–1099. doi:10.1111/j.1360-0443.2009.02564.x. PMID 19426289. Metabolism does not appear to be altered by chronic exposure, thus dose escalation appears to arise from pharmacodynamic rather than pharmacokinetic tolerance [24]. [...] The terminal plasma half-life of methamphetamine of approximately 10 hours is similar across administration routes, but with substantial inter-individual variability. Acute effects persist for up to 8 hours following a single moderate dose of 30 mg [30]. [...] peak plasma methamphetamine concentration occurs after 4 hours [35]. Nevertheless, peak cardiovascular and subjective effects occur rapidly (within 5–15 minutes). The dissociation between peak plasma concentration and clinical effects indicates acute tolerance, which may reflect rapid molecular processes such as redistribution of vesicular monoamines and internalization of monoamine receptors and transporters [6,36]. Acute subjective effects diminish over 4 hours, while cardiovascular effects tend to remain elevated. This is important, as the marked acute tachyphylaxis to subjective effects may drive repeated use within intervals of 4 hours, while cardiovascular risks may increase [11,35].
Abbas K, Barnhardt EW, Nash PL, Streng M, Coury DL (April 2024). "A review of amphetamine extended release once-daily options for the management of attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder". Expert Review of Neurotherapeutics. 24 (4): 421–432. doi:10.1080/14737175.2024.2321921. PMID 38391788. For several decades, clinical benefits of amphetamines have been limited by the pharmacologic half-life of around 4 hours. Although higher doses can produce higher maximum concentrations, they do not affect the half-life of the dose. Therefore, to achieve longer durations of effect, stimulants had to be dosed at least twice daily. Further, these immediate-release doses were found to have their greatest effect shortly after administration, with a rapid decline in effect after reaching peak blood concentrations. The clinical correlation of this was found in comparing math problems attempted and solved between a mixed amphetamine salts preparation (MAS) 10 mg once at 8 am vs 8 am followed by 12 pm [14]. The study also demonstrated the phenomenon of acute tolerance, where even if blood concentrations were maintained over the course of the day, clinical efficacy in the form of math problems attempted and solved would diminish over the course of the day. These findings eventually led to the development of a once daily preparation (MAS XR) [15], which is a composition of 50% immediate-release beads and 50% delayed release beads intended to mimic this twice-daily dosing with only a single administration.
van Gaalen MM, Schlumbohm C, Folgering JH, Adhikari S, Bhattacharya C, Steinbach D, et al. (April 2019). "Development of a Semimechanistic Pharmacokinetic-Pharmacodynamic Model Describing Dextroamphetamine Exposure and Striatal Dopamine Response in Rats and Nonhuman Primates following a Single Dose of Dextroamphetamine". The Journal of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics. 369 (1): 107–120. doi:10.1124/jpet.118.254508. PMID 30733244. Acute tolerance has been demonstrated for methamphetamine in rats (Segal and Kuczenski, 2006), and for D-amphetamine in rats (Lewander, 1971), [non-human primates (NHPs)] (Jedema et al., 2014) and humans (Angrist et al., 1987; Brauer et al., 1996; Dolder et al., 2017). In vivo measurement of dopamine by microdialysis was used in rats and NHPs to evaluate these time-dependent effects. In humans, various subjective measures of mood related to the drug's euphoric effects were observed to decline more rapidly than plasma concentrations following D-amphetamine oral doses ranging from 20 to 40 mg (Angrist et al., 1987; Brauer et al., 1996; Dolder et al., 2017). Whereas peak plasma concentrations and subjective effects occurred between 2 and 4 hours following administration, drug effect measures had largely returned to baseline values by 8 hours despite continued exposure to the drug (mean half-life=8 hours following a 40 mg dose (Dolder et al., 2017)).
Bisagno V, Cadet JL (2021). "Methamphetamine and MDMA Neurotoxicity: Biochemical and Molecular Mechanisms". Handbook of Neurotoxicity. Cham: Springer International Publishing. pp. 1–24. doi:10.1007/978-3-030-71519-9_80-1. ISBN 978-3-030-71519-9. Injections of large doses of MDMA cause massive release of 5-HT from presynaptic vesicles, followed by a rapid decrease in 5-HT and 5-hydroxyindoleacetic acid (5-HIAA) levels and decreased TPH activity (Górska et al., 2018; Lyles & Cadet, 2003). There do not appear to be losses of 5-HT uptake sites at early time points after MDMA administration (Lyles & Cadet, 2003). [...] MDMA also perturbs the function of SERT (Green et al., 2003), a marker of the integrity of serotonin neurons (Blakely et al., 1994). By virtue of its moderating synaptic 5-HT levels, SERT is crucial for the process of 5-HT neurotransmission (Green et al., 2003). MDMA downregulates SERT function without altering SERT mRNA or protein expression, and this rapid downregulation is sustained for at least 90 min and is dose-dependent (Kivell et al., 2010).
Kivell B, Day D, Bosch P, Schenk S, Miller J (June 2010). "MDMA causes a redistribution of serotonin transporter from the cell surface to the intracellular compartment by a mechanism independent of phospho-p38-mitogen activated protein kinase activation". Neuroscience. 168 (1): 82–95. doi:10.1016/j.neuroscience.2010.03.018. PMID 20298763.
Underhill S, Amara S (2020). "MDMA and TAAR1-mediated RhoA Activation in Serotonin Neurons". The FASEB Journal. 34 (S1): 1. doi:10.1096/fasebj.2020.34.s1.05856. ISSN 0892-6638.
Underhill S, Amara S (2022). "3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA) stimulates activation of TAAR1 and subsequent neurotransmitter transporter internalization in serotonin neurons". The FASEB Journal. 36 (S1) fasebj.2022.36.S1.R5394. doi:10.1096/fasebj.2022.36.S1.R5394. ISSN 0892-6638.
Kittler K, Lau T, Schloss P (March 2010). "Antagonists and substrates differentially regulate serotonin transporter cell surface expression in serotonergic neurons". European Journal of Pharmacology. 629 (1–3): 63–67. doi:10.1016/j.ejphar.2009.12.010. PMID 20006597. Our results show that exposure to the SSRIs citalopram, fluoxetine, sertraline and paroxetine all induced SERT internalization, but with different efficacies. The substrates 5-HT and MDMA also induced SERT internalization, while cocaine elevated SERT cell surface expression.
Rothman RB, Baumann MH, Dersch CM, Romero DV, Rice KC, Carroll FI, et al. (January 2001). "Amphetamine-type central nervous system stimulants release norepinephrine more potently than they release dopamine and serotonin". Synapse. 39 (1). New York, N.Y.: 32–41. doi:10.1002/1098-2396(20010101)39:1<32::AID-SYN5>3.0.CO;2-3. PMID 11071707. S2CID 15573624.
Rothman RB, Partilla JS, Baumann MH, Lightfoot-Siordia C, Blough BE (April 2012). "Studies of the biogenic amine transporters. 14. Identification of low-efficacy "partial" substrates for the biogenic amine transporters". The Journal of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics. 341 (1): 251–262. doi:10.1124/jpet.111.188946. PMC 3364510. PMID 22271821.
Marusich JA, Antonazzo KR, Blough BE, Brandt SD, Kavanagh PV, Partilla JS, et al. (February 2016). "The new psychoactive substances 5-(2-aminopropyl)indole (5-IT) and 6-(2-aminopropyl)indole (6-IT) interact with monoamine transporters in brain tissue". Neuropharmacology. 101: 68–75. doi:10.1016/j.neuropharm.2015.09.004. PMC 4681602. PMID 26362361.
Nagai F, Nonaka R, Satoh Hisashi Kamimura K (March 2007). "The effects of non-medically used psychoactive drugs on monoamine neurotransmission in rat brain". European Journal of Pharmacology. 559 (2–3): 132–137. doi:10.1016/j.ejphar.2006.11.075. PMID 17223101.
Halberstadt AL, Brandt SD, Walther D, Baumann MH (March 2019). "2-Aminoindan and its ring-substituted derivatives interact with plasma membrane monoamine transporters and α2-adrenergic receptors". Psychopharmacology. 236 (3): 989–999. doi:10.1007/s00213-019-05207-1. PMC 6848746. PMID 30904940.
Kolaczynska KE, Ducret P, Trachsel D, Hoener MC, Liechti ME, Luethi D (June 2022). "Pharmacological characterization of 3,4-methylenedioxyamphetamine (MDA) analogs and two amphetamine-based compounds: N,α-DEPEA and DPIA". European Neuropsychopharmacology. 59: 9–22. doi:10.1016/j.euroneuro.2022.03.006. PMID 35378384.
Mas M, Farré M, de la Torre R, Roset PN, Ortuño J, Segura J, et al. (July 1999). "Cardiovascular and neuroendocrine effects and pharmacokinetics of 3, 4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine in humans". The Journal of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics. 290 (1): 136–145. doi:10.1016/S0022-3565(24)34877-3. PMID 10381769.
de la Torre R, Farré M, Ortuño J, Mas M, Brenneisen R, Roset PN, et al. (February 2000). "Non-linear pharmacokinetics of MDMA ('ecstasy') in humans". British Journal of Clinical Pharmacology. 49 (2): 104–109. doi:10.1046/j.1365-2125.2000.00121.x. PMC 2014905. PMID 10671903.
Farré M, Roset PN, Lopez CH, Mas M, Ortuño J, Menoyo E, et al. (September 2000). "Pharmacology of MDMA in humans". Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences. 914 (1): 225–237. Bibcode:2000NYASA.914..225D. doi:10.1111/j.1749-6632.2000.tb05199.x. PMID 11085324. S2CID 29247621.
Kolbrich EA, Goodwin RS, Gorelick DA, Hayes RJ, Stein EA, Huestis MA (June 2008). "Plasma pharmacokinetics of 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine after controlled oral administration to young adults". Therapeutic Drug Monitoring. 30 (3): 320–332. doi:10.1097/FTD.0b013e3181684fa0. PMC 2663855. PMID 18520604.
Shima N, Kamata H, Katagi M, Tsuchihashi H, Sakuma T, Nemoto N (September 2007). "Direct determination of glucuronide and sulfate of 4-hydroxy-3-methoxymethamphetamine, the main metabolite of MDMA, in human urine". Journal of Chromatography. B, Analytical Technologies in the Biomedical and Life Sciences. 857 (1): 123–129. doi:10.1016/j.jchromb.2007.07.003. PMID 17643356.
Fallon JK, Kicman AT, Henry JA, Milligan PJ, Cowan DA, Hutt AJ (July 1999). "Stereospecific analysis and enantiomeric disposition of 3, 4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (Ecstasy) in humans". Clinical Chemistry. 45 (7): 1058–1069. doi:10.1093/clinchem/45.7.1058. PMID 10388483.
Mueller M, Peters FT, Maurer HH, McCann UD, Ricaurte GA (October 2008). "Nonlinear pharmacokinetics of (+/-)3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA, "Ecstasy") and its major metabolites in squirrel monkeys at plasma concentrations of MDMA that develop after typical psychoactive doses". The Journal of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics. 327 (1): 38–44. doi:10.1124/jpet.108.141366. PMID 18591215. S2CID 38043715.
Milhazes N, Martins P, Uriarte E, Garrido J, Calheiros R, Marques MP, et al. (July 2007). "Electrochemical and spectroscopic characterisation of amphetamine-like drugs: application to the screening of 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA) and its synthetic precursors". Analytica Chimica Acta. 596 (2): 231–241. Bibcode:2007AcAC..596..231M. doi:10.1016/j.aca.2007.06.027. hdl:10316/45124. PMID 17631101.
Milhazes N, Cunha-Oliveira T, Martins P, Garrido J, Oliveira C, Rego AC, et al. (October 2006). "Synthesis and cytotoxic profile of 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine ("ecstasy") and its metabolites on undifferentiated PC12 cells: A putative structure-toxicity relationship" (PDF). Chemical Research in Toxicology. 19 (10): 1294–1304. doi:10.1021/tx060123i. hdl:10316/12872. PMID 17040098. Archived (PDF) from the original on 28 June 2021. Retrieved 24 September 2019.
Baxter EW, Reitz AB (April 2004). "Reductive aminations of carbonyl compounds with borohydride and borane reducing agents". Organic Reactions. 59. Hoboken, New Jersey, United States: 59. doi:10.1002/0471264180.or059.01.
Gimeno P, Besacier F, Bottex M, Dujourdy L, Chaudron-Thozet H (December 2005). "A study of impurities in intermediates and 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA) samples produced via reductive amination routes". Forensic Science International. 155 (2–3): 141–157. doi:10.1016/j.forsciint.2004.11.013. PMID 16226151.
Palhol F, Boyer S, Naulet N, Chabrillat M (September 2002). "Impurity profiling of seized MDMA tablets by capillary gas chromatography". Analytical and Bioanalytical Chemistry. 374 (2): 274–281. doi:10.1007/s00216-002-1477-6. PMID 12324849. S2CID 42666306.
Renton RJ, Cowie JS, Oon MC (August 1993). "A study of the precursors, intermediates and reaction by-products in the synthesis of 3,4-methylenedioxymethylamphetamine and its application to forensic drug analysis". Forensic Science International. 60 (3): 189–202. doi:10.1016/0379-0738(93)90238-6. PMID 7901132.
Barnes AJ, De Martinis BS, Gorelick DA, Goodwin RS, Kolbrich EA, Huestis MA (March 2009). "Disposition of MDMA and metabolites in human sweat following controlled MDMA administration". Clinical Chemistry. 55 (3): 454–462. doi:10.1373/clinchem.2008.117093. PMC 2669283. PMID 19168553.
Fukuto JM, Kumagai Y, Cho AK (September 1991). "Determination of the mechanism of demethylenation of (methylenedioxy)phenyl compounds by cytochrome P450 using deuterium isotope effects". J Med Chem. 34 (9): 2871–2876. doi:10.1021/jm00113a028. PMID 1680196.
Lin DL, Liu HC, Yin RM, Chen DT, Soong SJ, Liu RH (2004). "Effectiveness of multiple internal standards: deuterated analogues of methylenedioxymethamphetamine, methylenedioxyamphetamine, methamphetamine, and amphetamine". J Anal Toxicol. 28 (8): 650–654. doi:10.1093/jat/28.8.650. PMID 15538959.
Romberg RW, Ntamack AG, Blacik LJ, Kazarian CM, Snyder JJ, Welsh ER (January 2011). "Differences in binding affinities of MDA, MDMA, MDEA, Amphetamine, Methamphetamine, and their deuterated analogues to solid-phase extraction cartridges". J Anal Toxicol. 35 (1): 15–22. doi:10.1093/anatox/35.1.15. PMID 21219698.
Berquist MD, Leth-Petersen S, Kristensen JL, Fantegrossi WE (February 2020). "Locomotor effects of 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA) and its deuterated form in mice: psychostimulant effects, stereotypy, and sensitization". Psychopharmacology (Berl). 237 (2): 431–442. doi:10.1007/s00213-019-05380-3. PMC 7388080. PMID 31729537.
Berquist MD, Leth-Petersen S, Kristensen JL, Fantegrossi WE (March 2020). "In vivo effects of 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA) and its deuterated form in rodents: Drug discrimination and thermoregulation". Drug Alcohol Depend. 208 107850. doi:10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2020.107850. PMID 31954950.
Passie T (29 June 2023). The History of MDMA. Oxford University Press. pp. 6–16, 18, 27, 29, 32, 40. doi:10.1093/oso/9780198867364.001.0001. ISBN 978-0-19-886736-4.
Shulgin AT (1990). "History of MDMA". In Peroutka SJ (ed.). Ecstasy: The Clinical, Pharmacological and Neurotoxicological Effects of the Drug MDMA. Topics in the Neurosciences. Vol. 9. Boston, MA: Springer US. pp. 1–20 (2, 14). doi:10.1007/978-1-4613-1485-1_1. ISBN 978-1-4612-8799-5. Retrieved 15 May 2025.
Benzenhöfer U, Passie T (August 2010). "Rediscovering MDMA (ecstasy): the role of the American chemist Alexander T. Shulgin". Addiction. 105 (8). Abingdon, England: 1355–1361. doi:10.1111/j.1360-0443.2010.02948.x. PMID 20653618.
Hardman HF, Haavik CO, Seevers MH (June 1973). "Relationship of the structure of mescaline and seven analogs to toxicity and behavior in five species of laboratory animals". Toxicology and Applied Pharmacology. 25 (2): 299–309. Bibcode:1973ToxAP..25..299H. doi:10.1016/S0041-008X(73)80016-X. hdl:2027.42/33868. PMID 4197635. Archived from the original on 21 October 2008. Retrieved 19 April 2009.
Siegel RK (October 1986). "MDMA. Nonmedical use and intoxication" (PDF). Journal of Psychoactive Drugs. 18 (4): 349–354. doi:10.1080/02791072.1986.10472368. PMID 2880950. Archived (PDF) from the original on 4 March 2016. Retrieved 11 August 2015.
The first confirmed sample was seized and identified by Chicago Police in 1970, see Sreenivasan VR (1972). "Problems in Identification of Methylenedioxy and Methoxy Amphetamines". Journal of Criminal Law, Criminology, and Police Science. 63 (2): 304–312. doi:10.2307/1142315. JSTOR 1142315. Archived from the original on 21 October 2008. Retrieved 19 April 2009.
Pentney AR (2001). "An exploration of the history and controversies surrounding MDMA and MDA". Journal of Psychoactive Drugs. 33 (3): 213–221. doi:10.1080/02791072.2001.10400568. PMID 11718314. S2CID 31142434.
Shulgin AT, Nichols DE (1978). "Characterization of Three New Psychotomimetics". In Stillman RC, Willette RE (eds.). The Psychopharmacology of Hallucinogens. Elsevier. pp. 74–83. doi:10.1016/b978-0-08-021938-7.50010-2. ISBN 978-0-08-021938-7.
Milroy CM (February 1999). "Ten years of 'ecstasy'". Journal of the Royal Society of Medicine. 92 (2): 68–72. doi:10.1177/014107689909200206. PMC 1297063. PMID 10450215.
Parrott AC (May 2004). "Is ecstasy MDMA? A review of the proportion of ecstasy tablets containing MDMA, their dosage levels, and the changing perceptions of purity" (PDF). Psychopharmacology. 173 (3–4): 234–241. doi:10.1007/s00213-003-1712-7. PMID 15007594. S2CID 3347303. Archived (PDF) from the original on 18 September 2015. Retrieved 7 August 2015.
Renfroe CL (October 1986). "MDMA on the street: Analysis Anonymous". Journal of Psychoactive Drugs. 18 (4): 363–369. doi:10.1080/02791072.1986.10472371. PMID 2880953.
Halvorsen JØ, Naudet F, Cristea IA (October 2021). "Challenges with benchmarking of MDMA-assisted psychotherapy" (PDF). Nature Medicine. 27 (10): 1689–1690. doi:10.1038/s41591-021-01525-0. PMID 34635857. S2CID 238636360. Archived (PDF) from the original on 22 May 2022. Retrieved 9 May 2022.
Nutt DJ (January 2009). "Equasy-- an overlooked addiction with implications for the current debate on drug harms". Journal of Psychopharmacology. 23 (1). Oxford, England: 3–5. doi:10.1177/0269881108099672. PMID 19158127. S2CID 32034780.
Southey M, Kathirgamalingam A, Crawford B, Kaul R, McNamara J, John-Leader F, et al. (August 2020). "Patterns of ecstasy use amongst live music event attendees and their opinions on pill testing: a cross sectional study". Substance Abuse Treatment, Prevention, and Policy. 15 (1) 55. Springer Nature. doi:10.1186/s13011-020-00295-1. PMC 7405356. PMID 32758263.
European Monitoring Centre for Drugs Drug Addiction (2014). "Ecstasy: high purity powder available". European Drug Report (PDF). European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction (EMCDDA). p. 26. doi:10.2810/32306. ISBN 978-92-9168-694-0. Archived from the original (PDF) on 7 September 2014. Retrieved 4 June 2014.
Camargo J, Esseiva P, González F, Wist J, Patiny L (November 2012). "Monitoring of illicit pill distribution networks using an image collection exploration framework". Forensic Science International. 223 (1–3): 298–305. doi:10.1016/j.forsciint.2012.10.004. PMID 23107059. Archived from the original on 28 August 2021. Retrieved 9 December 2013.
Chaliha D, Mamo JC, Albrecht M, Lam V, Takechi R, Vaccarezza M (1 July 2021). "A Systematic Review of the MDMA Model to Address Social Impairment in Autism". Current Neuropharmacology. 19 (7): 1101–1154. doi:10.2174/1570159X19666210101130258. PMC 8686313. PMID 33388021.

dot.gov (Global: 1,620^th place; English: 841^st place)

nhtsa.dot.gov

"Methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA, ecstasy)". Drugs and Human Performance Fact Sheets. National Highway Traffic Safety Administration. Archived from the original on 3 May 2012.

doubleblindmag.com (Global: low place; English: low place)

Weiss S (16 February 2024). "Nexus Flipping: What Happens When You Combine MDMA and 2C-B". DoubleBlind Mag. Retrieved 10 July 2024.

drugabuse.gov (Global: low place; English: 9,769^th place)

"DrugFacts: MDMA (Ecstasy or Molly)". National Institute on Drug Abuse. Archived from the original on 3 December 2014. Retrieved 2 December 2014.
"DrugFacts: MDMA (Ecstasy/Molly)". National Institute on Drug Abuse. February 2016. Archived from the original on 23 March 2016. Retrieved 30 March 2016.

drugbank.com (Global: 7,932^nd place; English: 7,986^th place)

go.drugbank.com

"Midomafetamine: Uses, Interactions, Mechanism of Action". DrugBank Online. 31 July 2007. Retrieved 11 December 2024.

drugs.com (Global: 529^th place; English: 550^th place)

Anderson L, ed. (18 May 2014). "MDMA". Drugs.com. Drugsite Trust. Archived from the original on 23 March 2016. Retrieved 30 March 2016.

drugtext.org (Global: low place; English: low place)

Doblin R, Rosenbaum M (1991). "Chapter 6: Why MDMA Should Not Have Been Made Illegal" (PDF). In Inciardi JA (ed.). The Drug Legalization Debate (2nd ed.). London: SAGE Publications, Inc. ISBN 978-0-8039-3678-2. Retrieved 10 August 2015.
Dillon P. "10 years of ecstasy and other party drug use in Australia: What have we done and what is there left to do?". Drugtext.org. Archived from the original on 9 February 2012.

erowid.org (Global: 3,273^rd place; English: 1,926^th place)

Hardman HF, Haavik CO, Seevers MH (June 1973). "Relationship of the structure of mescaline and seven analogs to toxicity and behavior in five species of laboratory animals". Toxicology and Applied Pharmacology. 25 (2): 299–309. Bibcode:1973ToxAP..25..299H. doi:10.1016/S0041-008X(73)80016-X. hdl:2027.42/33868. PMID 4197635. Archived from the original on 21 October 2008. Retrieved 19 April 2009.
The first confirmed sample was seized and identified by Chicago Police in 1970, see Sreenivasan VR (1972). "Problems in Identification of Methylenedioxy and Methoxy Amphetamines". Journal of Criminal Law, Criminology, and Police Science. 63 (2): 304–312. doi:10.2307/1142315. JSTOR 1142315. Archived from the original on 21 October 2008. Retrieved 19 April 2009.
Beck JE (April 1987). "Drug Abuse Series: MDMA". Erowid. Drug Abuse Information and Monitoring Project. Archived from the original on 4 August 2015. Retrieved 6 August 2015.
"MDMA – FDA REPORT, 1985". Erowid. Food and Drug Administration. 1985. Archived from the original on 11 August 2015. Retrieved 11 August 2015.
"Erowid MDMA Vault: Images". Archived from the original on 6 March 2016. Retrieved 3 March 2016.

escholarship.org (Global: 1,477^th place; English: 863^rd place)

Dunlap LE (2022). Development of Non-Hallucinogenic Psychoplastogens (Thesis). University of California, Davis. Retrieved 18 November 2024. Finally, since R-MDMA is known to partially substitute for LSD in animal models we decided to test both compounds in the head twitch response assay (HTR) (FIG 3.3C).3 The HTR is a well-validated mouse model for predicting the hallucinogenic potential of test drugs. Serotonergic psychedelics will cause a rapid back and forth head movement in mice. The potency measured in the HTR assay has been shown to correlate very well with the human potencies of psychedelics.18 Neither R-MDMA or [...] produced any head twitches at all doses tested, suggesting that neither has high hallucinogenic potential.

espacenet.com (Global: 950^th place; English: 813^th place)

v3.espacenet.com

Darmstadt FE (16 May 1914). "German Patent 274350: Verfahren zur Darstellung von Alkyloxyaryl-, Dialkyloxyaryl- und Alkylendioxyarylaminopropanen bzw. deren am Stickstoff monoalkylierten Derivaten". Kaiserliches Patentamt. Archived from the original on 28 August 2021. Retrieved 12 April 2009.
Darmstadt FE (15 October 1914). "German Patent 279194: Verfahren zur Darstellung von Hydrastinin Derivaten". Kaiserliches Patentamt. Archived from the original on 28 August 2021. Retrieved 20 July 2009.

europa.eu (Global: 62^nd place; English: 100^th place)

emcdda.europa.eu

"Methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA or 'Ecstasy')". EMCDDA. European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction. Archived from the original on 1 January 2016. Retrieved 17 October 2014.
European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction (2008). Annual report: the state of the drugs problem in Europe (PDF). Luxembourg: Office for Official Publications of the European Communities. p. 49. ISBN 978-92-9168-324-6. Archived from the original (PDF) on 25 April 2013. Retrieved 1 December 2008.
European Monitoring Centre for Drugs Drug Addiction (2014). "Ecstasy: high purity powder available". European Drug Report (PDF). European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction (EMCDDA). p. 26. doi:10.2810/32306. ISBN 978-92-9168-694-0. Archived from the original (PDF) on 7 September 2014. Retrieved 4 June 2014.

fda.gov (Global: 470^th place; English: 329^th place)

precision.fda.gov

"FDA Substance Registration System". United States National Library of Medicine. Archived from the original on 31 August 2017. Retrieved 31 August 2017.

finlex.fi (Global: 3,087^th place; English: 6,297^th place)

fsijournal.org (Global: low place; English: low place)

Camargo J, Esseiva P, González F, Wist J, Patiny L (November 2012). "Monitoring of illicit pill distribution networks using an image collection exploration framework". Forensic Science International. 223 (1–3): 298–305. doi:10.1016/j.forsciint.2012.10.004. PMID 23107059. Archived from the original on 28 August 2021. Retrieved 9 December 2013.

ghostarchive.org (Global: 64^th place; English: 28^th place)

Philipps D (1 May 2018). "Ecstasy as a Remedy for PTSD? You Probably Have Some Questions". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 1 January 2022. Retrieved 14 July 2018.
Philipps D (1 May 2018). "Ecstasy as a Remedy for PTSD? You Probably Have Some Questions". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 1 January 2022. Retrieved 14 July 2018.
Aleksander I (21 June 2013). "Molly: Pure, but Not So Simple". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 1 January 2022. Retrieved 24 February 2015.

gov.bc.ca (Global: 1,686^th place; English: 861^st place)

www2.gov.bc.ca

"Decriminalizing people who use drugs in B.C." Government of BC. Government Communications and Public Engagement. Archived from the original on 9 March 2023. Retrieved 8 March 2023.

government.nl (Global: low place; English: 9,493^rd place)

Zaken MV (31 May 2024). "MDMA /// Beyond Ecstasy - Report - Government.nl". www.government.nl. Retrieved 6 April 2025.
"Committee: the current system of the Opium Act does not have to be changed". government.nl. 24 June 2011. Archived from the original on 29 April 2012. Retrieved 29 August 2012.

greenearthfound.org (Global: low place; English: low place)

Metzner R (2005). "Psychedelic, Psychoactive, and Addictive Drugs and States of Consciousness". In Earleywine M (ed.). Mind-Altering Drugs: The Science of Subjective Experience. New York: Oxford University. Archived from the original on 9 October 2017. Retrieved 8 October 2017.

hdl.handle.net (Global: 66^th place; English: 34^th place)

van Elk M, Yaden DB (September 2022). "Pharmacological, neural, and psychological mechanisms underlying psychedelics: A critical review". Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews. 140 104793. doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2022.104793. hdl:1887/3515020. PMID 35878791. In addition, the strong prior expectations that many people have about psychedelics directly contribute to the psychedelic experience and as a consequence it has been suggested that psychedelics may act as a 'super-placebo' (Hartogsohn, 2016). Specifically, strong prior expectations (e.g., that a specific intervention will likely trigger a mystical experience) will increase the likelihood of having e.g., a mystical-type experience (Maij et al., 2019), and this placebo-effect is further boosted by the psychedelic-induced suggestibility.
Rogers G, Elston J, Garside R, Roome C, Taylor R, Younger P, et al. (January 2009). "The harmful health effects of recreational ecstasy: a systematic review of observational evidence". Health Technology Assessment. 13 (6). Winchester, England: iii–iv, ix–xii, 1–315. doi:10.3310/hta13050. hdl:10871/11534. PMID 19195429.
Costa G, Gołembiowska K (January 2022). "Neurotoxicity of MDMA: Main effects and mechanisms" (PDF). Experimental Neurology. 347 113894. doi:10.1016/j.expneurol.2021.113894. hdl:11584/325355. PMID 34655576.
Milhazes N, Martins P, Uriarte E, Garrido J, Calheiros R, Marques MP, et al. (July 2007). "Electrochemical and spectroscopic characterisation of amphetamine-like drugs: application to the screening of 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA) and its synthetic precursors". Analytica Chimica Acta. 596 (2): 231–241. Bibcode:2007AcAC..596..231M. doi:10.1016/j.aca.2007.06.027. hdl:10316/45124. PMID 17631101.
Milhazes N, Cunha-Oliveira T, Martins P, Garrido J, Oliveira C, Rego AC, et al. (October 2006). "Synthesis and cytotoxic profile of 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine ("ecstasy") and its metabolites on undifferentiated PC12 cells: A putative structure-toxicity relationship" (PDF). Chemical Research in Toxicology. 19 (10): 1294–1304. doi:10.1021/tx060123i. hdl:10316/12872. PMID 17040098. Archived (PDF) from the original on 28 June 2021. Retrieved 24 September 2019.
Hardman HF, Haavik CO, Seevers MH (June 1973). "Relationship of the structure of mescaline and seven analogs to toxicity and behavior in five species of laboratory animals". Toxicology and Applied Pharmacology. 25 (2): 299–309. Bibcode:1973ToxAP..25..299H. doi:10.1016/S0041-008X(73)80016-X. hdl:2027.42/33868. PMID 4197635. Archived from the original on 21 October 2008. Retrieved 19 April 2009.

in.gov.br (Global: 3,835^th place; English: 6,615^th place)

Anvisa (24 July 2023). "RDC Nº 804 - Listas de Substâncias Entorpecentes, Psicotrópicas, Precursoras e Outras sob Controle Especial" [Collegiate Board Resolution No. 804 - Lists of Narcotic, Psychotropic, Precursor, and Other Substances under Special Control] (in Brazilian Portuguese). Diário Oficial da União (published 25 July 2023). Archived from the original on 27 August 2023. Retrieved 27 August 2023.

isomerdesign.com (Global: low place; English: low place)

"Schedule I". Controlled Drugs and Substances Act. Isomer Design. Archived from the original on 10 November 2013. Retrieved 9 December 2013.
"Definitions and interpretations". Controlled Drugs and Substances Act. Isomer Design. Archived from the original on 10 November 2013. Retrieved 9 December 2013.

jstor.org (Global: 23^rd place; English: 15^th place)

The first confirmed sample was seized and identified by Chicago Police in 1970, see Sreenivasan VR (1972). "Problems in Identification of Methylenedioxy and Methoxy Amphetamines". Journal of Criminal Law, Criminology, and Police Science. 63 (2): 304–312. doi:10.2307/1142315. JSTOR 1142315. Archived from the original on 21 October 2008. Retrieved 19 April 2009.

justia.com (Global: 673^rd place; English: 333^rd place)

law.justia.com

"Lester Grinspoon, M.d., Petitioner, v. Drug Enforcement Administration, Respondent, 828 F.2d 881 (1st Cir. 1987)". Justia Law. US Court of Appeals for the First Circuit. Archived from the original on 9 October 2021. Retrieved 9 October 2021.

justice.gov (Global: 884^th place; English: 477^th place)

"Early Warning - MDMA and MDA Producers Using Ocotea Cymbarum as a Precursor" (PDF). DEA Microgram Newsletter. 38 (11). Drug Enforcement Agency, U.S. Department of Justice: 166. 11 November 2005. Archived from the original (PDF) on 18 October 2012.

kwtx.com (Global: low place; English: low place)

"Groesbeck: Students caught with deceptively shaped Ecstasy pills". KWTX. 31 October 2019. Archived from the original on 24 June 2021. Retrieved 17 June 2021.

lakemedelsverket.se (Global: low place; English: low place)

Läkemedelsverkets föreskrifter (LVFS 2011:10) om förteckningar över narkotika (PDF) (Report) (in Swedish). Swedish Medical Products Agency. p. 52. Retrieved 28 July 2026.

latimes.com (Global: 32^nd place; English: 21^st place)

Corwin M (31 May 1985). "U.S. to Ban Use of Drug MDMA: Street Abuse Cited; Used by Psychiatrists". Los Angeles Times. Archived from the original on 17 November 2015. Retrieved 11 August 2015.

lycaeum.org (Global: low place; English: low place)

research.lycaeum.org

Watson L, Beck J (1991). "New age seekers: MDMA use as an adjunct to spiritual pursuit" (PDF). Journal of Psychoactive Drugs. 23 (3): 261–270. doi:10.1080/02791072.1991.10471587. PMID 1685513. Archived from the original (PDF) on 22 November 2004. Retrieved 28 April 2024.

maps.org (Global: low place; English: 7,618^th place)

maps.org

de la Torre R, Farré M, Roset PN, Pizarro N, Abanades S, Segura M, et al. (April 2004). "Human pharmacology of MDMA: pharmacokinetics, metabolism, and disposition" (PDF). Therapeutic Drug Monitoring. 26 (2): 137–144. doi:10.1097/00007691-200404000-00009. PMID 15228154. Archived from the original (PDF) on 5 March 2014. Retrieved 25 October 2009.
Siegel RK (October 1986). "MDMA. Nonmedical use and intoxication" (PDF). Journal of Psychoactive Drugs. 18 (4): 349–354. doi:10.1080/02791072.1986.10472368. PMID 2880950. Archived (PDF) from the original on 4 March 2016. Retrieved 11 August 2015.
Shulgin A (2004). "Tribute to Jacob" (PDF). In Doblin R (ed.). The Secret Chief Revealed (2nd ed.). Sarasota, Fl: Multidisciplinary Association for Psychedelic Studies. pp. 17–18. ISBN 978-0-9660019-6-9. Archived from the original (PDF) on 16 September 2018. Retrieved 7 January 2015.
"Schedules of Controlled Substances Proposed Placement of 3,4-Methylenedioxymethamphetamine in Schedule I" (PDF). Federal Register. 49 (146) 30210. 27 July 1984. Archived (PDF) from the original on 4 March 2016. Retrieved 15 January 2015.
Adler J, Abramson P, Katz S, Hager M (15 April 1985). "Getting High on 'Ecstasy'" (PDF). Newsweek Magazine. Life/Style. p. 96. Archived (PDF) from the original on 20 April 2016. Retrieved 1 February 2015.
"Bibliography of Psychedelic Research Studies". Multidisciplinary Association for Psychedelic Studies (MAPS). Santa Cruz, CA. Archived from the original on 3 December 2013.

bibliography.maps.org

Bankson MG, Cunningham KA (June 2001). "3,4-Methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA) as a unique model of serotonin receptor function and serotonin-dopamine interactions". The Journal of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics. 297 (3): 846–852. doi:10.1016/S0022-3565(24)29607-5. PMID 11356903. Archived from the original on 9 December 2024.
Jacob P, Shulgin AT (1994). "Structure-Activity Relationships of the Classic Hallucinogens and Their Analogs". In Lin GC, Glennon RA (eds.). Hallucinogens: An Update (PDF). National Institute on Drug Abuse Research Monograph Series. Vol. 146. National Institute on Drug Abuse. pp. 74–91. PMID 8742795. Archived from the original on 13 July 2025. [MDA] is also remarkable because the N-methyl homolog 3,4 (MDMA) has biological activity, although the nature of its action places it outside of this review. No other phenethylamine hallucinogen retains central activity on N-methylation.

virtualtrip.maps.org

Baggott M (23 June 2023). Beyond Ecstasy: Progress in Developing and Understanding a Novel Class of Therapeutic Medicine. PS2023 [Psychedelic Science 2023, June 19–23, 2023, Denver, Colorado]. Denver, CO: Multidisciplinary Association for Psychedelic Studies. Archived from the original on 17 June 2025. Retrieved 27 January 2025.

medscape.com (Global: 1,078^th place; English: 916^th place)

emedicine.medscape.com

Hahn IH (25 March 2015). "MDMA Toxicity: Background, Pathophysiology, Epidemiology". Medscape. Archived from the original on 11 May 2016. Retrieved 14 May 2016.

meduniwien.ac.at (Global: low place; English: low place)

repositorium.meduniwien.ac.at

Luethi D, Liechti ME (April 2020). "Designer drugs: mechanism of action and adverse effects" (PDF). Archives of Toxicology. 94 (4): 1085–1133. Bibcode:2020ArTox..94.1085L. doi:10.1007/s00204-020-02693-7. PMC 7225206. PMID 32249347.

nbcnews.com (Global: 156^th place; English: 101^st place)

James SD (23 February 2015). "What Is Molly and Why Is It Dangerous?". NBCNews.com. Archived from the original on 24 February 2015. Retrieved 23 February 2015. Why is it called Molly? That's short for "molecule." "You can put a ribbon and bow on it and call it a cute name like 'Molly' and people are all in," said Paul Doering, professor emeritus of pharmacology at the University of Florida.

netfirms.com (Global: 9,451^st place; English: 4,978^th place)

bitnest.netfirms.com

Nichols DE (2018). Chemistry and Structure-Activity Relationships of Psychedelics. Current Topics in Behavioral Neurosciences. Vol. 36. pp. 1–43. doi:10.1007/7854_2017_475. ISBN 978-3-662-55878-2. PMID 28401524. Although the most active tryptamine hallucinogens are N,N-dialkylated, the phenethylamines generally cannot tolerate even a single N-substitution. Even small groups such as methyl or ethyl (see Table 2) abolish their hallucinogenic activity.
Blough B (July 2008). "Dopamine-releasing agents" (PDF). In Trudell ML, Izenwasser S (eds.). Dopamine Transporters: Chemistry, Biology and Pharmacology. Hoboken [NJ]: Wiley. pp. 305–320. ISBN 978-0-470-11790-3. OCLC 181862653. OL 18589888W.
Alles GA (1959). "Some Relations Between Chemical Structure and Physiological Action of Mescaline and Related Compounds / Structure and Action of Phenethylamines". In Abramson HA (ed.). Neuropharmacology: Transactions of the Fourth Conference, September 25, 26, and 27, 1957, Princeton, N. J. New York: Josiah Macy Foundation. pp. 181–268. OCLC 9802642. Archived from the original on 21 March 2025.
Shulgin AT, Nichols DE (1978). "Characterization of Three New Psychotomimetics". In Stillman RC, Willette RE (eds.). The Psychopharmacology of Hallucinogens. Elsevier. pp. 74–83. doi:10.1016/b978-0-08-021938-7.50010-2. ISBN 978-0-08-021938-7.

news.com.au (Global: 456^th place; English: 254^th place)

Burns B (8 March 2025). "MDMA and LSD may have helped October 7 survivors". news.com.au. Retrieved 16 March 2025.

newspaperarchive.com (Global: 1,148^th place; English: 513^th place)

"Ecstasy has its pros and cons". Kokomo Tribune. Kokomo, Indiana. Harper's Bazaar. 23 November 1985. p. 6. Archived from the original on 28 August 2021. Retrieved 9 September 2017 – via newspaperarchive.com.

nih.gov (Global: 5^th place; English: 5^th place)

pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov

Luciano RL, Perazella MA (June 2014). "Nephrotoxic effects of designer drugs: synthetic is not better!". Nature Reviews. Nephrology. 10 (6): 314–324. doi:10.1038/nrneph.2014.44. ISSN 1759-5061. PMID 24662435. S2CID 9817771.
Betzler F, Viohl L, Romanczuk-Seiferth N (January 2017). "Decision-making in chronic ecstasy users: a systematic review". The European Journal of Neuroscience. 45 (1): 34–44. doi:10.1111/ejn.13480. PMID 27859780. S2CID 31694072. ...the addictive potential of MDMA itself is relatively small.
Jerome L, Schuster S, Yazar-Klosinski BB (March 2013). "Can MDMA play a role in the treatment of substance abuse?" (PDF). Current Drug Abuse Reviews. 6 (1): 54–62. doi:10.2174/18744737112059990005. PMID 23627786. S2CID 9327169. Archived from the original (PDF) on 3 August 2020. Animal and human studies demonstrate moderate abuse liability for MDMA, and this effect may be of most concern to those treating substance abuse disorders.
Carvalho M, Carmo H, Costa VM, Capela JP, Pontes H, Remião F, et al. (August 2012). "Toxicity of amphetamines: an update". Archives of Toxicology. 86 (8): 1167–1231. Bibcode:2012ArTox..86.1167C. doi:10.1007/s00204-012-0815-5. PMID 22392347. S2CID 2873101.
Nakagawa H, Makino Y, Yoshida Y, Ohta S, Hirobe M (August 1993). "A novel metabolite of 3,4-methylenedioxyamphetamine (MDA): formation of 3-methyl-6,7-methylenedioxy-1,2,3,4-tetrahydroisoquinoline and its pharmacological effect". Biological & Pharmaceutical Bulletin. 16 (8): 761–764. doi:10.1248/bpb.16.579. PMID 8364510. S2CID 28148811.
Straumann I, Avedisian I, Klaiber A, Varghese N, Eckert A, Rudin D, et al. (August 2024). "Acute effects of R-MDMA, S-MDMA, and racemic MDMA in a randomized double-blind cross-over trial in healthy participants". Neuropsychopharmacology. 50 (2): 362–371. doi:10.1038/s41386-024-01972-6. PMC 11631982. PMID 39179638.
Dunlap LE, Andrews AM, Olson DE (October 2018). "Dark Classics in Chemical Neuroscience: 3,4-Methylenedioxymethamphetamine" (PDF). ACS Chemical Neuroscience. 9 (10): 2408–2427. doi:10.1021/acschemneuro.8b00155. PMC 6197894. PMID 30001118.
Oeri HE (May 2021). "Beyond ecstasy: Alternative entactogens to 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine with potential applications in psychotherapy". Journal of Psychopharmacology. 35 (5). Oxford, England: 512–536. doi:10.1177/0269881120920420. PMC 8155739. PMID 32909493.
Palamar JJ (7 December 2016). "There's something about Molly: The underresearched yet popular powder form of ecstasy in the United States". Substance Abuse. 38 (1): 15–17. doi:10.1080/08897077.2016.1267070. PMC 5578728. PMID 27925866.
Green AR, Mechan AO, Elliott JM, O'Shea E, Colado MI (September 2003). "The pharmacology and clinical pharmacology of 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA, "ecstasy")". Pharmacological Reviews. 55 (3): 463–508. doi:10.1124/pr.55.3.3. PMID 12869661.
Meyer JS (2013). "3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA): current perspectives". Substance Abuse and Rehabilitation. 4: 83–99. doi:10.2147/SAR.S37258. PMC 3931692. PMID 24648791.
Freudenmann RW, Öxler F, Bernschneider-Reif S (August 2006). "The origin of MDMA (ecstasy) revisited: the true story reconstructed from the original documents" (PDF). Addiction. 101 (9). Abingdon, England: 1241–1245. doi:10.1111/j.1360-0443.2006.01511.x. PMID 16911722. Archived (PDF) from the original on 22 September 2020. Retrieved 23 May 2019. Although MDMA was, in fact, first synthesized at Merck in 1912, it was not tested pharmacologically because it was only an unimportant precursor in a new synthesis for haemostatic substances.
White CM (March 2014). "How MDMA's pharmacology and pharmacokinetics drive desired effects and harms". Journal of Clinical Pharmacology. 54 (3): 245–252. doi:10.1002/jcph.266. PMID 24431106. S2CID 6223741.
Lyles J, Cadet JL (May 2003). "Methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA, Ecstasy) neurotoxicity: cellular and molecular mechanisms". Brain Research. Brain Research Reviews. 42 (2): 155–168. doi:10.1016/S0165-0173(03)00173-5. PMID 12738056. S2CID 45330713.
Yong AS, Bratuskins S, Sultani MS, Blakeley B, Davey CG, Bell JS (April 2025). "Safety and efficacy of methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA)-assisted psychotherapy in post-traumatic stress disorder: An overview of systematic reviews and meta-analyses". The Australian and New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry. 59 (4): 339–360. doi:10.1177/00048674251315642. PMC 11924292. PMID 39979849.
Zeifman RJ, Kettner H, Pagni BA, Mallard A, Roberts DE, Erritzoe D, et al. (August 2023). "Co-use of MDMA with psilocybin/LSD may buffer against challenging experiences and enhance positive experiences". Scientific Reports. 13 (1) 13645. Bibcode:2023NatSR..1313645Z. doi:10.1038/s41598-023-40856-5. PMC 10444769. PMID 37608057.
Hysek CM, Simmler LD, Nicola VG, Vischer N, Donzelli M, Krähenbühl S, et al. (4 May 2012). Laks J (ed.). "Duloxetine inhibits effects of MDMA ("ecstasy") in vitro and in humans in a randomized placebo-controlled laboratory study". PLOS ONE. 7 (5) e36476. Bibcode:2012PLoSO...736476H. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0036476. PMC 3344887. PMID 22574166. Fig. 7 shows the mean PD effects of MDMA plotted against simultaneous plasma concentrations at the different time points (hysteresis loops). The increases in "any drug effect" (Fig. 7a) and MAP (Fig. 7b) returned to baseline within 6 h when MDMA concentrations were still high. This clockwise hysteresis indicates that a smaller MDMA effect was seen at a given plasma concentration later in time, indicating rapid acute pharmacodynamic tolerance, which was similarly described for cocaine [33]. [...] Figure 7. Pharmacokinetic-pharmacodynamic (PK-PD) relationship. MDMA effects are plotted against simultaneous MDMA plasma concentrations (a, b). The time of sampling is noted next to each point in minutes or hours after MDMA administration. The clockwise hysteresis indicates acute tolerance to the effects of MDMA.
Yuki F, Rie I, Miki K, Mitsuhiro W, Naotaka K, Kenichiro N (April 2013). "Warning against co-administration of 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA) with methamphetamine from the perspective of pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic evaluations in rat brain". European Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences. 49 (1): 57–64. doi:10.1016/j.ejps.2013.01.014. PMID 23395913.
Hamida SB, Tracqui A, de Vasconcelos AP, Szwarc E, Lazarus C, Kelche C, et al. (July 2009). "Ethanol increases the distribution of MDMA to the rat brain: possible implications in the ethanol-induced potentiation of the psychostimulant effects of MDMA". The International Journal of Neuropsychopharmacology. 12 (6): 749–759. doi:10.1017/s1461145708009693. PMID 19046482. S2CID 24230367.
Oesterheld JR, Armstrong SC, Cozza KL (1 March 2004). "Ecstasy: pharmacodynamic and pharmacokinetic interactions". Psychosomatics. 45 (1): 84–87. doi:10.1176/appi.psy.45.1.84. PMID 14709765.
Carpenter M, Berry H, Pelletier AL (May 2019). "Clinically Relevant Drug-Drug Interactions in Primary Care". American Family Physician. 99 (9): 558–564. PMID 31038898.
Climko RP, Roehrich H, Sweeney DR, Al-Razi J (1986). "Ecstacy: a review of MDMA and MDA". International Journal of Psychiatry in Medicine. 16 (4): 359–372. doi:10.2190/dcrp-u22m-aumd-d84h. PMID 2881902. S2CID 31902958.
Dupuis D, Veissière S (October 2022). "Culture, context, and ethics in the therapeutic use of hallucinogens: Psychedelics as active super-placebos?". Transcultural Psychiatry. 59 (5): 571–578. doi:10.1177/13634615221131465. PMID 36263513.
van Elk M, Yaden DB (September 2022). "Pharmacological, neural, and psychological mechanisms underlying psychedelics: A critical review". Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews. 140 104793. doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2022.104793. hdl:1887/3515020. PMID 35878791. In addition, the strong prior expectations that many people have about psychedelics directly contribute to the psychedelic experience and as a consequence it has been suggested that psychedelics may act as a 'super-placebo' (Hartogsohn, 2016). Specifically, strong prior expectations (e.g., that a specific intervention will likely trigger a mystical experience) will increase the likelihood of having e.g., a mystical-type experience (Maij et al., 2019), and this placebo-effect is further boosted by the psychedelic-induced suggestibility.
Watson L, Beck J (1991). "New age seekers: MDMA use as an adjunct to spiritual pursuit" (PDF). Journal of Psychoactive Drugs. 23 (3): 261–270. doi:10.1080/02791072.1991.10471587. PMID 1685513. Archived from the original (PDF) on 22 November 2004. Retrieved 28 April 2024.
Liechti ME, Gamma A, Vollenweider FX (March 2001). "Gender differences in the subjective effects of MDMA". Psychopharmacology. 154 (2): 161–168. doi:10.1007/s002130000648. PMID 11314678. S2CID 20251888.
Greene SL, Kerr F, Braitberg G (October 2008). "Review article: amphetamines and related drugs of abuse". Emergency Medicine Australasia. 20 (5): 391–402. doi:10.1111/j.1742-6723.2008.01114.x. PMID 18973636. S2CID 20755466.
Baggott MJ, Kirkpatrick MG, Bedi G, de Wit H (June 2015). "Intimate insight: MDMA changes how people talk about significant others". Journal of Psychopharmacology. 29 (6). Oxford, England: 669–677. doi:10.1177/0269881115581962. PMC 4698152. PMID 25922420.
Schmid Y, Hysek CM, Simmler LD, Crockett MJ, Quednow BB, Liechti ME (September 2014). "Differential effects of MDMA and methylphenidate on social cognition" (PDF). Journal of Psychopharmacology. 28 (9). Oxford, England: 847–856. doi:10.1177/0269881114542454. PMID 25052243. S2CID 25713943. Archived (PDF) from the original on 17 September 2020. Retrieved 29 June 2019.
Wardle MC, de Wit H (October 2014). "MDMA alters emotional processing and facilitates positive social interaction". Psychopharmacology. 231 (21): 4219–4229. doi:10.1007/s00213-014-3570-x. PMC 4194242. PMID 24728603.
Kamilar-Britt P, Bedi G (October 2015). "The prosocial effects of 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA): Controlled studies in humans and laboratory animals". Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews. 57: 433–446. doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2015.08.016. PMC 4678620. PMID 26408071.
Keane M (February 2014). "Recognising and managing acute hyponatraemia". Emergency Nurse. 21 (9): 32–6, quiz 37. doi:10.7748/en2014.02.21.9.32.e1128. PMID 24494770.
Spauwen LW, Niekamp AM, Hoebe CJ, Dukers-Muijrers NH (February 2015). "Drug use, sexual risk behaviour and sexually transmitted infections among swingers: a cross-sectional study in The Netherlands". Sexually Transmitted Infections. 91 (1): 31–36. doi:10.1136/sextrans-2014-051626. PMID 25342812. It is known that some recreational drugs (eg, MDMA or GHB) may hamper the potential to ejaculate or maintain an erection.
Garg A, Kapoor S, Goel M, Chopra S, Chopra M, Kapoor A, et al. (2015). "Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging in Abstinent MDMA Users: A Review". Current Drug Abuse Reviews. 8 (1): 15–25. doi:10.2174/1874473708666150303115833. PMID 25731754.
Mueller F, Lenz C, Steiner M, Dolder PC, Walter M, Lang UE, et al. (March 2016). "Neuroimaging in moderate MDMA use: A systematic review". Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews. 62: 21–34. doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2015.12.010. PMID 26746590.
Gouzoulis-Mayfrank E, Daumann J (2009). "Neurotoxicity of drugs of abuse--the case of methylenedioxyamphetamines (MDMA, ecstasy), and amphetamines". Dialogues in Clinical Neuroscience. 11 (3): 305–317. doi:10.31887/DCNS.2009.11.3/egmayfrank. PMC 3181923. PMID 19877498.
Halpin LE, Collins SA, Yamamoto BK (February 2014). "Neurotoxicity of methamphetamine and 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine". Life Sciences. 97 (1): 37–44. doi:10.1016/j.lfs.2013.07.014. PMC 3870191. PMID 23892199. In contrast, MDMA produces damage to serotonergic, but not dopaminergic axon terminals in the striatum, hippocampus, and prefrontal cortex (Battaglia et al., 1987, O'Hearn et al., 1988). The damage associated with Meth and MDMA has been shown to persist for at least 2 years in rodents, non-human primates and humans (Seiden et al., 1988, Woolverton et al., 1989, McCann et al., 1998, Volkow et al., 2001a, McCann et al., 2005)
Szigeti B, Winstock AR, Erritzoe D, Maier LJ (July 2018). "Are ecstasy induced serotonergic alterations overestimated for the majority of users?". Journal of Psychopharmacology. 32 (7). Oxford, England: 741–748. doi:10.1177/0269881118767646. PMID 29733742. S2CID 13660975. Given the dose-response relationship between MDMA exposure and SERT reductions and the statistically non-significant SERT binding differences for users with use levels similar to the majority of real-life users, it can be speculated that SERT levels may not be significantly affected for most recreational ecstasy users.
Roberts CA, Jones A, Montgomery C (April 2016). "Meta-analysis of molecular imaging of serotonin transporters in ecstasy/polydrug users". Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews. 63: 158–167. doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2016.02.003. PMID 26855234.
Parrott AC (2014). "The potential dangers of using MDMA for psychotherapy". Journal of Psychoactive Drugs. 46 (1): 37–43. doi:10.1080/02791072.2014.873690. PMID 24830184. S2CID 23485480.
Rogers G, Elston J, Garside R, Roome C, Taylor R, Younger P, et al. (January 2009). "The harmful health effects of recreational ecstasy: a systematic review of observational evidence". Health Technology Assessment. 13 (6). Winchester, England: iii–iv, ix–xii, 1–315. doi:10.3310/hta13050. hdl:10871/11534. PMID 19195429.
Kuypers KP, Theunissen EL, van Wel JH, de Sousa Fernandes Perna EB, Linssen A, Sambeth A, et al. (2016). "Verbal Memory Impairment in Polydrug Ecstasy Users: A Clinical Perspective". PLOS ONE. 11 (2) e0149438. Bibcode:2016PLoSO..1149438K. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0149438. PMC 4764468. PMID 26907605.
Laws KR, Kokkalis J (August 2007). "Ecstasy (MDMA) and memory function: a meta-analytic update". Human Psychopharmacology. 22 (6): 381–388. doi:10.1002/hup.857. PMID 17621368. S2CID 25353240.
Kousik SM, Napier TC, Carvey PM (2012). "The effects of psychostimulant drugs on blood brain barrier function and neuroinflammation". Frontiers in Pharmacology. 3: 121. doi:10.3389/fphar.2012.00121. PMC 3386512. PMID 22754527.
Boyle NT, Connor TJ (September 2010). "Methylenedioxymethamphetamine ('Ecstasy')-induced immunosuppression: a cause for concern?". British Journal of Pharmacology. 161 (1): 17–32. doi:10.1111/J.1476-5381.2010.00899.X. PMC 2962814. PMID 20718737.
Cavero I, Guillon JM (2014). "Safety Pharmacology assessment of drugs with biased 5-HT(2B) receptor agonism mediating cardiac valvulopathy". Journal of Pharmacological and Toxicological Methods. 69 (2): 150–161. doi:10.1016/j.vascn.2013.12.004. PMID 24361689.
Padhariya K, Bhandare R, Canney D, Velingkar V (2017). "Cardiovascular Concern of 5-HT2B Receptor and Recent Vistas in the Development of Its Antagonists". Cardiovascular & Hematological Disorders Drug Targets. 17 (2): 86–104. doi:10.2174/1871529X17666170703115111. PMID 28676029.
Koczor CA, Ludlow I, Hight RS, Jiao Z, Fields E, Ludaway T, et al. (November 2015). "Ecstasy (MDMA) Alters Cardiac Gene Expression and DNA Methylation: Implications for Circadian Rhythm Dysfunction in the Heart". Toxicological Sciences. 148 (1): 183–191. doi:10.1093/toxsci/kfv170. PMC 4731408. PMID 26251327.
Coray RC, Beliveau V, Zimmermann J, Preller KH, Wunderli M, Baumgartner MR, et al. (April 2026). "Memory deficits of MDMA users are linked to cortical thinning related to 5-HT receptor densities". Brain. 149 (4): 1410–1421. doi:10.1093/brain/awaf391. PMC 13058468. PMID 41123310.
Nutt D, King LA, Saulsbury W, Blakemore C (March 2007). "Development of a rational scale to assess the harm of drugs of potential misuse". Lancet. 369 (9566). London, England: 1047–1053. Bibcode:2007Lanc..369.1047N. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(07)60464-4. PMID 17382831. S2CID 5903121.
Lay summary: "Scientists want new drug rankings". BBC News. 23 March 2007. Archived from the original on 2 December 2007. Retrieved 4 April 2008.
Olausson P, Jentsch JD, Tronson N, Neve RL, Nestler EJ, Taylor JR (September 2006). "DeltaFosB in the nucleus accumbens regulates food-reinforced instrumental behavior and motivation". The Journal of Neuroscience. 26 (36): 9196–9204. doi:10.1523/JNEUROSCI.1124-06.2006. PMC 6674495. PMID 16957076.
Robison AJ, Nestler EJ (October 2011). "Transcriptional and epigenetic mechanisms of addiction". Nature Reviews. Neuroscience. 12 (11): 623–637. doi:10.1038/nrn3111. PMC 3272277. PMID 21989194.
Favrod-Coune T, Broers B (July 2010). "The Health Effect of Psychostimulants: A Literature Review". Pharmaceuticals. 3 (7). Basel, Switzerland: 2333–2361. doi:10.3390/ph3072333. PMC 4036656. PMID 27713356. It seems to present a smaller addiction potential than cocaine or methamphetamine.
Steinkellner T, Freissmuth M, Sitte HH, Montgomery T (January 2011). "The ugly side of amphetamines: short- and long-term toxicity of 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA, 'Ecstasy'), methamphetamine and D-amphetamine". Biological Chemistry. 392 (1–2): 103–115. doi:10.1515/BC.2011.016. PMC 4497800. PMID 21194370. ...approximately 15% of routine MDMA users recently fit the diagnostic criteria for MDMA dependence according to the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual, fourth edition/DSMIV.
Vorhees CV (November 1997). "Methods for detecting long-term CNS dysfunction after prenatal exposure to neurotoxins". Drug and Chemical Toxicology. 20 (4): 387–399. doi:10.3109/01480549709003895. PMID 9433666.
Meamar R, Karamali F, Sadeghi HM, Etebari M, Nasr-Esfahani MH, Baharvand H (June 2010). "Toxicity of ecstasy (MDMA) towards embryonic stem cell-derived cardiac and neural cells". Toxicology in Vitro. 24 (4): 1133–1138. Bibcode:2010ToxVi..24.1133M. doi:10.1016/j.tiv.2010.03.005. PMID 20230888. In summary, MDMA is a moderate teratogen that could influence cardiac and neuronal differentiation in the ESC model and these results are in concordance with previous in vivo and in vitro models.
Singer LT, Moore DG, Fulton S, Goodwin J, Turner JJ, Min MO, et al. (2012). "Neurobehavioral outcomes of infants exposed to MDMA (Ecstasy) and other recreational drugs during pregnancy". Neurotoxicology and Teratology. 34 (3): 303–310. Bibcode:2012NTxT...34..303S. doi:10.1016/j.ntt.2012.02.001. PMC 3367027. PMID 22387807.
Lipton JW, Tolod EG, Thompson VB, Pei L, Paumier KL, Terpstra BT, et al. (October 2008). "3,4-Methylenedioxy-N-methamphetamine (ecstasy) promotes the survival of fetal dopamine neurons in culture". Neuropharmacology. 55 (5): 851–859. doi:10.1016/j.neuropharm.2008.06.062. PMC 2572681. PMID 18655796.
Vanattou-Saïfoudine N, McNamara R, Harkin A (November 2012). "Caffeine provokes adverse interactions with 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA, 'ecstasy') and related psychostimulants: mechanisms and mediators". British Journal of Pharmacology. 167 (5): 946–959. doi:10.1111/j.1476-5381.2012.02065.x. PMC 3492978. PMID 22671762.
Henríquez-Hernández LA, Rojas-Hernández J, Quintana-Hernández DJ, Borkel LF (February 2023). "Hofmann vs. Paracelsus: Do Psychedelics Defy the Basics of Toxicology?-A Systematic Review of the Main Ergolamines, Simple Tryptamines, and Phenylethylamines". Toxics. 11 (2): 148. Bibcode:2023Toxic..11..148H. doi:10.3390/toxics11020148. PMC 9963058. PMID 36851023.
Richards JR, Albertson TE, Derlet RW, Lange RA, Olson KR, Horowitz BZ (May 2015). "Treatment of toxicity from amphetamines, related derivatives, and analogues: a systematic clinical review". Drug and Alcohol Dependence. 150: 1–13. doi:10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2015.01.040. PMID 25724076.
Hysek C, Schmid Y, Rickli A, Simmler LD, Donzelli M, Grouzmann E, et al. (August 2012). "Carvedilol inhibits the cardiostimulant and thermogenic effects of MDMA in humans". British Journal of Pharmacology. 166 (8): 2277–2288. doi:10.1111/j.1476-5381.2012.01936.x. PMC 3448893. PMID 22404145.
Hall AP, Henry JA (June 2006). "Acute toxic effects of 'Ecstasy' (MDMA) and related compounds: overview of pathophysiology and clinical management". British Journal of Anaesthesia. 96 (6): 678–685. doi:10.1093/bja/ael078. PMID 16595612.
de la Torre R, Farré M, Roset PN, Pizarro N, Abanades S, Segura M, et al. (April 2004). "Human pharmacology of MDMA: pharmacokinetics, metabolism, and disposition" (PDF). Therapeutic Drug Monitoring. 26 (2): 137–144. doi:10.1097/00007691-200404000-00009. PMID 15228154. Archived from the original (PDF) on 5 March 2014. Retrieved 25 October 2009.
Chummun H, Tilley V, Ibe J (2010). "3,4-methylenedioxyamfetamine (ecstasy) use reduces cognition". British Journal of Nursing. 19 (2). Mark Allen Publishing: 94–100. PMID 20235382.
Pendergraft WF, Herlitz LC, Thornley-Brown D, Rosner M, Niles JL (November 2014). "Nephrotoxic effects of common and emerging drugs of abuse". Clinical Journal of the American Society of Nephrology. 9 (11): 1996–2005. doi:10.2215/CJN.00360114. PMC 4220747. PMID 25035273.
Silins E, Copeland J, Dillon P (August 2007). "Qualitative review of serotonin syndrome, ecstasy (MDMA) and the use of other serotonergic substances: hierarchy of risk". The Australian and New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry. 41 (8): 649–655. doi:10.1080/00048670701449237. PMID 17620161. S2CID 25832516.
Papaseit E, Pérez-Mañá C, Torrens M, Farré A, Poyatos L, Hladun O, et al. (May 2020). "MDMA interactions with pharmaceuticals and drugs of abuse". Expert Opinion on Drug Metabolism & Toxicology. 16 (5): 357–369. doi:10.1080/17425255.2020.1749262. PMID 32228243. S2CID 214750903.
Fonseca DA, Ribeiro DM, Tapadas M, Cotrim MD (July 2021). "Ecstasy (3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine): Cardiovascular effects and mechanisms". European Journal of Pharmacology. 903 174156. doi:10.1016/j.ejphar.2021.174156. PMID 33971177.
Schmid Y, Rickli A, Schaffner A, Duthaler U, Grouzmann E, Hysek CM, et al. (April 2015). "Interactions between bupropion and 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine in healthy subjects". The Journal of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics. 353 (1): 102–111. doi:10.1124/jpet.114.222356. PMID 25655950.
Vuori E, Henry JA, Ojanperä I, Nieminen R, Savolainen T, Wahlsten P, et al. (March 2003). "Death following ingestion of MDMA (ecstasy) and moclobemide". Addiction. 98 (3). Abingdon, England: 365–368. doi:10.1046/j.1360-0443.2003.00292.x. PMID 12603236.
Liechti ME, Saur MR, Gamma A, Hell D, Vollenweider FX (October 2000). "Psychological and physiological effects of MDMA ("Ecstasy") after pretreatment with the 5-HT(2) antagonist ketanserin in healthy humans". Neuropsychopharmacology. 23 (4): 396–404. doi:10.1016/S0893-133X(00)00126-3. PMID 10989266.
Wsół A (December 2023). "Cardiovascular safety of psychedelic medicine: current status and future directions". Pharmacological Reports. 75 (6): 1362–1380. doi:10.1007/s43440-023-00539-4. PMC 10661823. PMID 37874530.
Neumann J, Dhein S, Kirchhefer U, Hofmann B, Gergs U (2024). "Effects of hallucinogenic drugs on the human heart". Frontiers in Pharmacology. 15 1334218. doi:10.3389/fphar.2024.1334218. PMC 10869618. PMID 38370480.
Ley L, Holze F, Arikci D, Becker AM, Straumann I, Klaiber A, et al. (October 2023). "Comparative acute effects of mescaline, lysergic acid diethylamide, and psilocybin in a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled cross-over study in healthy participants". Neuropsychopharmacology. 48 (11): 1659–1667. doi:10.1038/s41386-023-01607-2. PMC 10517157. PMID 37231080.
Vogt SB, Liechti ME (2025). "Clinical Pharmacology". In Nutt DJ, Thurgur H (eds.). Psychedelics in Psychiatry. International Review of Neurobiology. Vol. 181. London: Academic Press. pp. 99–148. doi:10.1016/bs.irn.2025.02.003. ISBN 9780443343865. PMID 40541320.
Hart XM, Spangemacher M, Defert J, Uchida H, Gründer G (April 2024). "Update Lessons from PET Imaging Part II: A Systematic Critical Review on Therapeutic Plasma Concentrations of Antidepressants". Therapeutic Drug Monitoring. 46 (2): 155–169. doi:10.1097/FTD.0000000000001142. PMID 38287888.
Eap CB, Gründer G, Baumann P, Ansermot N, Conca A, Corruble E, et al. (October 2021). "Tools for optimising pharmacotherapy in psychiatry (therapeutic drug monitoring, molecular brain imaging and pharmacogenetic tests): focus on antidepressants" (PDF). The World Journal of Biological Psychiatry. 22 (8): 561–628. doi:10.1080/15622975.2021.1878427. PMID 33977870. S2CID 234472488. Archived (PDF) from the original on 5 May 2022. Retrieved 10 April 2022.
Hysek CM, Simmler LD, Schillinger N, Meyer N, Schmid Y, Donzelli M, et al. (March 2014). "Pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic effects of methylphenidate and MDMA administered alone or in combination" (PDF). The International Journal of Neuropsychopharmacology. 17 (3): 371–381. doi:10.1017/S1461145713001132. PMID 24103254.
Hysek CM, Vollenweider FX, Liechti ME (August 2010). "Effects of a beta-blocker on the cardiovascular response to MDMA (Ecstasy)" (PDF). Emergency Medicine Journal. 27 (8): 586–589. doi:10.1136/emj.2009.079905. PMID 20378736.
Hysek CM, Brugger R, Simmler LD, Bruggisser M, Donzelli M, Grouzmann E, et al. (February 2012). "Effects of the α₂-adrenergic agonist clonidine on the pharmacodynamics and pharmacokinetics of 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine in healthy volunteers". The Journal of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics. 340 (2): 286–294. doi:10.1124/jpet.111.188425. PMID 22034656.
Hysek CM, Fink AE, Simmler LD, Donzelli M, Grouzmann E, Liechti ME (October 2013). "α₁-Adrenergic receptors contribute to the acute effects of 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine in humans". Journal of Clinical Psychopharmacology. 33 (5): 658–666. doi:10.1097/JCP.0b013e3182979d32. PMID 23857311.
Liechti ME, Vollenweider FX (July 2000). "Acute psychological and physiological effects of MDMA ("Ecstasy") after haloperidol pretreatment in healthy humans". European Neuropsychopharmacology. 10 (4): 289–295. doi:10.1016/s0924-977x(00)00086-9. PMID 10871712.
Richards JR, Hollander JE, Ramoska EA, Fareed FN, Sand IC, Izquierdo Gómez MM, et al. (May 2017). "β-Blockers, Cocaine, and the Unopposed α-Stimulation Phenomenon". Journal of Cardiovascular Pharmacology and Therapeutics. 22 (3): 239–249. doi:10.1177/1074248416681644. PMID 28399647.
Jain MK, Gumpper RH, Slocum ST, Schmitz GP, Madsen JS, Tummino TA, et al. (July 2025). "The polypharmacology of psychedelics reveals multiple targets for potential therapeutics" (PDF). Neuron. 113 (19): 3129–3142.e9. doi:10.1016/j.neuron.2025.06.012. PMID 40683247.
Ray TS (February 2010). "Psychedelics and the human receptorome". PLOS ONE. 5 (2) e9019. Bibcode:2010PLoSO...5.9019R. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0009019. PMC 2814854. PMID 20126400.
Simmler LD, Buser TA, Donzelli M, Schramm Y, Dieu LH, Huwyler J, et al. (January 2013). "Pharmacological characterization of designer cathinones in vitro". British Journal of Pharmacology. 168 (2): 458–470. doi:10.1111/j.1476-5381.2012.02145.x. PMC 3572571. PMID 22897747. β-Keto-analogue cathinones also exhibited approximately 10-fold lower affinity for the TA1 receptor compared with their respective non-β-keto amphetamines. [...] Activation of TA1 receptors negatively modulates dopaminergic neurotransmission. Importantly, methamphetamine decreased DAT surface expression via a TA1 receptor-mediated mechanism and thereby reduced the presence of its own pharmacological target (Xie and Miller, 2009). MDMA and amphetamine have been shown to produce enhanced DA and 5-HT release and locomotor activity in TA1 receptor knockout mice compared with wild-type mice (Lindemann et al., 2008; Di Cara et al., 2011). Because methamphetamine and MDMA auto-inhibit their neurochemical and functional effects via TA1 receptors, low affinity for these receptors may result in stronger effects on monoamine systems by cathinones compared with the classic amphetamines.
Simmler LD, Rickli A, Hoener MC, Liechti ME (April 2014). "Monoamine transporter and receptor interaction profiles of a new series of designer cathinones". Neuropharmacology. 79: 152–160. doi:10.1016/j.neuropharm.2013.11.008. PMID 24275046.
Rickli A, Kopf S, Hoener MC, Liechti ME (July 2015). "Pharmacological profile of novel psychoactive benzofurans". British Journal of Pharmacology. 172 (13): 3412–3425. doi:10.1111/bph.13128. PMC 4500375. PMID 25765500.
Luethi D, Kolaczynska KE, Walter M, Suzuki M, Rice KC, Blough BE, et al. (July 2019). "Metabolites of the ring-substituted stimulants MDMA, methylone and MDPV differentially affect human monoaminergic systems". Journal of Psychopharmacology. 33 (7). Oxford, England: 831–841. doi:10.1177/0269881119844185. PMC 8269116. PMID 31038382.
Eshleman AJ, Forster MJ, Wolfrum KM, Johnson RA, Janowsky A, Gatch MB (March 2014). "Behavioral and neurochemical pharmacology of six psychoactive substituted phenethylamines: mouse locomotion, rat drug discrimination and in vitro receptor and transporter binding and function". Psychopharmacology. 231 (5): 875–888. doi:10.1007/s00213-013-3303-6. PMC 3945162. PMID 24142203.
Gainetdinov RR, Hoener MC, Berry MD (July 2018). "Trace Amines and Their Receptors". Pharmacological Reviews. 70 (3): 549–620. doi:10.1124/pr.117.015305. PMID 29941461.
Simmler LD, Buchy D, Chaboz S, Hoener MC, Liechti ME (April 2016). "In Vitro Characterization of Psychoactive Substances at Rat, Mouse, and Human Trace Amine-Associated Receptor 1" (PDF). The Journal of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics. 357 (1): 134–144. doi:10.1124/jpet.115.229765. PMID 26791601. Archived from the original (PDF) on 9 May 2025.
Sotnikova TD, Caron MG, Gainetdinov RR (August 2009). "Trace amine-associated receptors as emerging therapeutic targets". Molecular Pharmacology. 76 (2): 229–235. doi:10.1124/mol.109.055970. PMC 2713119. PMID 19389919.
Nichols DE (2022). "Entactogens: How the Name for a Novel Class of Psychoactive Agents Originated". Frontiers in Psychiatry. 13 863088. doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2022.863088. PMC 8990025. PMID 35401275.
Docherty JR, Alsufyani HA (August 2021). "Pharmacology of Drugs Used as Stimulants". Journal of Clinical Pharmacology. 61 (Suppl 2): S53–S69. doi:10.1002/jcph.1918. PMID 34396557. Receptor-mediated actions of amphetamine and other amphetamine derivatives [...] may involve trace amine-associated receptors (TAARs) at which amphetamine and MDMA also have significant potency.85–87 Many stimulants have potency at the rat TAAR1 in the micromolar range but tend to be about 5 to 10 times less potent at the human TAAR1, [...] Activation of the TAAR1 receptor causes inhibition of dopaminergic transmission in the mesocorticolimbic system, and TAAR1 agonists attenuated psychostimulant abuse-related behaviors.89 It is likely that TAARs contribute to the actions of specific stimulants to modulate dopaminergic, serotonergic, and glutamate signaling,90 and drugs acting on the TAAR1 may have therapeutic potential.91 In the periphery, stimulants such as MDMA and cathinone produce vasoconstriction, part of which may involve TAARs, although only relatively high concentrations produced vascular contractions resistant to a cocktail of monoamine antagonist drugs.86
Rothman RB, Baumann MH (October 2003). "Monoamine transporters and psychostimulant drugs". European Journal of Pharmacology. 479 (1–3): 23–40. doi:10.1016/j.ejphar.2003.08.054. PMID 14612135.
Rothman RB, Baumann MH (2006). "Therapeutic potential of monoamine transporter substrates". Current Topics in Medicinal Chemistry. 6 (17): 1845–1859. doi:10.2174/156802606778249766. PMID 17017961.
Sulzer D, Sonders MS, Poulsen NW, Galli A (April 2005). "Mechanisms of neurotransmitter release by amphetamines: a review". Progress in Neurobiology. 75 (6): 406–433. doi:10.1016/j.pneurobio.2005.04.003. PMID 15955613.
Reith ME, Gnegy ME (2020). "Molecular Mechanisms of Amphetamines". Substance Use Disorders. Handbook of Experimental Pharmacology. Vol. 258. pp. 265–297. doi:10.1007/164_2019_251. ISBN 978-3-030-33678-3. PMID 31286212.
Vaughan RA, Henry LK, Foster JD, Brown CR (2024). "Post-translational mechanisms in psychostimulant-induced neurotransmitter efflux". Pharmacological Advances in Central Nervous System Stimulants. Advances in Pharmacology. Vol. 99. pp. 1–33. doi:10.1016/bs.apha.2023.10.003. ISBN 978-0-443-21933-7. PMID 38467478.
Casey AB, Heifets BD (October 2025). "History, pharmacology and therapeutic mechanisms of 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA)". Br J Pharmacol. doi:10.1111/bph.70225. PMC 12873472. PMID 41121647. Unlike structurally related psychostimulants such as amphetamine and methamphetamine (Figure 1), which primarily release noradrenaline and dopamine over 5-HT via an identical mechanism, MDMA preferentially releases 5-HT and noradrenaline (Rothman et al., 2001) (Table 1). However, the selectivity by which MDMA releases monoamines is species-dependent. For example, in rat brain synaptosomes, MDMA preferentially releases 5-HT with modest selectivity (<10-fold) over noradrenaline and dopamine (Rothman et al., 2001; Setola et al., 2003). In contrast, studies using cloned human transporters in heterologous cells indicate that MDMA preferentially inhibits the release of noradrenaline with modest selectivity over 5-HT and dopamine (Han & Gu, 2006; Verrico et al., 2007). These species differences are most prominent for SERT, as MDMA more potently inhibits rodent over human SERT, with no species differences at NET and DAT (Han & Gu, 2006).
Pitts EG, Curry DW, Hampshire KN, Young MB, Howell LL (February 2018). "(±)-MDMA and its enantiomers: potential therapeutic advantages of R(-)-MDMA". Psychopharmacology. 235 (2): 377–392. doi:10.1007/s00213-017-4812-5. PMID 29248945.
Setola V, Hufeisen SJ, Grande-Allen KJ, Vesely I, Glennon RA, Blough B, et al. (June 2003). "3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA, "Ecstasy") induces fenfluramine-like proliferative actions on human cardiac valvular interstitial cells in vitro". Molecular Pharmacology. 63 (6): 1223–1229. doi:10.1124/mol.63.6.1223. PMID 12761331. S2CID 839426.
Nash JF, Roth BL, Brodkin JD, Nichols DE, Gudelsky GA (August 1994). "Effect of the R(-) and S(+) isomers of MDA and MDMA on phosphatidyl inositol turnover in cultured cells expressing 5-HT2A or 5-HT2C receptors". Neuroscience Letters. 177 (1–2): 111–115. doi:10.1016/0304-3940(94)90057-4. PMID 7824160.
Lewin AH, Miller GM, Gilmour B (December 2011). "Trace amine-associated receptor 1 is a stereoselective binding site for compounds in the amphetamine class". Bioorganic & Medicinal Chemistry. 19 (23): 7044–7048. doi:10.1016/j.bmc.2011.10.007. PMC 3236098. PMID 22037049.
Kuropka P, Zawadzki M, Szpot P (May 2023). "A narrative review of the neuropharmacology of synthetic cathinones-Popular alternatives to classical drugs of abuse". Human Psychopharmacology. 38 (3) e2866. doi:10.1002/hup.2866. PMID 36866677. Another feature that distinguishes [synthetic cathinones (SCs)] from amphetamines is their negligible interaction with the trace amine associated receptor 1 (TAAR1). Activation of this receptor reduces the activity of dopaminergic neurones, thereby reducing psychostimulatory effects and addictive potential (Miller, 2011; Simmler et al., 2016). Amphetamines are potent agonists of this receptor, making them likely to self‐inhibit their stimulating effects. In contrast, SCs show negligible activity towards TAAR1 (Kolaczynska et al., 2021; Rickli et al., 2015; Simmler et al., 2014, 2016). [...] It is worth noting, however, that for TAAR1 there is considerable species variability in its interaction with ligands, and it is possible that the in vitro activity of [rodent TAAR1 agonists] may not translate into activity in the human body (Simmler et al., 2016). The lack of self‐regulation by TAAR1 may partly explain the higher addictive potential of SCs compared to amphetamines (Miller, 2011; Simmler et al., 2013).
Di Cara B, Maggio R, Aloisi G, Rivet JM, Lundius EG, Yoshitake T, et al. (November 2011). "Genetic deletion of trace amine 1 receptors reveals their role in auto-inhibiting the actions of ecstasy (MDMA)". The Journal of Neuroscience. 31 (47): 16928–16940. doi:10.1523/JNEUROSCI.2502-11.2011. PMC 6623861. PMID 22114263.
Rein B, Raymond K, Boustani C, Tuy S, Zhang J, St Laurent R, et al. (April 2024). "MDMA enhances empathy-like behaviors in mice via 5-HT release in the nucleus accumbens". Science Advances. 10 (17) eadl6554. Bibcode:2024SciA...10L6554R. doi:10.1126/sciadv.adl6554. PMC 11042730. PMID 38657057.
Esaki H, Sasaki Y, Nishitani N, Kamada H, Mukai S, Ohshima Y, et al. (May 2023). "Role of 5-HT1A receptors in the basolateral amygdala on 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine-induced prosocial effects in mice". European Journal of Pharmacology. 946 175653. doi:10.1016/j.ejphar.2023.175653. PMID 36907260.
Heifets BD, Salgado JS, Taylor MD, Hoerbelt P, Cardozo Pinto DF, Steinberg EE, et al. (December 2019). "Distinct neural mechanisms for the prosocial and rewarding properties of MDMA". Science Translational Medicine. 11 (522) eaaw6435. doi:10.1126/scitranslmed.aaw6435. PMC 7123941. PMID 31826983.
Pitts EG, Minerva AR, Chandler EB, Kohn JN, Logun MT, Sulima A, et al. (September 2017). "3,4-Methylenedioxymethamphetamine Increases Affiliative Behaviors in Squirrel Monkeys in a Serotonin 2A Receptor-Dependent Manner". Neuropsychopharmacology. 42 (10): 1962–1971. doi:10.1038/npp.2017.80. PMC 5561347. PMID 28425496.
Blanco-Gandía MC, Mateos-García A, García-Pardo MP, Montagud-Romero S, Rodríguez-Arias M, Miñarro J, et al. (September 2015). "Effect of drugs of abuse on social behaviour: a review of animal models". Behavioural Pharmacology. 26 (6): 541–570. doi:10.1097/FBP.0000000000000162. PMID 26221831.
Heifets BD, Olson DE (January 2024). "Therapeutic mechanisms of psychedelics and entactogens". Neuropsychopharmacology. 49 (1): 104–118. doi:10.1038/s41386-023-01666-5. PMC 10700553. PMID 37488282.
Atila C, Refardt J, Christ-Crain M (March 2026). "Arginine Vasopressin Deficiency and Oxytocin Deficiency in the Endocrine Clinic". J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 111 (4): 922–937. doi:10.1210/clinem/dgaf651. PMC 13017940. PMID 41363127. A recent study used 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA) as a pharmacological provocation agent (196, 197). A single 100-mg dose of MDMA led to an 8-fold increase in plasma OXT in healthy individuals, but elicited no OXT increase in patients with AVP deficiency (197). Correspondingly, controls experienced characteristic psychoactive effects such as empathy, trust, openness, and reduced anxiety, whereas patients displayed blunted or absent responses, both emotionally and physiologically.
Atila C, Holze F, Murugesu R, Rommers N, Hutter N, Varghese N, et al. (July 2023). "Oxytocin in response to MDMA provocation test in patients with arginine vasopressin deficiency (central diabetes insipidus): a single-centre, case-control study with nested, randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled crossover trial". Lancet Diabetes Endocrinol. 11 (7): 454–464. doi:10.1016/S2213-8587(23)00120-1. PMID 37192642.
Kaur H, Karabulut S, Gauld JW, Fagot SA, Holloway KN, Shaw HE, et al. (2023). "Balancing Therapeutic Efficacy and Safety of MDMA and Novel MDXX Analogues as Novel Treatments for Autism Spectrum Disorder". Psychedelic Medicine. 1 (3). New Rochelle, N.Y.: 166–185. doi:10.1089/psymed.2023.0023. PMC 11661495. PMID 40046567. It is postulated that MDMA-induced neuronal apoptosis arises from directly stimulating the 5HT2A receptor. However, it is unclear whether MDMA binds here directly or whether one of its active metabolites (for example, MDA exhibits a 5-HT2A affinity almost 10-fold better than MDMA) is responsible.70,80,81 In addition, R-MDMA more potently activates 5-HT2A second messenger signaling, with S-MDMA having a minimal effect and racemic MDMA acting as a weak partial agonist.
Bankson MG, Cunningham KA (June 2001). "3,4-Methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA) as a unique model of serotonin receptor function and serotonin-dopamine interactions". The Journal of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics. 297 (3): 846–852. doi:10.1016/S0022-3565(24)29607-5. PMID 11356903. Archived from the original on 9 December 2024.
Baumann MH, Clark RD, Rothman RB (August 2008). "Locomotor stimulation produced by 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA) is correlated with dialysate levels of serotonin and dopamine in rat brain". Pharmacology, Biochemistry, and Behavior. 90 (2): 208–217. doi:10.1016/j.pbb.2008.02.018. PMC 2491560. PMID 18403002. Determining the role of specific 5-HT receptors in MDMA's effects in vivo is complicated by the presence of 14 different 5-HT receptor subtypes (Barnes and Sharp, 1999; Hoyer et al., 2002), many of which affect DA function (Alex and Pehek, 2007; Bubar and Cunningham, 2006). Nonetheless, there is general agreement that 5-HT1B, 5-HT2A and 5-HT2C receptor subtypes influence locomotor effects of MDMA. Hyperactivity produced by MDMA is mimicked by administration of the 5-HT1B agonist RU-24969 (Rempel et al., 1993), and 5-HT1B antagonists inhibit MDMA-induced ambulation (Callaway and Geyer, 1992b; Fletcher et al., 2002; McCreary et al., 1999). 5-HT2A antagonists reduce ambulation produced by MDMA (Fletcher et al., 2002; Kehne et al., 1996), whereas 5-HT2C antagonists markedly enhance it (Bankson and Cunningham, 2002; Fletcher et al., 2006). Taken together, these data reveal that 5-HT1B and 5-HT2A receptors facilitate, while 5-HT2C receptors suppress, forward locomotion evoked by MDMA administration. Importantly, the neural circuits underlying serotonergic modulation of MDMA-induced activity are largely unexplored.
Bankson MG, Cunningham KA (January 2002). "Pharmacological studies of the acute effects of (+)-3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine on locomotor activity: role of 5-HT(1B/1D) and 5-HT(2) receptors". Neuropsychopharmacology. 26 (1): 40–52. doi:10.1016/S0893-133X(01)00345-1. PMID 11751031.
Cole JC, Sumnall HR (May 2003). "The pre-clinical behavioural pharmacology of 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA)". Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews. 27 (3): 199–217. doi:10.1016/s0149-7634(03)00031-9. PMID 12788333. [...] 5-HT1B receptor agonists elicit locomotor hyperactivity similar to MDMA [247] and transgenic mice lacking the SERT or 5-HT1B receptor show no or reduced MDMA-induced locomotion and a behavioural pattern qualitatively reminiscent of other amphetamines [262,27]. Prior 5-HT depletion or pre-treatment of animals with SSRIs or 5-HT1B receptor antagonists block low dose MDMA hyperkinesis [42,44]. Activation of this receptor subtype may be fundamental in defining MDMAspecific locomotor activity. The 5-HT2A antagonist MDL 100,907 blocked high dose (20 mg/kg) but not low dose (3 mg/kg) MDMA-induced locomotion [157].5-HT2C receptor antagonists potentiated locomotor activation after low dose MDMA [20,115]. It has been proposed that unmasking of 5-HT1B receptor-mediated hyperactivity via 5-HT2C antagonism is only possible in the presence of the elevated DA and 5-HT concentrations seen after MDMA [19].
Pomrenze MB, Vaillancourt S, Salgado JS, Raymond KB, Llorach P, Sacai H, et al. (July 2025). "5-HT2C receptors in the nucleus accumbens constrain the rewarding effects of MDMA". Molecular Psychiatry. 30 (11): 5405–5416. doi:10.1038/s41380-025-03128-4. PMC 12532699. PMID 40707786.
Canal CE, Murnane KS (January 2017). "The serotonin 5-HT2C receptor and the non-addictive nature of classic hallucinogens". Journal of Psychopharmacology. 31 (1). Oxford, England: 127–143. doi:10.1177/0269881116677104. PMC 5445387. PMID 27903793.
Stove CP, De Letter EA, Piette MH, Lambert WE (August 2010). "Mice in ecstasy: advanced animal models in the study of MDMA". Current Pharmaceutical Biotechnology. 11 (5): 421–433. doi:10.2174/138920110791591508. PMID 20420576.
Doly S, Valjent E, Setola V, Callebert J, Hervé D, Launay JM, et al. (March 2008). "Serotonin 5-HT2B receptors are required for 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine-induced hyperlocomotion and 5-HT release in vivo and in vitro". The Journal of Neuroscience. 28 (11): 2933–2940. doi:10.1523/JNEUROSCI.5723-07.2008. PMC 6670669. PMID 18337424. Here we show that acute pharmacological inhibition or genetic ablation of the 5-HT2B receptor in mice completely abolishes MDMA-induced hyperlocomotion and 5-HT release in nucleus accumbens and ventral tegmental area. Furthermore, the 5-HT2B receptor dependence of MDMA-stimulated release of endogenous 5-HT from superfused midbrain synaptosomes suggests that 5-HT2B receptors act, unlike any other 5-HT receptor, presynaptically to affect MDMA-stimulated 5-HT release.
Doly S, Bertran-Gonzalez J, Callebert J, Bruneau A, Banas SM, Belmer A, et al. (23 November 2009). "Role of Serotonin via 5-HT2B Receptors in the Reinforcing Effects of MDMA in Mice". PLOS ONE. 4 (11) e7952. Bibcode:2009PLoSO...4.7952D. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0007952. ISSN 1932-6203. PMC 2775951. PMID 19956756.
Belmer A, Quentin E, Diaz SL, Guiard BP, Fernandez SP, Doly S, et al. (2018). "Positive regulation of raphe serotonin neurons by serotonin 2B receptors". Neuropsychopharmacology. 43 (7): 1623–1632. doi:10.1038/s41386-018-0013-0. ISSN 0893-133X. PMC 5983540. PMID 29453444.
Rothman RB, Baumann MH (July 2002). "Therapeutic and adverse actions of serotonin transporter substrates". Pharmacology & Therapeutics. 95 (1): 73–88. doi:10.1016/s0163-7258(02)00234-6. PMID 12163129.
Luethi D, Liechti ME (April 2020). "Designer drugs: mechanism of action and adverse effects" (PDF). Archives of Toxicology. 94 (4): 1085–1133. Bibcode:2020ArTox..94.1085L. doi:10.1007/s00204-020-02693-7. PMC 7225206. PMID 32249347.
Liechti ME, Vollenweider FX (December 2001). "Which neuroreceptors mediate the subjective effects of MDMA in humans? A summary of mechanistic studies". Human Psychopharmacology. 16 (8): 589–598. doi:10.1002/hup.348. PMID 12404538.
Schenk S, Newcombe D (December 2018). "Methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA) in Psychiatry: Pros, Cons, and Suggestions". Journal of Clinical Psychopharmacology. 38 (6): 632–638. doi:10.1097/JCP.0000000000000962. PMID 30303861.
Puxty DJ, Ramaekers JG, de la Torre R, Farré M, Pizarro N, Pujadas M, et al. (2017). "MDMA-Induced Dissociative State not Mediated by the 5-HT2A Receptor". Frontiers in Pharmacology. 8 455. doi:10.3389/fphar.2017.00455. PMC 5504523. PMID 28744219.
Meyer JS (2013). "3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA): current perspectives". Substance Abuse and Rehabilitation. 4: 83–99. doi:10.2147/SAR.S37258. PMC 3931692. PMID 24648791.
Liechti ME, Baumann C, Gamma A, Vollenweider FX (May 2000). "Acute psychological effects of 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA, "Ecstasy") are attenuated by the serotonin uptake inhibitor citalopram". Neuropsychopharmacology. 22 (5): 513–521. doi:10.1016/S0893-133X(99)00148-7. PMID 10731626.
Simmler LD, Liechti ME (2018). "Pharmacology of MDMA- and Amphetamine-Like New Psychoactive Substances". New Psychoactive Substances. Handbook of Experimental Pharmacology. Vol. 252. pp. 143–164. doi:10.1007/164_2018_113. ISBN 978-3-030-10560-0. PMID 29633178. MDMA is also a low-potency partial agonist of the 5-HT2A receptor. Although not frequent, mild hallucinogen-like effects of MDMA have been reported, which may be attributable to 5-HT2A agonism (Nichols 2004; Liechti et al. 2000). MDA, the active metabolite of MDMA (Hysek et al. 2011), shows a tenfold higher potency for 5-HT2A agonism than MDMA (Rickli et al. 2015c). MDA likely contributes to the mode of action of MDMA and might contribute to the mild hallucinogenic effects of MDMA.
Nichols DE (2018). Chemistry and Structure-Activity Relationships of Psychedelics. Current Topics in Behavioral Neurosciences. Vol. 36. pp. 1–43. doi:10.1007/7854_2017_475. ISBN 978-3-662-55878-2. PMID 28401524. Although the most active tryptamine hallucinogens are N,N-dialkylated, the phenethylamines generally cannot tolerate even a single N-substitution. Even small groups such as methyl or ethyl (see Table 2) abolish their hallucinogenic activity.
Jacob P, Shulgin AT (1994). "Structure-Activity Relationships of the Classic Hallucinogens and Their Analogs". In Lin GC, Glennon RA (eds.). Hallucinogens: An Update (PDF). National Institute on Drug Abuse Research Monograph Series. Vol. 146. National Institute on Drug Abuse. pp. 74–91. PMID 8742795. Archived from the original on 13 July 2025. [MDA] is also remarkable because the N-methyl homolog 3,4 (MDMA) has biological activity, although the nature of its action places it outside of this review. No other phenethylamine hallucinogen retains central activity on N-methylation.
Halberstadt AL, Geyer MA (2018). "Effect of Hallucinogens on Unconditioned Behavior". Behavioral Neurobiology of Psychedelic Drugs. Current Topics in Behavioral Neurosciences. Vol. 36. pp. 159–199. doi:10.1007/7854_2016_466. ISBN 978-3-662-55878-2. PMC 5787039. PMID 28224459. [MDxx] have been assessed in head twitch studies. Racemic [MDA] and S-(+)-MDA reportedly induce WDS in monkeys and rats, respectively (Schlemmer and Davis 1986; Hiramatsu et al. 1989). Although [MDMA] does not induce the HTR in mice, both of the stereoisomers of MDMA have been shown to elicit the response (Fantegrossi et al. 2004, 2005b). 5-HT depletion inhibits the response to S-(+)-MDMA but does not alter the response to R-(−)-MDMA, suggesting the isomers act through different mechanisms (Fantegrossi et al. 2005b). This suggestion is consistent with the fact that S-(+)- and R-(−)-MDMA exhibit qualitatively distinct pharmacological profiles, with the S-(+)isomer working primarily as a monoamine releaser (Johnson et al. 1986; Baumann et al. 2008; Murnane et al. 2010) and the R-(−)-enantiomer acting directly through 5-HT2A receptors (Lyon et al. 1986; Nash et al. 1994). In contrast to their effects in mice, Hiramatsu reported that S-(+)- and R-(−)-MDMA fail to produce WDS in rats (Hiramatsu et al. 1989). The discrepant findings with MDMA in mice and rats may reflect species differences in sensitivity to the HTR (see below for further discussion).
Rosado AF, Yu AL, Yang JH, Rondeau J, Floris G, Basu A, et al. (July 2026). "α2-Adrenergic receptor modulates 5-HT2A-mediated behavioral effects of MDMA and psilocybin in mice". Mol Psychiatry. doi:10.1038/s41380-026-03713-1. PMID 42414551.
Nichols DE (2016). "Psychedelics". Pharmacological Reviews. 68 (2): 264–355. doi:10.1124/pr.115.011478. ISSN 0031-6997. PMC 4813425. PMID 26841800.
Nichols DE, Oberlender R (1989). "Structure-activity relationships of MDMA-like substances". NIDA Research Monograph. 94: 1–29. PMID 2575223.
Nichols DE, Oberlender R (1990). "Structure-activity relationships of MDMA and related compounds: a new class of psychoactive drugs?". Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences. 600: 613–23, discussion 623–5. doi:10.1007/978-1-4613-1485-1_7. PMID 1979214.
McIntyre RS (2023). "Serotonin 5-HT2B receptor agonism and valvular heart disease: implications for the development of psilocybin and related agents". Expert Opinion on Drug Safety. 22 (10): 881–883. doi:10.1080/14740338.2023.2248883. PMID 37581427.
Tagen M, Mantuani D, van Heerden L, Holstein A, Klumpers LE, Knowles R (September 2023). "The risk of chronic psychedelic and MDMA microdosing for valvular heart disease" (PDF). Journal of Psychopharmacology. 37 (9). Oxford, England: 876–890. doi:10.1177/02698811231190865. PMID 37572027. [...] Both [MDMA and MDA] bind to the human 5-HT2B receptor, although with a 5-fold lower Ki value for MDA compared to MDMA (Ray, 2010; Setola et al., 2003). Both compounds were agonists in an assay of PI hydrolysis, with MDA (EC50=190nM) 10-fold more potent than MDMA (EC50=2000 nM) in addition to greater intrinsic efficacy (90% vs 32%) (Setola et al., 2003). [...] A 50mg dose of MDMA resulted in a mean plasma Cmax 266nM for MDMA and 28.5nM for MDA (de la Torre et al., 2000).
Rothman RB, Baumann MH (May 2009). "Serotonergic drugs and valvular heart disease". Expert Opinion on Drug Safety. 8 (3): 317–329. doi:10.1517/14740330902931524. PMC 2695569. PMID 19505264.
Rothman RB, Baumann MH (April 2002). "Serotonin releasing agents. Neurochemical, therapeutic and adverse effects". Pharmacology, Biochemistry, and Behavior. 71 (4): 825–836. doi:10.1016/s0091-3057(01)00669-4. PMID 11888573.
Costa G, Gołembiowska K (January 2022). "Neurotoxicity of MDMA: Main effects and mechanisms" (PDF). Experimental Neurology. 347 113894. doi:10.1016/j.expneurol.2021.113894. hdl:11584/325355. PMID 34655576.
Sprague JE, Everman SL, Nichols DE (June 1998). "An integrated hypothesis for the serotonergic axonal loss induced by 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine". Neurotoxicology. 19 (3): 427–441. PMID 9621349.
Green AR, Mechan AO, Elliott JM, O'Shea E, Colado MI (September 2003). "The pharmacology and clinical pharmacology of 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA, "ecstasy")". Pharmacol Rev. 55 (3): 463–508. doi:10.1124/pr.55.3.3. PMID 12869661.
Gudelsky GA, Yamamoto BK, Nash JF (November 1994). "Potentiation of 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine-induced dopamine release and serotonin neurotoxicity by 5-HT2 receptor agonists". Eur J Pharmacol. 264 (3): 325–330. doi:10.1016/0014-2999(94)90669-6. PMID 7698172.
Schmidt CJ, Black CK, Abbate GM, Taylor VL (October 1990). "Methylenedioxymethamphetamine-induced hyperthermia and neurotoxicity are independently mediated by 5-HT2 receptors". Brain Res. 529 (1–2): 85–90. doi:10.1016/0006-8993(90)90813-q. PMID 1980848.
Anderson GM, Braun G, Braun U, Nichols DE, Shulgin AT (1978). "Absolute configuration and psychotomimetic activity". NIDA Research Monograph (22): 8–15. PMID 101890.
Acquas E, Pisanu A, Spiga S, Plumitallo A, Zernig G, Di Chiara G (July 2007). "Differential effects of intravenous R,S-(+/-)-3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA, Ecstasy) and its S(+)- and R(-)-enantiomers on dopamine transmission and extracellular signal regulated kinase phosphorylation (pERK) in the rat nucleus accumbens shell and core". Journal of Neurochemistry. 102 (1): 121–132. doi:10.1111/j.1471-4159.2007.04451.x. PMID 17564678.
Curry DW, Young MB, Tran AN, Daoud GE, Howell LL (January 2018). "Separating the agony from ecstasy: R(-)-3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine has prosocial and therapeutic-like effects without signs of neurotoxicity in mice". Neuropharmacology. 128: 196–206. doi:10.1016/j.neuropharm.2017.10.003. PMC 5714650. PMID 28993129.
Bedi G (October 2024). "Is the stereoisomer R-MDMA a safer version of MDMA?". Neuropsychopharmacology. 50 (2): 360–361. doi:10.1038/s41386-024-02009-8. PMC 11631934. PMID 39448866.
Mead J, Parrott A (May 2020). "Mephedrone and MDMA: A comparative review". Brain Research. 1735 146740. doi:10.1016/j.brainres.2020.146740. PMID 32087112. A controlled study on eight experienced MDMA users reported that 1.5 mg/kg (comparable to what was deemed a typical dosage amount) consumed orally resulted in the subjective effects peaking within 2 h of ingestion (Harris et al., 2002). Other research indicates effects to emerge between 20 and 60 min, with them peaking between 60 and 90 min and lasting up to 5 h (Green et al., 2003). A dose of 100 mg has a half-life of 8–9h(De la Torre et al., 2004), although as mentioned above, users are unaware of the dose they ingest.
Ermer JC, Pennick M, Frick G (May 2016). "Lisdexamfetamine Dimesylate: Prodrug Delivery, Amphetamine Exposure and Duration of Efficacy". Clinical Drug Investigation. 36 (5): 341–356. doi:10.1007/s40261-015-0354-y. PMC 4823324. PMID 27021968.
Cruickshank CC, Dyer KR (July 2009). "A review of the clinical pharmacology of methamphetamine". Addiction. 104 (7). Abingdon, England: 1085–1099. doi:10.1111/j.1360-0443.2009.02564.x. PMID 19426289. Metabolism does not appear to be altered by chronic exposure, thus dose escalation appears to arise from pharmacodynamic rather than pharmacokinetic tolerance [24]. [...] The terminal plasma half-life of methamphetamine of approximately 10 hours is similar across administration routes, but with substantial inter-individual variability. Acute effects persist for up to 8 hours following a single moderate dose of 30 mg [30]. [...] peak plasma methamphetamine concentration occurs after 4 hours [35]. Nevertheless, peak cardiovascular and subjective effects occur rapidly (within 5–15 minutes). The dissociation between peak plasma concentration and clinical effects indicates acute tolerance, which may reflect rapid molecular processes such as redistribution of vesicular monoamines and internalization of monoamine receptors and transporters [6,36]. Acute subjective effects diminish over 4 hours, while cardiovascular effects tend to remain elevated. This is important, as the marked acute tachyphylaxis to subjective effects may drive repeated use within intervals of 4 hours, while cardiovascular risks may increase [11,35].
Abbas K, Barnhardt EW, Nash PL, Streng M, Coury DL (April 2024). "A review of amphetamine extended release once-daily options for the management of attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder". Expert Review of Neurotherapeutics. 24 (4): 421–432. doi:10.1080/14737175.2024.2321921. PMID 38391788. For several decades, clinical benefits of amphetamines have been limited by the pharmacologic half-life of around 4 hours. Although higher doses can produce higher maximum concentrations, they do not affect the half-life of the dose. Therefore, to achieve longer durations of effect, stimulants had to be dosed at least twice daily. Further, these immediate-release doses were found to have their greatest effect shortly after administration, with a rapid decline in effect after reaching peak blood concentrations. The clinical correlation of this was found in comparing math problems attempted and solved between a mixed amphetamine salts preparation (MAS) 10 mg once at 8 am vs 8 am followed by 12 pm [14]. The study also demonstrated the phenomenon of acute tolerance, where even if blood concentrations were maintained over the course of the day, clinical efficacy in the form of math problems attempted and solved would diminish over the course of the day. These findings eventually led to the development of a once daily preparation (MAS XR) [15], which is a composition of 50% immediate-release beads and 50% delayed release beads intended to mimic this twice-daily dosing with only a single administration.
van Gaalen MM, Schlumbohm C, Folgering JH, Adhikari S, Bhattacharya C, Steinbach D, et al. (April 2019). "Development of a Semimechanistic Pharmacokinetic-Pharmacodynamic Model Describing Dextroamphetamine Exposure and Striatal Dopamine Response in Rats and Nonhuman Primates following a Single Dose of Dextroamphetamine". The Journal of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics. 369 (1): 107–120. doi:10.1124/jpet.118.254508. PMID 30733244. Acute tolerance has been demonstrated for methamphetamine in rats (Segal and Kuczenski, 2006), and for D-amphetamine in rats (Lewander, 1971), [non-human primates (NHPs)] (Jedema et al., 2014) and humans (Angrist et al., 1987; Brauer et al., 1996; Dolder et al., 2017). In vivo measurement of dopamine by microdialysis was used in rats and NHPs to evaluate these time-dependent effects. In humans, various subjective measures of mood related to the drug's euphoric effects were observed to decline more rapidly than plasma concentrations following D-amphetamine oral doses ranging from 20 to 40 mg (Angrist et al., 1987; Brauer et al., 1996; Dolder et al., 2017). Whereas peak plasma concentrations and subjective effects occurred between 2 and 4 hours following administration, drug effect measures had largely returned to baseline values by 8 hours despite continued exposure to the drug (mean half-life=8 hours following a 40 mg dose (Dolder et al., 2017)).
Kivell B, Day D, Bosch P, Schenk S, Miller J (June 2010). "MDMA causes a redistribution of serotonin transporter from the cell surface to the intracellular compartment by a mechanism independent of phospho-p38-mitogen activated protein kinase activation". Neuroscience. 168 (1): 82–95. doi:10.1016/j.neuroscience.2010.03.018. PMID 20298763.
Kittler K, Lau T, Schloss P (March 2010). "Antagonists and substrates differentially regulate serotonin transporter cell surface expression in serotonergic neurons". European Journal of Pharmacology. 629 (1–3): 63–67. doi:10.1016/j.ejphar.2009.12.010. PMID 20006597. Our results show that exposure to the SSRIs citalopram, fluoxetine, sertraline and paroxetine all induced SERT internalization, but with different efficacies. The substrates 5-HT and MDMA also induced SERT internalization, while cocaine elevated SERT cell surface expression.
Rothman RB, Baumann MH, Dersch CM, Romero DV, Rice KC, Carroll FI, et al. (January 2001). "Amphetamine-type central nervous system stimulants release norepinephrine more potently than they release dopamine and serotonin". Synapse. 39 (1). New York, N.Y.: 32–41. doi:10.1002/1098-2396(20010101)39:1<32::AID-SYN5>3.0.CO;2-3. PMID 11071707. S2CID 15573624.
Rothman RB, Partilla JS, Baumann MH, Lightfoot-Siordia C, Blough BE (April 2012). "Studies of the biogenic amine transporters. 14. Identification of low-efficacy "partial" substrates for the biogenic amine transporters". The Journal of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics. 341 (1): 251–262. doi:10.1124/jpet.111.188946. PMC 3364510. PMID 22271821.
Marusich JA, Antonazzo KR, Blough BE, Brandt SD, Kavanagh PV, Partilla JS, et al. (February 2016). "The new psychoactive substances 5-(2-aminopropyl)indole (5-IT) and 6-(2-aminopropyl)indole (6-IT) interact with monoamine transporters in brain tissue". Neuropharmacology. 101: 68–75. doi:10.1016/j.neuropharm.2015.09.004. PMC 4681602. PMID 26362361.
Nagai F, Nonaka R, Satoh Hisashi Kamimura K (March 2007). "The effects of non-medically used psychoactive drugs on monoamine neurotransmission in rat brain". European Journal of Pharmacology. 559 (2–3): 132–137. doi:10.1016/j.ejphar.2006.11.075. PMID 17223101.
Halberstadt AL, Brandt SD, Walther D, Baumann MH (March 2019). "2-Aminoindan and its ring-substituted derivatives interact with plasma membrane monoamine transporters and α2-adrenergic receptors". Psychopharmacology. 236 (3): 989–999. doi:10.1007/s00213-019-05207-1. PMC 6848746. PMID 30904940.
Kolaczynska KE, Ducret P, Trachsel D, Hoener MC, Liechti ME, Luethi D (June 2022). "Pharmacological characterization of 3,4-methylenedioxyamphetamine (MDA) analogs and two amphetamine-based compounds: N,α-DEPEA and DPIA". European Neuropsychopharmacology. 59: 9–22. doi:10.1016/j.euroneuro.2022.03.006. PMID 35378384.
Mas M, Farré M, de la Torre R, Roset PN, Ortuño J, Segura J, et al. (July 1999). "Cardiovascular and neuroendocrine effects and pharmacokinetics of 3, 4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine in humans". The Journal of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics. 290 (1): 136–145. doi:10.1016/S0022-3565(24)34877-3. PMID 10381769.
de la Torre R, Farré M, Ortuño J, Mas M, Brenneisen R, Roset PN, et al. (February 2000). "Non-linear pharmacokinetics of MDMA ('ecstasy') in humans". British Journal of Clinical Pharmacology. 49 (2): 104–109. doi:10.1046/j.1365-2125.2000.00121.x. PMC 2014905. PMID 10671903.
Farré M, Roset PN, Lopez CH, Mas M, Ortuño J, Menoyo E, et al. (September 2000). "Pharmacology of MDMA in humans". Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences. 914 (1): 225–237. Bibcode:2000NYASA.914..225D. doi:10.1111/j.1749-6632.2000.tb05199.x. PMID 11085324. S2CID 29247621.
Kolbrich EA, Goodwin RS, Gorelick DA, Hayes RJ, Stein EA, Huestis MA (June 2008). "Plasma pharmacokinetics of 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine after controlled oral administration to young adults". Therapeutic Drug Monitoring. 30 (3): 320–332. doi:10.1097/FTD.0b013e3181684fa0. PMC 2663855. PMID 18520604.
Shima N, Kamata H, Katagi M, Tsuchihashi H, Sakuma T, Nemoto N (September 2007). "Direct determination of glucuronide and sulfate of 4-hydroxy-3-methoxymethamphetamine, the main metabolite of MDMA, in human urine". Journal of Chromatography. B, Analytical Technologies in the Biomedical and Life Sciences. 857 (1): 123–129. doi:10.1016/j.jchromb.2007.07.003. PMID 17643356.
Fallon JK, Kicman AT, Henry JA, Milligan PJ, Cowan DA, Hutt AJ (July 1999). "Stereospecific analysis and enantiomeric disposition of 3, 4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (Ecstasy) in humans". Clinical Chemistry. 45 (7): 1058–1069. doi:10.1093/clinchem/45.7.1058. PMID 10388483.
Mueller M, Peters FT, Maurer HH, McCann UD, Ricaurte GA (October 2008). "Nonlinear pharmacokinetics of (+/-)3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA, "Ecstasy") and its major metabolites in squirrel monkeys at plasma concentrations of MDMA that develop after typical psychoactive doses". The Journal of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics. 327 (1): 38–44. doi:10.1124/jpet.108.141366. PMID 18591215. S2CID 38043715.
Milhazes N, Martins P, Uriarte E, Garrido J, Calheiros R, Marques MP, et al. (July 2007). "Electrochemical and spectroscopic characterisation of amphetamine-like drugs: application to the screening of 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA) and its synthetic precursors". Analytica Chimica Acta. 596 (2): 231–241. Bibcode:2007AcAC..596..231M. doi:10.1016/j.aca.2007.06.027. hdl:10316/45124. PMID 17631101.
Milhazes N, Cunha-Oliveira T, Martins P, Garrido J, Oliveira C, Rego AC, et al. (October 2006). "Synthesis and cytotoxic profile of 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine ("ecstasy") and its metabolites on undifferentiated PC12 cells: A putative structure-toxicity relationship" (PDF). Chemical Research in Toxicology. 19 (10): 1294–1304. doi:10.1021/tx060123i. hdl:10316/12872. PMID 17040098. Archived (PDF) from the original on 28 June 2021. Retrieved 24 September 2019.
Gimeno P, Besacier F, Bottex M, Dujourdy L, Chaudron-Thozet H (December 2005). "A study of impurities in intermediates and 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA) samples produced via reductive amination routes". Forensic Science International. 155 (2–3): 141–157. doi:10.1016/j.forsciint.2004.11.013. PMID 16226151.
Palhol F, Boyer S, Naulet N, Chabrillat M (September 2002). "Impurity profiling of seized MDMA tablets by capillary gas chromatography". Analytical and Bioanalytical Chemistry. 374 (2): 274–281. doi:10.1007/s00216-002-1477-6. PMID 12324849. S2CID 42666306.
Renton RJ, Cowie JS, Oon MC (August 1993). "A study of the precursors, intermediates and reaction by-products in the synthesis of 3,4-methylenedioxymethylamphetamine and its application to forensic drug analysis". Forensic Science International. 60 (3): 189–202. doi:10.1016/0379-0738(93)90238-6. PMID 7901132.
Barnes AJ, De Martinis BS, Gorelick DA, Goodwin RS, Kolbrich EA, Huestis MA (March 2009). "Disposition of MDMA and metabolites in human sweat following controlled MDMA administration". Clinical Chemistry. 55 (3): 454–462. doi:10.1373/clinchem.2008.117093. PMC 2669283. PMID 19168553.
Fukuto JM, Kumagai Y, Cho AK (September 1991). "Determination of the mechanism of demethylenation of (methylenedioxy)phenyl compounds by cytochrome P450 using deuterium isotope effects". J Med Chem. 34 (9): 2871–2876. doi:10.1021/jm00113a028. PMID 1680196.
Lin DL, Liu HC, Yin RM, Chen DT, Soong SJ, Liu RH (2004). "Effectiveness of multiple internal standards: deuterated analogues of methylenedioxymethamphetamine, methylenedioxyamphetamine, methamphetamine, and amphetamine". J Anal Toxicol. 28 (8): 650–654. doi:10.1093/jat/28.8.650. PMID 15538959.
Romberg RW, Ntamack AG, Blacik LJ, Kazarian CM, Snyder JJ, Welsh ER (January 2011). "Differences in binding affinities of MDA, MDMA, MDEA, Amphetamine, Methamphetamine, and their deuterated analogues to solid-phase extraction cartridges". J Anal Toxicol. 35 (1): 15–22. doi:10.1093/anatox/35.1.15. PMID 21219698.
Berquist MD, Leth-Petersen S, Kristensen JL, Fantegrossi WE (February 2020). "Locomotor effects of 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA) and its deuterated form in mice: psychostimulant effects, stereotypy, and sensitization". Psychopharmacology (Berl). 237 (2): 431–442. doi:10.1007/s00213-019-05380-3. PMC 7388080. PMID 31729537.
Berquist MD, Leth-Petersen S, Kristensen JL, Fantegrossi WE (March 2020). "In vivo effects of 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA) and its deuterated form in rodents: Drug discrimination and thermoregulation". Drug Alcohol Depend. 208 107850. doi:10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2020.107850. PMID 31954950.
Bernschneider-Reif S, Oxler F, Freudenmann RW (November 2006). "The origin of MDMA ("ecstasy")--separating the facts from the myth". Die Pharmazie. 61 (11): 966–972. PMID 17152992.
Benzenhöfer U, Passie T (August 2010). "Rediscovering MDMA (ecstasy): the role of the American chemist Alexander T. Shulgin". Addiction. 105 (8). Abingdon, England: 1355–1361. doi:10.1111/j.1360-0443.2010.02948.x. PMID 20653618.
Hardman HF, Haavik CO, Seevers MH (June 1973). "Relationship of the structure of mescaline and seven analogs to toxicity and behavior in five species of laboratory animals". Toxicology and Applied Pharmacology. 25 (2): 299–309. Bibcode:1973ToxAP..25..299H. doi:10.1016/S0041-008X(73)80016-X. hdl:2027.42/33868. PMID 4197635. Archived from the original on 21 October 2008. Retrieved 19 April 2009.
Siegel RK (October 1986). "MDMA. Nonmedical use and intoxication" (PDF). Journal of Psychoactive Drugs. 18 (4): 349–354. doi:10.1080/02791072.1986.10472368. PMID 2880950. Archived (PDF) from the original on 4 March 2016. Retrieved 11 August 2015.
Pentney AR (2001). "An exploration of the history and controversies surrounding MDMA and MDA". Journal of Psychoactive Drugs. 33 (3): 213–221. doi:10.1080/02791072.2001.10400568. PMID 11718314. S2CID 31142434.
Milroy CM (February 1999). "Ten years of 'ecstasy'". Journal of the Royal Society of Medicine. 92 (2): 68–72. doi:10.1177/014107689909200206. PMC 1297063. PMID 10450215.
Parrott AC (May 2004). "Is ecstasy MDMA? A review of the proportion of ecstasy tablets containing MDMA, their dosage levels, and the changing perceptions of purity" (PDF). Psychopharmacology. 173 (3–4): 234–241. doi:10.1007/s00213-003-1712-7. PMID 15007594. S2CID 3347303. Archived (PDF) from the original on 18 September 2015. Retrieved 7 August 2015.
Renfroe CL (October 1986). "MDMA on the street: Analysis Anonymous". Journal of Psychoactive Drugs. 18 (4): 363–369. doi:10.1080/02791072.1986.10472371. PMID 2880953.
Halvorsen JØ, Naudet F, Cristea IA (October 2021). "Challenges with benchmarking of MDMA-assisted psychotherapy" (PDF). Nature Medicine. 27 (10): 1689–1690. doi:10.1038/s41591-021-01525-0. PMID 34635857. S2CID 238636360. Archived (PDF) from the original on 22 May 2022. Retrieved 9 May 2022.
Nutt DJ (January 2009). "Equasy-- an overlooked addiction with implications for the current debate on drug harms". Journal of Psychopharmacology. 23 (1). Oxford, England: 3–5. doi:10.1177/0269881108099672. PMID 19158127. S2CID 32034780.
Southey M, Kathirgamalingam A, Crawford B, Kaul R, McNamara J, John-Leader F, et al. (August 2020). "Patterns of ecstasy use amongst live music event attendees and their opinions on pill testing: a cross sectional study". Substance Abuse Treatment, Prevention, and Policy. 15 (1) 55. Springer Nature. doi:10.1186/s13011-020-00295-1. PMC 7405356. PMID 32758263.
Camargo J, Esseiva P, González F, Wist J, Patiny L (November 2012). "Monitoring of illicit pill distribution networks using an image collection exploration framework". Forensic Science International. 223 (1–3): 298–305. doi:10.1016/j.forsciint.2012.10.004. PMID 23107059. Archived from the original on 28 August 2021. Retrieved 9 December 2013.
Chaliha D, Mamo JC, Albrecht M, Lam V, Takechi R, Vaccarezza M (1 July 2021). "A Systematic Review of the MDMA Model to Address Social Impairment in Autism". Current Neuropharmacology. 19 (7): 1101–1154. doi:10.2174/1570159X19666210101130258. PMC 8686313. PMID 33388021.

ncbi.nlm.nih.gov

Straumann I, Avedisian I, Klaiber A, Varghese N, Eckert A, Rudin D, et al. (August 2024). "Acute effects of R-MDMA, S-MDMA, and racemic MDMA in a randomized double-blind cross-over trial in healthy participants". Neuropsychopharmacology. 50 (2): 362–371. doi:10.1038/s41386-024-01972-6. PMC 11631982. PMID 39179638.
Dunlap LE, Andrews AM, Olson DE (October 2018). "Dark Classics in Chemical Neuroscience: 3,4-Methylenedioxymethamphetamine" (PDF). ACS Chemical Neuroscience. 9 (10): 2408–2427. doi:10.1021/acschemneuro.8b00155. PMC 6197894. PMID 30001118.
Oeri HE (May 2021). "Beyond ecstasy: Alternative entactogens to 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine with potential applications in psychotherapy". Journal of Psychopharmacology. 35 (5). Oxford, England: 512–536. doi:10.1177/0269881120920420. PMC 8155739. PMID 32909493.
Palamar JJ (7 December 2016). "There's something about Molly: The underresearched yet popular powder form of ecstasy in the United States". Substance Abuse. 38 (1): 15–17. doi:10.1080/08897077.2016.1267070. PMC 5578728. PMID 27925866.
Meyer JS (2013). "3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA): current perspectives". Substance Abuse and Rehabilitation. 4: 83–99. doi:10.2147/SAR.S37258. PMC 3931692. PMID 24648791.
Yong AS, Bratuskins S, Sultani MS, Blakeley B, Davey CG, Bell JS (April 2025). "Safety and efficacy of methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA)-assisted psychotherapy in post-traumatic stress disorder: An overview of systematic reviews and meta-analyses". The Australian and New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry. 59 (4): 339–360. doi:10.1177/00048674251315642. PMC 11924292. PMID 39979849.
Zeifman RJ, Kettner H, Pagni BA, Mallard A, Roberts DE, Erritzoe D, et al. (August 2023). "Co-use of MDMA with psilocybin/LSD may buffer against challenging experiences and enhance positive experiences". Scientific Reports. 13 (1) 13645. Bibcode:2023NatSR..1313645Z. doi:10.1038/s41598-023-40856-5. PMC 10444769. PMID 37608057.
Hysek CM, Simmler LD, Nicola VG, Vischer N, Donzelli M, Krähenbühl S, et al. (4 May 2012). Laks J (ed.). "Duloxetine inhibits effects of MDMA ("ecstasy") in vitro and in humans in a randomized placebo-controlled laboratory study". PLOS ONE. 7 (5) e36476. Bibcode:2012PLoSO...736476H. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0036476. PMC 3344887. PMID 22574166. Fig. 7 shows the mean PD effects of MDMA plotted against simultaneous plasma concentrations at the different time points (hysteresis loops). The increases in "any drug effect" (Fig. 7a) and MAP (Fig. 7b) returned to baseline within 6 h when MDMA concentrations were still high. This clockwise hysteresis indicates that a smaller MDMA effect was seen at a given plasma concentration later in time, indicating rapid acute pharmacodynamic tolerance, which was similarly described for cocaine [33]. [...] Figure 7. Pharmacokinetic-pharmacodynamic (PK-PD) relationship. MDMA effects are plotted against simultaneous MDMA plasma concentrations (a, b). The time of sampling is noted next to each point in minutes or hours after MDMA administration. The clockwise hysteresis indicates acute tolerance to the effects of MDMA.
Baggott MJ, Kirkpatrick MG, Bedi G, de Wit H (June 2015). "Intimate insight: MDMA changes how people talk about significant others". Journal of Psychopharmacology. 29 (6). Oxford, England: 669–677. doi:10.1177/0269881115581962. PMC 4698152. PMID 25922420.
Wardle MC, de Wit H (October 2014). "MDMA alters emotional processing and facilitates positive social interaction". Psychopharmacology. 231 (21): 4219–4229. doi:10.1007/s00213-014-3570-x. PMC 4194242. PMID 24728603.
Kamilar-Britt P, Bedi G (October 2015). "The prosocial effects of 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA): Controlled studies in humans and laboratory animals". Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews. 57: 433–446. doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2015.08.016. PMC 4678620. PMID 26408071.
Gouzoulis-Mayfrank E, Daumann J (2009). "Neurotoxicity of drugs of abuse--the case of methylenedioxyamphetamines (MDMA, ecstasy), and amphetamines". Dialogues in Clinical Neuroscience. 11 (3): 305–317. doi:10.31887/DCNS.2009.11.3/egmayfrank. PMC 3181923. PMID 19877498.
Halpin LE, Collins SA, Yamamoto BK (February 2014). "Neurotoxicity of methamphetamine and 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine". Life Sciences. 97 (1): 37–44. doi:10.1016/j.lfs.2013.07.014. PMC 3870191. PMID 23892199. In contrast, MDMA produces damage to serotonergic, but not dopaminergic axon terminals in the striatum, hippocampus, and prefrontal cortex (Battaglia et al., 1987, O'Hearn et al., 1988). The damage associated with Meth and MDMA has been shown to persist for at least 2 years in rodents, non-human primates and humans (Seiden et al., 1988, Woolverton et al., 1989, McCann et al., 1998, Volkow et al., 2001a, McCann et al., 2005)
Kuypers KP, Theunissen EL, van Wel JH, de Sousa Fernandes Perna EB, Linssen A, Sambeth A, et al. (2016). "Verbal Memory Impairment in Polydrug Ecstasy Users: A Clinical Perspective". PLOS ONE. 11 (2) e0149438. Bibcode:2016PLoSO..1149438K. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0149438. PMC 4764468. PMID 26907605.
Kousik SM, Napier TC, Carvey PM (2012). "The effects of psychostimulant drugs on blood brain barrier function and neuroinflammation". Frontiers in Pharmacology. 3: 121. doi:10.3389/fphar.2012.00121. PMC 3386512. PMID 22754527.
Boyle NT, Connor TJ (September 2010). "Methylenedioxymethamphetamine ('Ecstasy')-induced immunosuppression: a cause for concern?". British Journal of Pharmacology. 161 (1): 17–32. doi:10.1111/J.1476-5381.2010.00899.X. PMC 2962814. PMID 20718737.
Koczor CA, Ludlow I, Hight RS, Jiao Z, Fields E, Ludaway T, et al. (November 2015). "Ecstasy (MDMA) Alters Cardiac Gene Expression and DNA Methylation: Implications for Circadian Rhythm Dysfunction in the Heart". Toxicological Sciences. 148 (1): 183–191. doi:10.1093/toxsci/kfv170. PMC 4731408. PMID 26251327.
Coray RC, Beliveau V, Zimmermann J, Preller KH, Wunderli M, Baumgartner MR, et al. (April 2026). "Memory deficits of MDMA users are linked to cortical thinning related to 5-HT receptor densities". Brain. 149 (4): 1410–1421. doi:10.1093/brain/awaf391. PMC 13058468. PMID 41123310.
Olausson P, Jentsch JD, Tronson N, Neve RL, Nestler EJ, Taylor JR (September 2006). "DeltaFosB in the nucleus accumbens regulates food-reinforced instrumental behavior and motivation". The Journal of Neuroscience. 26 (36): 9196–9204. doi:10.1523/JNEUROSCI.1124-06.2006. PMC 6674495. PMID 16957076.
Robison AJ, Nestler EJ (October 2011). "Transcriptional and epigenetic mechanisms of addiction". Nature Reviews. Neuroscience. 12 (11): 623–637. doi:10.1038/nrn3111. PMC 3272277. PMID 21989194.
Favrod-Coune T, Broers B (July 2010). "The Health Effect of Psychostimulants: A Literature Review". Pharmaceuticals. 3 (7). Basel, Switzerland: 2333–2361. doi:10.3390/ph3072333. PMC 4036656. PMID 27713356. It seems to present a smaller addiction potential than cocaine or methamphetamine.
Steinkellner T, Freissmuth M, Sitte HH, Montgomery T (January 2011). "The ugly side of amphetamines: short- and long-term toxicity of 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA, 'Ecstasy'), methamphetamine and D-amphetamine". Biological Chemistry. 392 (1–2): 103–115. doi:10.1515/BC.2011.016. PMC 4497800. PMID 21194370. ...approximately 15% of routine MDMA users recently fit the diagnostic criteria for MDMA dependence according to the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual, fourth edition/DSMIV.
Singer LT, Moore DG, Fulton S, Goodwin J, Turner JJ, Min MO, et al. (2012). "Neurobehavioral outcomes of infants exposed to MDMA (Ecstasy) and other recreational drugs during pregnancy". Neurotoxicology and Teratology. 34 (3): 303–310. Bibcode:2012NTxT...34..303S. doi:10.1016/j.ntt.2012.02.001. PMC 3367027. PMID 22387807.
Lipton JW, Tolod EG, Thompson VB, Pei L, Paumier KL, Terpstra BT, et al. (October 2008). "3,4-Methylenedioxy-N-methamphetamine (ecstasy) promotes the survival of fetal dopamine neurons in culture". Neuropharmacology. 55 (5): 851–859. doi:10.1016/j.neuropharm.2008.06.062. PMC 2572681. PMID 18655796.
Vanattou-Saïfoudine N, McNamara R, Harkin A (November 2012). "Caffeine provokes adverse interactions with 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA, 'ecstasy') and related psychostimulants: mechanisms and mediators". British Journal of Pharmacology. 167 (5): 946–959. doi:10.1111/j.1476-5381.2012.02065.x. PMC 3492978. PMID 22671762.
Henríquez-Hernández LA, Rojas-Hernández J, Quintana-Hernández DJ, Borkel LF (February 2023). "Hofmann vs. Paracelsus: Do Psychedelics Defy the Basics of Toxicology?-A Systematic Review of the Main Ergolamines, Simple Tryptamines, and Phenylethylamines". Toxics. 11 (2): 148. Bibcode:2023Toxic..11..148H. doi:10.3390/toxics11020148. PMC 9963058. PMID 36851023.
Hysek C, Schmid Y, Rickli A, Simmler LD, Donzelli M, Grouzmann E, et al. (August 2012). "Carvedilol inhibits the cardiostimulant and thermogenic effects of MDMA in humans". British Journal of Pharmacology. 166 (8): 2277–2288. doi:10.1111/j.1476-5381.2012.01936.x. PMC 3448893. PMID 22404145.
Pendergraft WF, Herlitz LC, Thornley-Brown D, Rosner M, Niles JL (November 2014). "Nephrotoxic effects of common and emerging drugs of abuse". Clinical Journal of the American Society of Nephrology. 9 (11): 1996–2005. doi:10.2215/CJN.00360114. PMC 4220747. PMID 25035273.
Wsół A (December 2023). "Cardiovascular safety of psychedelic medicine: current status and future directions". Pharmacological Reports. 75 (6): 1362–1380. doi:10.1007/s43440-023-00539-4. PMC 10661823. PMID 37874530.
Neumann J, Dhein S, Kirchhefer U, Hofmann B, Gergs U (2024). "Effects of hallucinogenic drugs on the human heart". Frontiers in Pharmacology. 15 1334218. doi:10.3389/fphar.2024.1334218. PMC 10869618. PMID 38370480.
Ley L, Holze F, Arikci D, Becker AM, Straumann I, Klaiber A, et al. (October 2023). "Comparative acute effects of mescaline, lysergic acid diethylamide, and psilocybin in a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled cross-over study in healthy participants". Neuropsychopharmacology. 48 (11): 1659–1667. doi:10.1038/s41386-023-01607-2. PMC 10517157. PMID 37231080.
Ray TS (February 2010). "Psychedelics and the human receptorome". PLOS ONE. 5 (2) e9019. Bibcode:2010PLoSO...5.9019R. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0009019. PMC 2814854. PMID 20126400.
Simmler LD, Buser TA, Donzelli M, Schramm Y, Dieu LH, Huwyler J, et al. (January 2013). "Pharmacological characterization of designer cathinones in vitro". British Journal of Pharmacology. 168 (2): 458–470. doi:10.1111/j.1476-5381.2012.02145.x. PMC 3572571. PMID 22897747. β-Keto-analogue cathinones also exhibited approximately 10-fold lower affinity for the TA1 receptor compared with their respective non-β-keto amphetamines. [...] Activation of TA1 receptors negatively modulates dopaminergic neurotransmission. Importantly, methamphetamine decreased DAT surface expression via a TA1 receptor-mediated mechanism and thereby reduced the presence of its own pharmacological target (Xie and Miller, 2009). MDMA and amphetamine have been shown to produce enhanced DA and 5-HT release and locomotor activity in TA1 receptor knockout mice compared with wild-type mice (Lindemann et al., 2008; Di Cara et al., 2011). Because methamphetamine and MDMA auto-inhibit their neurochemical and functional effects via TA1 receptors, low affinity for these receptors may result in stronger effects on monoamine systems by cathinones compared with the classic amphetamines.
Rickli A, Kopf S, Hoener MC, Liechti ME (July 2015). "Pharmacological profile of novel psychoactive benzofurans". British Journal of Pharmacology. 172 (13): 3412–3425. doi:10.1111/bph.13128. PMC 4500375. PMID 25765500.
Luethi D, Kolaczynska KE, Walter M, Suzuki M, Rice KC, Blough BE, et al. (July 2019). "Metabolites of the ring-substituted stimulants MDMA, methylone and MDPV differentially affect human monoaminergic systems". Journal of Psychopharmacology. 33 (7). Oxford, England: 831–841. doi:10.1177/0269881119844185. PMC 8269116. PMID 31038382.
Eshleman AJ, Forster MJ, Wolfrum KM, Johnson RA, Janowsky A, Gatch MB (March 2014). "Behavioral and neurochemical pharmacology of six psychoactive substituted phenethylamines: mouse locomotion, rat drug discrimination and in vitro receptor and transporter binding and function". Psychopharmacology. 231 (5): 875–888. doi:10.1007/s00213-013-3303-6. PMC 3945162. PMID 24142203.
Sotnikova TD, Caron MG, Gainetdinov RR (August 2009). "Trace amine-associated receptors as emerging therapeutic targets". Molecular Pharmacology. 76 (2): 229–235. doi:10.1124/mol.109.055970. PMC 2713119. PMID 19389919.
Nichols DE (2022). "Entactogens: How the Name for a Novel Class of Psychoactive Agents Originated". Frontiers in Psychiatry. 13 863088. doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2022.863088. PMC 8990025. PMID 35401275.
Casey AB, Heifets BD (October 2025). "History, pharmacology and therapeutic mechanisms of 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA)". Br J Pharmacol. doi:10.1111/bph.70225. PMC 12873472. PMID 41121647. Unlike structurally related psychostimulants such as amphetamine and methamphetamine (Figure 1), which primarily release noradrenaline and dopamine over 5-HT via an identical mechanism, MDMA preferentially releases 5-HT and noradrenaline (Rothman et al., 2001) (Table 1). However, the selectivity by which MDMA releases monoamines is species-dependent. For example, in rat brain synaptosomes, MDMA preferentially releases 5-HT with modest selectivity (<10-fold) over noradrenaline and dopamine (Rothman et al., 2001; Setola et al., 2003). In contrast, studies using cloned human transporters in heterologous cells indicate that MDMA preferentially inhibits the release of noradrenaline with modest selectivity over 5-HT and dopamine (Han & Gu, 2006; Verrico et al., 2007). These species differences are most prominent for SERT, as MDMA more potently inhibits rodent over human SERT, with no species differences at NET and DAT (Han & Gu, 2006).
Lewin AH, Miller GM, Gilmour B (December 2011). "Trace amine-associated receptor 1 is a stereoselective binding site for compounds in the amphetamine class". Bioorganic & Medicinal Chemistry. 19 (23): 7044–7048. doi:10.1016/j.bmc.2011.10.007. PMC 3236098. PMID 22037049.
Di Cara B, Maggio R, Aloisi G, Rivet JM, Lundius EG, Yoshitake T, et al. (November 2011). "Genetic deletion of trace amine 1 receptors reveals their role in auto-inhibiting the actions of ecstasy (MDMA)". The Journal of Neuroscience. 31 (47): 16928–16940. doi:10.1523/JNEUROSCI.2502-11.2011. PMC 6623861. PMID 22114263.
Rein B, Raymond K, Boustani C, Tuy S, Zhang J, St Laurent R, et al. (April 2024). "MDMA enhances empathy-like behaviors in mice via 5-HT release in the nucleus accumbens". Science Advances. 10 (17) eadl6554. Bibcode:2024SciA...10L6554R. doi:10.1126/sciadv.adl6554. PMC 11042730. PMID 38657057.
Heifets BD, Salgado JS, Taylor MD, Hoerbelt P, Cardozo Pinto DF, Steinberg EE, et al. (December 2019). "Distinct neural mechanisms for the prosocial and rewarding properties of MDMA". Science Translational Medicine. 11 (522) eaaw6435. doi:10.1126/scitranslmed.aaw6435. PMC 7123941. PMID 31826983.
Pitts EG, Minerva AR, Chandler EB, Kohn JN, Logun MT, Sulima A, et al. (September 2017). "3,4-Methylenedioxymethamphetamine Increases Affiliative Behaviors in Squirrel Monkeys in a Serotonin 2A Receptor-Dependent Manner". Neuropsychopharmacology. 42 (10): 1962–1971. doi:10.1038/npp.2017.80. PMC 5561347. PMID 28425496.
Heifets BD, Olson DE (January 2024). "Therapeutic mechanisms of psychedelics and entactogens". Neuropsychopharmacology. 49 (1): 104–118. doi:10.1038/s41386-023-01666-5. PMC 10700553. PMID 37488282.
Atila C, Refardt J, Christ-Crain M (March 2026). "Arginine Vasopressin Deficiency and Oxytocin Deficiency in the Endocrine Clinic". J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 111 (4): 922–937. doi:10.1210/clinem/dgaf651. PMC 13017940. PMID 41363127. A recent study used 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA) as a pharmacological provocation agent (196, 197). A single 100-mg dose of MDMA led to an 8-fold increase in plasma OXT in healthy individuals, but elicited no OXT increase in patients with AVP deficiency (197). Correspondingly, controls experienced characteristic psychoactive effects such as empathy, trust, openness, and reduced anxiety, whereas patients displayed blunted or absent responses, both emotionally and physiologically.
Kaur H, Karabulut S, Gauld JW, Fagot SA, Holloway KN, Shaw HE, et al. (2023). "Balancing Therapeutic Efficacy and Safety of MDMA and Novel MDXX Analogues as Novel Treatments for Autism Spectrum Disorder". Psychedelic Medicine. 1 (3). New Rochelle, N.Y.: 166–185. doi:10.1089/psymed.2023.0023. PMC 11661495. PMID 40046567. It is postulated that MDMA-induced neuronal apoptosis arises from directly stimulating the 5HT2A receptor. However, it is unclear whether MDMA binds here directly or whether one of its active metabolites (for example, MDA exhibits a 5-HT2A affinity almost 10-fold better than MDMA) is responsible.70,80,81 In addition, R-MDMA more potently activates 5-HT2A second messenger signaling, with S-MDMA having a minimal effect and racemic MDMA acting as a weak partial agonist.
Baumann MH, Clark RD, Rothman RB (August 2008). "Locomotor stimulation produced by 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA) is correlated with dialysate levels of serotonin and dopamine in rat brain". Pharmacology, Biochemistry, and Behavior. 90 (2): 208–217. doi:10.1016/j.pbb.2008.02.018. PMC 2491560. PMID 18403002. Determining the role of specific 5-HT receptors in MDMA's effects in vivo is complicated by the presence of 14 different 5-HT receptor subtypes (Barnes and Sharp, 1999; Hoyer et al., 2002), many of which affect DA function (Alex and Pehek, 2007; Bubar and Cunningham, 2006). Nonetheless, there is general agreement that 5-HT1B, 5-HT2A and 5-HT2C receptor subtypes influence locomotor effects of MDMA. Hyperactivity produced by MDMA is mimicked by administration of the 5-HT1B agonist RU-24969 (Rempel et al., 1993), and 5-HT1B antagonists inhibit MDMA-induced ambulation (Callaway and Geyer, 1992b; Fletcher et al., 2002; McCreary et al., 1999). 5-HT2A antagonists reduce ambulation produced by MDMA (Fletcher et al., 2002; Kehne et al., 1996), whereas 5-HT2C antagonists markedly enhance it (Bankson and Cunningham, 2002; Fletcher et al., 2006). Taken together, these data reveal that 5-HT1B and 5-HT2A receptors facilitate, while 5-HT2C receptors suppress, forward locomotion evoked by MDMA administration. Importantly, the neural circuits underlying serotonergic modulation of MDMA-induced activity are largely unexplored.
Pomrenze MB, Vaillancourt S, Salgado JS, Raymond KB, Llorach P, Sacai H, et al. (July 2025). "5-HT2C receptors in the nucleus accumbens constrain the rewarding effects of MDMA". Molecular Psychiatry. 30 (11): 5405–5416. doi:10.1038/s41380-025-03128-4. PMC 12532699. PMID 40707786.
Canal CE, Murnane KS (January 2017). "The serotonin 5-HT2C receptor and the non-addictive nature of classic hallucinogens". Journal of Psychopharmacology. 31 (1). Oxford, England: 127–143. doi:10.1177/0269881116677104. PMC 5445387. PMID 27903793.
Doly S, Valjent E, Setola V, Callebert J, Hervé D, Launay JM, et al. (March 2008). "Serotonin 5-HT2B receptors are required for 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine-induced hyperlocomotion and 5-HT release in vivo and in vitro". The Journal of Neuroscience. 28 (11): 2933–2940. doi:10.1523/JNEUROSCI.5723-07.2008. PMC 6670669. PMID 18337424. Here we show that acute pharmacological inhibition or genetic ablation of the 5-HT2B receptor in mice completely abolishes MDMA-induced hyperlocomotion and 5-HT release in nucleus accumbens and ventral tegmental area. Furthermore, the 5-HT2B receptor dependence of MDMA-stimulated release of endogenous 5-HT from superfused midbrain synaptosomes suggests that 5-HT2B receptors act, unlike any other 5-HT receptor, presynaptically to affect MDMA-stimulated 5-HT release.
Doly S, Bertran-Gonzalez J, Callebert J, Bruneau A, Banas SM, Belmer A, et al. (23 November 2009). "Role of Serotonin via 5-HT2B Receptors in the Reinforcing Effects of MDMA in Mice". PLOS ONE. 4 (11) e7952. Bibcode:2009PLoSO...4.7952D. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0007952. ISSN 1932-6203. PMC 2775951. PMID 19956756.
Belmer A, Quentin E, Diaz SL, Guiard BP, Fernandez SP, Doly S, et al. (2018). "Positive regulation of raphe serotonin neurons by serotonin 2B receptors". Neuropsychopharmacology. 43 (7): 1623–1632. doi:10.1038/s41386-018-0013-0. ISSN 0893-133X. PMC 5983540. PMID 29453444.
Luethi D, Liechti ME (April 2020). "Designer drugs: mechanism of action and adverse effects" (PDF). Archives of Toxicology. 94 (4): 1085–1133. Bibcode:2020ArTox..94.1085L. doi:10.1007/s00204-020-02693-7. PMC 7225206. PMID 32249347.
Puxty DJ, Ramaekers JG, de la Torre R, Farré M, Pizarro N, Pujadas M, et al. (2017). "MDMA-Induced Dissociative State not Mediated by the 5-HT2A Receptor". Frontiers in Pharmacology. 8 455. doi:10.3389/fphar.2017.00455. PMC 5504523. PMID 28744219.
Meyer JS (2013). "3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA): current perspectives". Substance Abuse and Rehabilitation. 4: 83–99. doi:10.2147/SAR.S37258. PMC 3931692. PMID 24648791.
Halberstadt AL, Geyer MA (2018). "Effect of Hallucinogens on Unconditioned Behavior". Behavioral Neurobiology of Psychedelic Drugs. Current Topics in Behavioral Neurosciences. Vol. 36. pp. 159–199. doi:10.1007/7854_2016_466. ISBN 978-3-662-55878-2. PMC 5787039. PMID 28224459. [MDxx] have been assessed in head twitch studies. Racemic [MDA] and S-(+)-MDA reportedly induce WDS in monkeys and rats, respectively (Schlemmer and Davis 1986; Hiramatsu et al. 1989). Although [MDMA] does not induce the HTR in mice, both of the stereoisomers of MDMA have been shown to elicit the response (Fantegrossi et al. 2004, 2005b). 5-HT depletion inhibits the response to S-(+)-MDMA but does not alter the response to R-(−)-MDMA, suggesting the isomers act through different mechanisms (Fantegrossi et al. 2005b). This suggestion is consistent with the fact that S-(+)- and R-(−)-MDMA exhibit qualitatively distinct pharmacological profiles, with the S-(+)isomer working primarily as a monoamine releaser (Johnson et al. 1986; Baumann et al. 2008; Murnane et al. 2010) and the R-(−)-enantiomer acting directly through 5-HT2A receptors (Lyon et al. 1986; Nash et al. 1994). In contrast to their effects in mice, Hiramatsu reported that S-(+)- and R-(−)-MDMA fail to produce WDS in rats (Hiramatsu et al. 1989). The discrepant findings with MDMA in mice and rats may reflect species differences in sensitivity to the HTR (see below for further discussion).
Nichols DE (2016). "Psychedelics". Pharmacological Reviews. 68 (2): 264–355. doi:10.1124/pr.115.011478. ISSN 0031-6997. PMC 4813425. PMID 26841800.
Rothman RB, Baumann MH (May 2009). "Serotonergic drugs and valvular heart disease". Expert Opinion on Drug Safety. 8 (3): 317–329. doi:10.1517/14740330902931524. PMC 2695569. PMID 19505264.
Curry DW, Young MB, Tran AN, Daoud GE, Howell LL (January 2018). "Separating the agony from ecstasy: R(-)-3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine has prosocial and therapeutic-like effects without signs of neurotoxicity in mice". Neuropharmacology. 128: 196–206. doi:10.1016/j.neuropharm.2017.10.003. PMC 5714650. PMID 28993129.
Bedi G (October 2024). "Is the stereoisomer R-MDMA a safer version of MDMA?". Neuropsychopharmacology. 50 (2): 360–361. doi:10.1038/s41386-024-02009-8. PMC 11631934. PMID 39448866.
Ermer JC, Pennick M, Frick G (May 2016). "Lisdexamfetamine Dimesylate: Prodrug Delivery, Amphetamine Exposure and Duration of Efficacy". Clinical Drug Investigation. 36 (5): 341–356. doi:10.1007/s40261-015-0354-y. PMC 4823324. PMID 27021968.
Rothman RB, Partilla JS, Baumann MH, Lightfoot-Siordia C, Blough BE (April 2012). "Studies of the biogenic amine transporters. 14. Identification of low-efficacy "partial" substrates for the biogenic amine transporters". The Journal of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics. 341 (1): 251–262. doi:10.1124/jpet.111.188946. PMC 3364510. PMID 22271821.
Marusich JA, Antonazzo KR, Blough BE, Brandt SD, Kavanagh PV, Partilla JS, et al. (February 2016). "The new psychoactive substances 5-(2-aminopropyl)indole (5-IT) and 6-(2-aminopropyl)indole (6-IT) interact with monoamine transporters in brain tissue". Neuropharmacology. 101: 68–75. doi:10.1016/j.neuropharm.2015.09.004. PMC 4681602. PMID 26362361.
Halberstadt AL, Brandt SD, Walther D, Baumann MH (March 2019). "2-Aminoindan and its ring-substituted derivatives interact with plasma membrane monoamine transporters and α2-adrenergic receptors". Psychopharmacology. 236 (3): 989–999. doi:10.1007/s00213-019-05207-1. PMC 6848746. PMID 30904940.
de la Torre R, Farré M, Ortuño J, Mas M, Brenneisen R, Roset PN, et al. (February 2000). "Non-linear pharmacokinetics of MDMA ('ecstasy') in humans". British Journal of Clinical Pharmacology. 49 (2): 104–109. doi:10.1046/j.1365-2125.2000.00121.x. PMC 2014905. PMID 10671903.
Kolbrich EA, Goodwin RS, Gorelick DA, Hayes RJ, Stein EA, Huestis MA (June 2008). "Plasma pharmacokinetics of 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine after controlled oral administration to young adults". Therapeutic Drug Monitoring. 30 (3): 320–332. doi:10.1097/FTD.0b013e3181684fa0. PMC 2663855. PMID 18520604.
Barnes AJ, De Martinis BS, Gorelick DA, Goodwin RS, Kolbrich EA, Huestis MA (March 2009). "Disposition of MDMA and metabolites in human sweat following controlled MDMA administration". Clinical Chemistry. 55 (3): 454–462. doi:10.1373/clinchem.2008.117093. PMC 2669283. PMID 19168553.
Berquist MD, Leth-Petersen S, Kristensen JL, Fantegrossi WE (February 2020). "Locomotor effects of 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA) and its deuterated form in mice: psychostimulant effects, stereotypy, and sensitization". Psychopharmacology (Berl). 237 (2): 431–442. doi:10.1007/s00213-019-05380-3. PMC 7388080. PMID 31729537.
Milroy CM (February 1999). "Ten years of 'ecstasy'". Journal of the Royal Society of Medicine. 92 (2): 68–72. doi:10.1177/014107689909200206. PMC 1297063. PMID 10450215.
Southey M, Kathirgamalingam A, Crawford B, Kaul R, McNamara J, John-Leader F, et al. (August 2020). "Patterns of ecstasy use amongst live music event attendees and their opinions on pill testing: a cross sectional study". Substance Abuse Treatment, Prevention, and Policy. 15 (1) 55. Springer Nature. doi:10.1186/s13011-020-00295-1. PMC 7405356. PMID 32758263.
Chaliha D, Mamo JC, Albrecht M, Lam V, Takechi R, Vaccarezza M (1 July 2021). "A Systematic Review of the MDMA Model to Address Social Impairment in Autism". Current Neuropharmacology. 19 (7): 1101–1154. doi:10.2174/1570159X19666210101130258. PMC 8686313. PMID 33388021.

nlm.nih.gov

"3,4-Methylenedioxymethamphetamine". Hazardous Substances Data Bank. National Library of Medicine. 28 August 2008. Archived from the original on 4 April 2019. Retrieved 22 August 2014.

archives.nida.nih.gov

Jacob P, Shulgin AT (1994). "Structure-Activity Relationships of the Classic Hallucinogens and Their Analogs". In Lin GC, Glennon RA (eds.). Hallucinogens: An Update (PDF). National Institute on Drug Abuse Research Monograph Series. Vol. 146. National Institute on Drug Abuse. pp. 74–91. PMID 8742795. Archived from the original on 13 July 2025. [MDA] is also remarkable because the N-methyl homolog 3,4 (MDMA) has biological activity, although the nature of its action places it outside of this review. No other phenethylamine hallucinogen retains central activity on N-methylation.

nintendoenthusiast.com (Global: low place; English: low place)

Kelly M (20 June 2019). "Man arrested for possession of ecstasy tablets shaped like Wario". Nintendo Enthusiast. Archived from the original on 24 June 2021. Retrieved 17 June 2021.

nytimes.com (Global: 7^th place; English: 7^th place)

nytimes.com

Philipps D (1 May 2018). "Ecstasy as a Remedy for PTSD? You Probably Have Some Questions". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 1 January 2022. Retrieved 14 July 2018.
Nuwer R (3 May 2021). "A Psychedelic Drug Passes a Big Test for PTSD Treatment". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 5 June 2021. Retrieved 5 June 2021.
Philipps D (1 May 2018). "Ecstasy as a Remedy for PTSD? You Probably Have Some Questions". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 1 January 2022. Retrieved 14 July 2018.
Foderaro LW (11 December 1988). "Psychedelic Drug Called Ecstasy Gains Popularity in Manhattan Nightclubs". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 17 November 2015. Retrieved 27 August 2015.
Bennett D (30 January 2005). "Dr. Ecstasy". The New York Times Magazine. Archived from the original on 17 November 2011. Retrieved 10 February 2017.
"U.S. will ban 'ecstasy,' a hallucinogenic drug". The New York Times. The Associated Press. 1 June 1985. Archived from the original on 24 May 2015. Retrieved 29 April 2015.
Weber B (7 June 2014). "Alexander Shulgin, Psychedelia Researcher, Dies at 88". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 5 September 2015. Retrieved 28 August 2015.
Aleksander I (21 June 2013). "Molly: Pure, but Not So Simple". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 1 January 2022. Retrieved 24 February 2015.

artsbeat.blogs.nytimes.com

McKinley JC (12 September 2013). "Overdoses of 'Molly' Led to Electric Zoo Deaths". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 4 December 2013. Retrieved 9 December 2013.

openlibrary.org (Global: 185^th place; English: 154^th place)

Blough B (July 2008). "Dopamine-releasing agents" (PDF). In Trudell ML, Izenwasser S (eds.). Dopamine Transporters: Chemistry, Biology and Pharmacology. Hoboken [NJ]: Wiley. pp. 305–320. ISBN 978-0-470-11790-3. OCLC 181862653. OL 18589888W.

playboy.com (Global: 4,392^nd place; English: 3,011^th place)

Owen F, Gavin L (20 October 2013). "Molly Isn't Who You Think She Is: A Deeper Look at MDMA". Playboy. Archived from the original on 27 July 2015. Retrieved 6 August 2015.

psu.edu (Global: 299^th place; English: 159^th place)

citeseerx.ist.psu.edu

Anderson GM, Braun G, Braun U, Nichols DE, Shulgin AT (1978). "Absolute configuration and psychotomimetic activity". NIDA Research Monograph (22): 8–15. PMID 101890.

psychedelicscience.org (Global: low place; English: low place)

2023.psychedelicscience.org

Baggott M (23 June 2023). Beyond Ecstasy: Progress in Developing and Understanding a Novel Class of Therapeutic Medicine. PS2023 [Psychedelic Science 2023, June 19–23, 2023, Denver, Colorado]. Denver, CO: Multidisciplinary Association for Psychedelic Studies. Archived from the original on 17 June 2025. Retrieved 27 January 2025.

racgp.org.au (Global: low place; English: low place)

www1.racgp.org.au

"MDMA and psilocybin: What GPs need to know". Newsgp. Archived from the original on 13 June 2023. Retrieved 13 June 2023.

researchgate.net (Global: 96^th place; English: 89^th place)

Parrott AC (2014). "The potential dangers of using MDMA for psychotherapy". Journal of Psychoactive Drugs. 46 (1): 37–43. doi:10.1080/02791072.2014.873690. PMID 24830184. S2CID 23485480.
Eshleman AJ, Forster MJ, Wolfrum KM, Johnson RA, Janowsky A, Gatch MB (March 2014). "Behavioral and neurochemical pharmacology of six psychoactive substituted phenethylamines: mouse locomotion, rat drug discrimination and in vitro receptor and transporter binding and function". Psychopharmacology. 231 (5): 875–888. doi:10.1007/s00213-013-3303-6. PMC 3945162. PMID 24142203.
Gainetdinov RR, Hoener MC, Berry MD (July 2018). "Trace Amines and Their Receptors". Pharmacological Reviews. 70 (3): 549–620. doi:10.1124/pr.117.015305. PMID 29941461.
Sprague JE, Everman SL, Nichols DE (June 1998). "An integrated hypothesis for the serotonergic axonal loss induced by 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine". Neurotoxicology. 19 (3): 427–441. PMID 9621349.
Holley A, Simonson B, Kivell BM (April 2013). "MDMA regulates serotonin transporter function via a Protein kinase C dependent mechanism". Journal of Addiction & Prevention. 1 (1): 5. ISSN 2330-2178.
Kolaczynska KE, Ducret P, Trachsel D, Hoener MC, Liechti ME, Luethi D (June 2022). "Pharmacological characterization of 3,4-methylenedioxyamphetamine (MDA) analogs and two amphetamine-based compounds: N,α-DEPEA and DPIA". European Neuropsychopharmacology. 59: 9–22. doi:10.1016/j.euroneuro.2022.03.006. PMID 35378384.

rijksoverheid.nl (Global: 3,767^th place; English: 5,542^nd place)

"Rapport Drugs in Lijsten". Rijksoverheid.nl. 27 June 2011. Archived from the original on 6 March 2012. Retrieved 29 August 2012.

science.org (Global: 1,007^th place; English: 665^th place)

Kupferschmidt K (26 August 2017). "All clear for the decisive trial of ecstasy in PTSD patients". Science (magazine). Archived from the original on 28 December 2021. Retrieved 3 April 2021.

scientopia.org (Global: low place; English: low place)

"Mephedrone (4-Methylmethcathinone) appearing in "Ecstasy" in the Netherlands". 19 September 2010. Archived from the original on 5 November 2012. Retrieved 31 December 2012.

semanticscholar.org (Global: 15^th place; English: 8^th place)

api.semanticscholar.org

Luciano RL, Perazella MA (June 2014). "Nephrotoxic effects of designer drugs: synthetic is not better!". Nature Reviews. Nephrology. 10 (6): 314–324. doi:10.1038/nrneph.2014.44. ISSN 1759-5061. PMID 24662435. S2CID 9817771.
Betzler F, Viohl L, Romanczuk-Seiferth N (January 2017). "Decision-making in chronic ecstasy users: a systematic review". The European Journal of Neuroscience. 45 (1): 34–44. doi:10.1111/ejn.13480. PMID 27859780. S2CID 31694072. ...the addictive potential of MDMA itself is relatively small.
Jerome L, Schuster S, Yazar-Klosinski BB (March 2013). "Can MDMA play a role in the treatment of substance abuse?" (PDF). Current Drug Abuse Reviews. 6 (1): 54–62. doi:10.2174/18744737112059990005. PMID 23627786. S2CID 9327169. Archived from the original (PDF) on 3 August 2020. Animal and human studies demonstrate moderate abuse liability for MDMA, and this effect may be of most concern to those treating substance abuse disorders.
Carvalho M, Carmo H, Costa VM, Capela JP, Pontes H, Remião F, et al. (August 2012). "Toxicity of amphetamines: an update". Archives of Toxicology. 86 (8): 1167–1231. Bibcode:2012ArTox..86.1167C. doi:10.1007/s00204-012-0815-5. PMID 22392347. S2CID 2873101.
Nakagawa H, Makino Y, Yoshida Y, Ohta S, Hirobe M (August 1993). "A novel metabolite of 3,4-methylenedioxyamphetamine (MDA): formation of 3-methyl-6,7-methylenedioxy-1,2,3,4-tetrahydroisoquinoline and its pharmacological effect". Biological & Pharmaceutical Bulletin. 16 (8): 761–764. doi:10.1248/bpb.16.579. PMID 8364510. S2CID 28148811.
White CM (March 2014). "How MDMA's pharmacology and pharmacokinetics drive desired effects and harms". Journal of Clinical Pharmacology. 54 (3): 245–252. doi:10.1002/jcph.266. PMID 24431106. S2CID 6223741.
Lyles J, Cadet JL (May 2003). "Methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA, Ecstasy) neurotoxicity: cellular and molecular mechanisms". Brain Research. Brain Research Reviews. 42 (2): 155–168. doi:10.1016/S0165-0173(03)00173-5. PMID 12738056. S2CID 45330713.
Hamida SB, Tracqui A, de Vasconcelos AP, Szwarc E, Lazarus C, Kelche C, et al. (July 2009). "Ethanol increases the distribution of MDMA to the rat brain: possible implications in the ethanol-induced potentiation of the psychostimulant effects of MDMA". The International Journal of Neuropsychopharmacology. 12 (6): 749–759. doi:10.1017/s1461145708009693. PMID 19046482. S2CID 24230367.
Climko RP, Roehrich H, Sweeney DR, Al-Razi J (1986). "Ecstacy: a review of MDMA and MDA". International Journal of Psychiatry in Medicine. 16 (4): 359–372. doi:10.2190/dcrp-u22m-aumd-d84h. PMID 2881902. S2CID 31902958.
Liechti ME, Gamma A, Vollenweider FX (March 2001). "Gender differences in the subjective effects of MDMA". Psychopharmacology. 154 (2): 161–168. doi:10.1007/s002130000648. PMID 11314678. S2CID 20251888.
Greene SL, Kerr F, Braitberg G (October 2008). "Review article: amphetamines and related drugs of abuse". Emergency Medicine Australasia. 20 (5): 391–402. doi:10.1111/j.1742-6723.2008.01114.x. PMID 18973636. S2CID 20755466.
Schmid Y, Hysek CM, Simmler LD, Crockett MJ, Quednow BB, Liechti ME (September 2014). "Differential effects of MDMA and methylphenidate on social cognition" (PDF). Journal of Psychopharmacology. 28 (9). Oxford, England: 847–856. doi:10.1177/0269881114542454. PMID 25052243. S2CID 25713943. Archived (PDF) from the original on 17 September 2020. Retrieved 29 June 2019.
Szigeti B, Winstock AR, Erritzoe D, Maier LJ (July 2018). "Are ecstasy induced serotonergic alterations overestimated for the majority of users?". Journal of Psychopharmacology. 32 (7). Oxford, England: 741–748. doi:10.1177/0269881118767646. PMID 29733742. S2CID 13660975. Given the dose-response relationship between MDMA exposure and SERT reductions and the statistically non-significant SERT binding differences for users with use levels similar to the majority of real-life users, it can be speculated that SERT levels may not be significantly affected for most recreational ecstasy users.
Parrott AC (2014). "The potential dangers of using MDMA for psychotherapy". Journal of Psychoactive Drugs. 46 (1): 37–43. doi:10.1080/02791072.2014.873690. PMID 24830184. S2CID 23485480.
Laws KR, Kokkalis J (August 2007). "Ecstasy (MDMA) and memory function: a meta-analytic update". Human Psychopharmacology. 22 (6): 381–388. doi:10.1002/hup.857. PMID 17621368. S2CID 25353240.
Nutt D, King LA, Saulsbury W, Blakemore C (March 2007). "Development of a rational scale to assess the harm of drugs of potential misuse". Lancet. 369 (9566). London, England: 1047–1053. Bibcode:2007Lanc..369.1047N. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(07)60464-4. PMID 17382831. S2CID 5903121.
Lay summary: "Scientists want new drug rankings". BBC News. 23 March 2007. Archived from the original on 2 December 2007. Retrieved 4 April 2008.
Silins E, Copeland J, Dillon P (August 2007). "Qualitative review of serotonin syndrome, ecstasy (MDMA) and the use of other serotonergic substances: hierarchy of risk". The Australian and New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry. 41 (8): 649–655. doi:10.1080/00048670701449237. PMID 17620161. S2CID 25832516.
Papaseit E, Pérez-Mañá C, Torrens M, Farré A, Poyatos L, Hladun O, et al. (May 2020). "MDMA interactions with pharmaceuticals and drugs of abuse". Expert Opinion on Drug Metabolism & Toxicology. 16 (5): 357–369. doi:10.1080/17425255.2020.1749262. PMID 32228243. S2CID 214750903.
Halberstadt AL, Nichols DE (2020). "Serotonin and serotonin receptors in hallucinogen action". Handbook of the Behavioral Neurobiology of Serotonin. Handbook of Behavioral Neuroscience. Vol. 31. pp. 843–863. doi:10.1016/B978-0-444-64125-0.00043-8. ISBN 978-0-444-64125-0. ISSN 1569-7339. S2CID 241134396.
Eap CB, Gründer G, Baumann P, Ansermot N, Conca A, Corruble E, et al. (October 2021). "Tools for optimising pharmacotherapy in psychiatry (therapeutic drug monitoring, molecular brain imaging and pharmacogenetic tests): focus on antidepressants" (PDF). The World Journal of Biological Psychiatry. 22 (8): 561–628. doi:10.1080/15622975.2021.1878427. PMID 33977870. S2CID 234472488. Archived (PDF) from the original on 5 May 2022. Retrieved 10 April 2022.
Setola V, Hufeisen SJ, Grande-Allen KJ, Vesely I, Glennon RA, Blough B, et al. (June 2003). "3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA, "Ecstasy") induces fenfluramine-like proliferative actions on human cardiac valvular interstitial cells in vitro". Molecular Pharmacology. 63 (6): 1223–1229. doi:10.1124/mol.63.6.1223. PMID 12761331. S2CID 839426.
Rothman RB, Baumann MH, Dersch CM, Romero DV, Rice KC, Carroll FI, et al. (January 2001). "Amphetamine-type central nervous system stimulants release norepinephrine more potently than they release dopamine and serotonin". Synapse. 39 (1). New York, N.Y.: 32–41. doi:10.1002/1098-2396(20010101)39:1<32::AID-SYN5>3.0.CO;2-3. PMID 11071707. S2CID 15573624.
Farré M, Roset PN, Lopez CH, Mas M, Ortuño J, Menoyo E, et al. (September 2000). "Pharmacology of MDMA in humans". Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences. 914 (1): 225–237. Bibcode:2000NYASA.914..225D. doi:10.1111/j.1749-6632.2000.tb05199.x. PMID 11085324. S2CID 29247621.
Mueller M, Peters FT, Maurer HH, McCann UD, Ricaurte GA (October 2008). "Nonlinear pharmacokinetics of (+/-)3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA, "Ecstasy") and its major metabolites in squirrel monkeys at plasma concentrations of MDMA that develop after typical psychoactive doses". The Journal of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics. 327 (1): 38–44. doi:10.1124/jpet.108.141366. PMID 18591215. S2CID 38043715.
Palhol F, Boyer S, Naulet N, Chabrillat M (September 2002). "Impurity profiling of seized MDMA tablets by capillary gas chromatography". Analytical and Bioanalytical Chemistry. 374 (2): 274–281. doi:10.1007/s00216-002-1477-6. PMID 12324849. S2CID 42666306.
Pentney AR (2001). "An exploration of the history and controversies surrounding MDMA and MDA". Journal of Psychoactive Drugs. 33 (3): 213–221. doi:10.1080/02791072.2001.10400568. PMID 11718314. S2CID 31142434.
Parrott AC (May 2004). "Is ecstasy MDMA? A review of the proportion of ecstasy tablets containing MDMA, their dosage levels, and the changing perceptions of purity" (PDF). Psychopharmacology. 173 (3–4): 234–241. doi:10.1007/s00213-003-1712-7. PMID 15007594. S2CID 3347303. Archived (PDF) from the original on 18 September 2015. Retrieved 7 August 2015.
Halvorsen JØ, Naudet F, Cristea IA (October 2021). "Challenges with benchmarking of MDMA-assisted psychotherapy" (PDF). Nature Medicine. 27 (10): 1689–1690. doi:10.1038/s41591-021-01525-0. PMID 34635857. S2CID 238636360. Archived (PDF) from the original on 22 May 2022. Retrieved 9 May 2022.
Nutt DJ (January 2009). "Equasy-- an overlooked addiction with implications for the current debate on drug harms". Journal of Psychopharmacology. 23 (1). Oxford, England: 3–5. doi:10.1177/0269881108099672. PMID 19158127. S2CID 32034780.

pdfs.semanticscholar.org

Jerome L, Schuster S, Yazar-Klosinski BB (March 2013). "Can MDMA play a role in the treatment of substance abuse?" (PDF). Current Drug Abuse Reviews. 6 (1): 54–62. doi:10.2174/18744737112059990005. PMID 23627786. S2CID 9327169. Archived from the original (PDF) on 3 August 2020. Animal and human studies demonstrate moderate abuse liability for MDMA, and this effect may be of most concern to those treating substance abuse disorders.

shaunlacob.com (Global: low place; English: low place)

Dunlap LE, Andrews AM, Olson DE (October 2018). "Dark Classics in Chemical Neuroscience: 3,4-Methylenedioxymethamphetamine" (PDF). ACS Chemical Neuroscience. 9 (10): 2408–2427. doi:10.1021/acschemneuro.8b00155. PMC 6197894. PMID 30001118.

shulginresearch.org (Global: low place; English: low place)

"Alexander 'Sasha' Shulgin". Alexander Shulgin Research Institute. Archived from the original on 20 December 2014. Retrieved 8 January 2015.

slp.wa.gov.au (Global: low place; English: low place)

"Misuse of Drugs Act 1981". The Government of Western Australia. Department of the Premier and Cabinet. 23 October 1981. Archived from the original on 18 August 2016. Retrieved 22 July 2016.

springer.com (Global: 182^nd place; English: 172^nd place)

link.springer.com

Shulgin AT (1990). "History of MDMA". In Peroutka SJ (ed.). Ecstasy: The Clinical, Pharmacological and Neurotoxicological Effects of the Drug MDMA. Topics in the Neurosciences. Vol. 9. Boston, MA: Springer US. pp. 1–20 (2, 14). doi:10.1007/978-1-4613-1485-1_1. ISBN 978-1-4612-8799-5. Retrieved 15 May 2025.

ssrn.com (Global: 907^th place; English: 529^th place)

papers.ssrn.com

Hennig AC (2014). "An Examination of Federal Sentencing Guidelines' Treatment of MDMA ('Ecstasy')". Belmont Law Review. 1: 267. SSRN 2481227.

statutelaw.gov.uk (Global: low place; English: 9,460^th place)

"Misuse of Drugs Act 1971". Statutelaw.gov.uk. 5 January 1998. Archived from the original on 28 August 2021. Retrieved 11 June 2011.

swansea.ac.uk (Global: low place; English: low place)

psy.swansea.ac.uk

Parrott AC (May 2004). "Is ecstasy MDMA? A review of the proportion of ecstasy tablets containing MDMA, their dosage levels, and the changing perceptions of purity" (PDF). Psychopharmacology. 173 (3–4): 234–241. doi:10.1007/s00213-003-1712-7. PMID 15007594. S2CID 3347303. Archived (PDF) from the original on 18 September 2015. Retrieved 7 August 2015.

telegraph.co.uk (Global: 40^th place; English: 27^th place)

Hope C (7 February 2009). "Ecstasy 'no more dangerous than horse riding'". Telegraph.co.uk. Archived from the original on 10 December 2015. Retrieved 4 December 2015.

tga.gov.au (Global: 4,353^rd place; English: 2,806^th place)

"Change to classification of psilocybin and MDMA to enable prescribing by authorised psychiatrists". 3 February 2023. Archived from the original on 4 February 2024. Retrieved 4 February 2024.
"Change to classification of psilocybin and MDMA to enable prescribing by authorised psychiatrists". 3 February 2023. Archived from the original on 4 February 2024. Retrieved 4 February 2024.

theconversation.com (Global: 840^th place; English: 594^th place)

"Pingers, pingas, pingaz: how drug slang affects the way we use and understand drugs". The Conversation. 8 January 2020. Archived from the original on 15 January 2021.
Bedi G (29 March 2018). "Is psychiatry ready for medical MDMA?". The Conversation. Archived from the original on 4 January 2023. Retrieved 12 April 2024.

thedea.org (Global: low place; English: low place)

Freudenmann RW, Öxler F, Bernschneider-Reif S (August 2006). "The origin of MDMA (ecstasy) revisited: the true story reconstructed from the original documents" (PDF). Addiction. 101 (9). Abingdon, England: 1241–1245. doi:10.1111/j.1360-0443.2006.01511.x. PMID 16911722. Archived (PDF) from the original on 22 September 2020. Retrieved 23 May 2019. Although MDMA was, in fact, first synthesized at Merck in 1912, it was not tested pharmacologically because it was only an unimportant precursor in a new synthesis for haemostatic substances.

thedocumentarygroup.com (Global: low place; English: low place)

Jennings P (1 April 2004). "Ecstasy Rising". Primetime Thursday. No. Special edition. ABC News. Archived from the original on 27 May 2015.

theguardian.com (Global: 16^th place; English: 11^th place)

Johnson A (2 November 2009). "Why Professor David Nutt was shown the door". The Guardian. London. Archived from the original on 18 January 2014. Retrieved 3 November 2009.

uc.pt (Global: 5,894^th place; English: 9,117^th place)

estudogeral.sib.uc.pt

Milhazes N, Cunha-Oliveira T, Martins P, Garrido J, Oliveira C, Rego AC, et al. (October 2006). "Synthesis and cytotoxic profile of 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine ("ecstasy") and its metabolites on undifferentiated PC12 cells: A putative structure-toxicity relationship" (PDF). Chemical Research in Toxicology. 19 (10): 1294–1304. doi:10.1021/tx060123i. hdl:10316/12872. PMID 17040098. Archived (PDF) from the original on 28 June 2021. Retrieved 24 September 2019.

un.org (Global: 117^th place; English: 160^th place)

dataunodc.un.org

"Annual prevalence of use of drugs, by region and globally, 2016". World Drug Report 2018. United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime. 2018. Retrieved 7 July 2018.

unc.edu (Global: 1,577^th place; English: 913^th place)

pdsp.unc.edu

"PDSP Database". UNC (in Zulu). Retrieved 11 December 2024.

ung.no (Global: low place; English: low place)

Skaug HA, ed. (14 December 2020). "Hva er tryggest av molly og ecstasy?" [What is safer: molly or ecstasy?]. Ung.no (in Norwegian). Norwegian Directorate for Children, Youth and Family Affairs. Archived from the original on 11 August 2022. Retrieved 20 June 2022. MDMA er virkestoffet i både Molly-krystaller og Ecstasy-tabletter. (MDMA is the active substance in both Molly crystals and Ecstasy tablets)

unibas.ch (Global: 9,678^th place; English: low place)

edoc.unibas.ch

Schmid Y, Hysek CM, Simmler LD, Crockett MJ, Quednow BB, Liechti ME (September 2014). "Differential effects of MDMA and methylphenidate on social cognition" (PDF). Journal of Psychopharmacology. 28 (9). Oxford, England: 847–856. doi:10.1177/0269881114542454. PMID 25052243. S2CID 25713943. Archived (PDF) from the original on 17 September 2020. Retrieved 29 June 2019.
Hysek CM, Simmler LD, Schillinger N, Meyer N, Schmid Y, Donzelli M, et al. (March 2014). "Pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic effects of methylphenidate and MDMA administered alone or in combination" (PDF). The International Journal of Neuropsychopharmacology. 17 (3): 371–381. doi:10.1017/S1461145713001132. PMID 24103254.

unil.ch (Global: 8,014^th place; English: 8,901^st place)

serval.unil.ch

Eap CB, Gründer G, Baumann P, Ansermot N, Conca A, Corruble E, et al. (October 2021). "Tools for optimising pharmacotherapy in psychiatry (therapeutic drug monitoring, molecular brain imaging and pharmacogenetic tests): focus on antidepressants" (PDF). The World Journal of Biological Psychiatry. 22 (8): 561–628. doi:10.1080/15622975.2021.1878427. PMID 33977870. S2CID 234472488. Archived (PDF) from the original on 5 May 2022. Retrieved 10 April 2022.

unlimitedsciences.org (Global: low place; English: low place)

Tagen M, Mantuani D, van Heerden L, Holstein A, Klumpers LE, Knowles R (September 2023). "The risk of chronic psychedelic and MDMA microdosing for valvular heart disease" (PDF). Journal of Psychopharmacology. 37 (9). Oxford, England: 876–890. doi:10.1177/02698811231190865. PMID 37572027. [...] Both [MDMA and MDA] bind to the human 5-HT2B receptor, although with a 5-fold lower Ki value for MDA compared to MDMA (Ray, 2010; Setola et al., 2003). Both compounds were agonists in an assay of PI hydrolysis, with MDA (EC50=190nM) 10-fold more potent than MDMA (EC50=2000 nM) in addition to greater intrinsic efficacy (90% vs 32%) (Setola et al., 2003). [...] A 50mg dose of MDMA resulted in a mean plasma Cmax 266nM for MDMA and 28.5nM for MDA (de la Torre et al., 2000).

unodc.org (Global: 2,954^th place; English: 2,575^th place)

Mohan J, ed. (June 2014). World Drug Report 2014 (PDF). Vienna, Austria: United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime. pp. 2, 3, 123–152. ISBN 978-92-1-056752-7. Archived (PDF) from the original on 13 November 2014. Retrieved 1 December 2014.
"Decision to place MDMA into Schedule I" (PDF). UNODC. Commission on Narcotic Drugs. 11 February 1986. Archived (PDF) from the original on 22 September 2015. Retrieved 9 May 2015.
"Annual prevalence of use of drugs, by region and globally, 2016". World Drug Report 2018. United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime. 2018. Retrieved 7 July 2018.
"World Drug Report". United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime.
"Ecstasy-type substances Retail and wholesale prices* and purity levels, by drug, region and country or territory". United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime. Archived from the original on 8 December 2015. Retrieved 2 January 2015.

uzh.ch (Global: 1,380^th place; English: 1,488^th place)

zora.uzh.ch

Hysek CM, Vollenweider FX, Liechti ME (August 2010). "Effects of a beta-blocker on the cardiovascular response to MDMA (Ecstasy)" (PDF). Emergency Medicine Journal. 27 (8): 586–589. doi:10.1136/emj.2009.079905. PMID 20378736.

vice.com (Global: 247^th place; English: 175^th place)

Bish J (4 August 2017). "Watch Out for Pentylone, the Horrible New MDMA Additive". Vice. Archived from the original on 1 September 2020. Retrieved 31 May 2018.

washingtonpost.com (Global: 35^th place; English: 24^th place)

Wan W (6 August 2017). "Ecstasy could be 'breakthrough' therapy for soldiers, others suffering from PTSD". The Washington Post. Archived from the original on 28 August 2017. Retrieved 3 April 2021.
Vastag B (3 June 2014). "Chemist Alexander Shulgin, popularizer of the drug Ecstasy, dies at 88". The Washington Post. WP Company LLC. Archived from the original on 5 August 2015. Retrieved 28 August 2015.

web.archive.org (Global: 1^st place; English: 1^st place)

"FDA Substance Registration System". United States National Library of Medicine. Archived from the original on 31 August 2017. Retrieved 31 August 2017.
"DrugFacts: MDMA (Ecstasy or Molly)". National Institute on Drug Abuse. Archived from the original on 3 December 2014. Retrieved 2 December 2014.
"Pingers, pingas, pingaz: how drug slang affects the way we use and understand drugs". The Conversation. 8 January 2020. Archived from the original on 15 January 2021.
Palmer RB (2012). Medical toxicology of drug abuse: synthesized chemicals and psychoactive plants. Hoboken, N.J.: John Wiley & Sons. p. 139. ISBN 978-0-471-72760-6. Archived from the original on 13 January 2023. Retrieved 4 September 2017.
Jerome L, Schuster S, Yazar-Klosinski BB (March 2013). "Can MDMA play a role in the treatment of substance abuse?" (PDF). Current Drug Abuse Reviews. 6 (1): 54–62. doi:10.2174/18744737112059990005. PMID 23627786. S2CID 9327169. Archived from the original (PDF) on 3 August 2020. Animal and human studies demonstrate moderate abuse liability for MDMA, and this effect may be of most concern to those treating substance abuse disorders.
"Methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA or 'Ecstasy')". EMCDDA. European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction. Archived from the original on 1 January 2016. Retrieved 17 October 2014.
"Methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA, ecstasy)". Drugs and Human Performance Fact Sheets. National Highway Traffic Safety Administration. Archived from the original on 3 May 2012.
Anvisa (24 July 2023). "RDC Nº 804 - Listas de Substâncias Entorpecentes, Psicotrópicas, Precursoras e Outras sob Controle Especial" [Collegiate Board Resolution No. 804 - Lists of Narcotic, Psychotropic, Precursor, and Other Substances under Special Control] (in Brazilian Portuguese). Diário Oficial da União (published 25 July 2023). Archived from the original on 27 August 2023. Retrieved 27 August 2023.
Skaug HA, ed. (14 December 2020). "Hva er tryggest av molly og ecstasy?" [What is safer: molly or ecstasy?]. Ung.no (in Norwegian). Norwegian Directorate for Children, Youth and Family Affairs. Archived from the original on 11 August 2022. Retrieved 20 June 2022. MDMA er virkestoffet i både Molly-krystaller og Ecstasy-tabletter. (MDMA is the active substance in both Molly crystals and Ecstasy tablets)
Freudenmann RW, Öxler F, Bernschneider-Reif S (August 2006). "The origin of MDMA (ecstasy) revisited: the true story reconstructed from the original documents" (PDF). Addiction. 101 (9). Abingdon, England: 1241–1245. doi:10.1111/j.1360-0443.2006.01511.x. PMID 16911722. Archived (PDF) from the original on 22 September 2020. Retrieved 23 May 2019. Although MDMA was, in fact, first synthesized at Merck in 1912, it was not tested pharmacologically because it was only an unimportant precursor in a new synthesis for haemostatic substances.
Anderson L, ed. (18 May 2014). "MDMA". Drugs.com. Drugsite Trust. Archived from the original on 23 March 2016. Retrieved 30 March 2016.
"DrugFacts: MDMA (Ecstasy/Molly)". National Institute on Drug Abuse. February 2016. Archived from the original on 23 March 2016. Retrieved 30 March 2016.
Neuroscience of Psychoactive Substance Use and Dependence. World Health Organization. 2004. pp. 97–. ISBN 978-92-4-156235-5. Archived from the original on 28 April 2016.
Freye E (2009). Pharmacology and Abuse of Cocaine, Amphetamines, Ecstasy and Related Designer Drugs: A comprehensive review on their mode of action, treatment of abuse and intoxication. Springer Science & Business Media. p. 147. ISBN 978-90-481-2448-0. Archived from the original on 13 January 2023. Retrieved 12 May 2020.
Patel V (2010). Mental and neurological public health a global perspective (1st ed.). San Diego, CA: Academic Press/Elsevier. p. 57. ISBN 978-0-12-381527-9. Archived from the original on 10 September 2017.
Nuwer R (3 May 2021). "A Psychedelic Drug Passes a Big Test for PTSD Treatment". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 5 June 2021. Retrieved 5 June 2021.
"Subsection 56(1) class exemption for practitioners, agents, pharmacists, persons in charge of a hospital, hospital employees, and licensed dealers to conduct activities with psilocybin and MDMA in relation to a special access program authorization". Health Canada. 5 January 2022. Archived from the original on 11 February 2022. Retrieved 20 February 2022.
"Change to classification of psilocybin and MDMA to enable prescribing by authorised psychiatrists". 3 February 2023. Archived from the original on 4 February 2024. Retrieved 4 February 2024.
Reynolds S (1999). Generation Ecstasy: Into the World of Techno and Rave Culture. Routledge. p. 81. ISBN 978-0-415-92373-6. Archived from the original on 8 November 2023. Retrieved 13 October 2020.
McCrady BS, Epstein EE, eds. (2013). Addictions: a comprehensive guidebook (Second ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 299. ISBN 978-0-19-975366-6. Archived from the original on 13 January 2023. Retrieved 11 January 2017.
Wan W (6 August 2017). "Ecstasy could be 'breakthrough' therapy for soldiers, others suffering from PTSD". The Washington Post. Archived from the original on 28 August 2017. Retrieved 3 April 2021.
Kupferschmidt K (26 August 2017). "All clear for the decisive trial of ecstasy in PTSD patients". Science (magazine). Archived from the original on 28 December 2021. Retrieved 3 April 2021.
Patel V (2010). Mental and neurological public health a global perspective (1st ed.). San Diego, CA: Academic Press/Elsevier. p. 57. ISBN 978-0-12-381527-9. Archived from the original on 10 September 2017.
"Subsection 56(1) class exemption for practitioners, agents, pharmacists, persons in charge of a hospital, hospital employees, and licensed dealers to conduct activities with psilocybin and MDMA in relation to a special access program authorization". Health Canada. 5 January 2022. Archived from the original on 11 February 2022. Retrieved 20 February 2022.
"Change to classification of psilocybin and MDMA to enable prescribing by authorised psychiatrists". 3 February 2023. Archived from the original on 4 February 2024. Retrieved 4 February 2024.
Saunders N (29 July 1995). "The Agony and Ecstasy of God's path". Council on Spiritual Practices (CSP). Archived from the original on 24 April 2013. Retrieved 11 June 2011.
Watson L, Beck J (1991). "New age seekers: MDMA use as an adjunct to spiritual pursuit" (PDF). Journal of Psychoactive Drugs. 23 (3): 261–270. doi:10.1080/02791072.1991.10471587. PMID 1685513. Archived from the original (PDF) on 22 November 2004. Retrieved 28 April 2024.
"MDMA (3,4-Methylenedioxymethamphetamine)" (PDF). 2015 National Drug Threat Assessment Summary. United States Department of Justice, Drug Enforcement Administration. October 2015. pp. 85–88. Archived from the original (PDF) on 10 April 2016. Retrieved 10 April 2016.
Kelly M (20 June 2019). "Man arrested for possession of ecstasy tablets shaped like Wario". Nintendo Enthusiast. Archived from the original on 24 June 2021. Retrieved 17 June 2021.
"Groesbeck: Students caught with deceptively shaped Ecstasy pills". KWTX. 31 October 2019. Archived from the original on 24 June 2021. Retrieved 17 June 2021.
"3,4-Methylenedioxymethamphetamine". Hazardous Substances Data Bank. National Library of Medicine. 28 August 2008. Archived from the original on 4 April 2019. Retrieved 22 August 2014.
Schmid Y, Hysek CM, Simmler LD, Crockett MJ, Quednow BB, Liechti ME (September 2014). "Differential effects of MDMA and methylphenidate on social cognition" (PDF). Journal of Psychopharmacology. 28 (9). Oxford, England: 847–856. doi:10.1177/0269881114542454. PMID 25052243. S2CID 25713943. Archived (PDF) from the original on 17 September 2020. Retrieved 29 June 2019.
Metzner R (2005). "Psychedelic, Psychoactive, and Addictive Drugs and States of Consciousness". In Earleywine M (ed.). Mind-Altering Drugs: The Science of Subjective Experience. New York: Oxford University. Archived from the original on 9 October 2017. Retrieved 8 October 2017.
Hahn IH (25 March 2015). "MDMA Toxicity: Background, Pathophysiology, Epidemiology". Medscape. Archived from the original on 11 May 2016. Retrieved 14 May 2016.
Nutt D, King LA, Saulsbury W, Blakemore C (March 2007). "Development of a rational scale to assess the harm of drugs of potential misuse". Lancet. 369 (9566). London, England: 1047–1053. Bibcode:2007Lanc..369.1047N. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(07)60464-4. PMID 17382831. S2CID 5903121.
Lay summary: "Scientists want new drug rankings". BBC News. 23 March 2007. Archived from the original on 2 December 2007. Retrieved 4 April 2008.
Ries R, Miller SC, Fiellin DA (2009). Principles of addiction medicine (4th ed.). Philadelphia: Wolters Kluwer/Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. p. 226. ISBN 978-0-7817-7477-2. Archived from the original on 13 January 2023. Retrieved 11 January 2017. MDA and MDMA are less reinforcing than amphetamine...
Mack AH, Brady KT, Miller SI, Frances RJ (12 May 2016). Clinical Textbook of Addictive Disorders. Guilford Publications. p. 171. ISBN 978-1-4625-2169-2. Archived from the original on 19 January 2023. Retrieved 13 October 2020. There are no known pharmacological treatments for MDMA addiction.
de la Torre R, Farré M, Roset PN, Pizarro N, Abanades S, Segura M, et al. (April 2004). "Human pharmacology of MDMA: pharmacokinetics, metabolism, and disposition" (PDF). Therapeutic Drug Monitoring. 26 (2): 137–144. doi:10.1097/00007691-200404000-00009. PMID 15228154. Archived from the original (PDF) on 5 March 2014. Retrieved 25 October 2009.
Eap CB, Gründer G, Baumann P, Ansermot N, Conca A, Corruble E, et al. (October 2021). "Tools for optimising pharmacotherapy in psychiatry (therapeutic drug monitoring, molecular brain imaging and pharmacogenetic tests): focus on antidepressants" (PDF). The World Journal of Biological Psychiatry. 22 (8): 561–628. doi:10.1080/15622975.2021.1878427. PMID 33977870. S2CID 234472488. Archived (PDF) from the original on 5 May 2022. Retrieved 10 April 2022.
Simmler LD, Buchy D, Chaboz S, Hoener MC, Liechti ME (April 2016). "In Vitro Characterization of Psychoactive Substances at Rat, Mouse, and Human Trace Amine-Associated Receptor 1" (PDF). The Journal of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics. 357 (1): 134–144. doi:10.1124/jpet.115.229765. PMID 26791601. Archived from the original (PDF) on 9 May 2025.
Bankson MG, Cunningham KA (June 2001). "3,4-Methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA) as a unique model of serotonin receptor function and serotonin-dopamine interactions". The Journal of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics. 297 (3): 846–852. doi:10.1016/S0022-3565(24)29607-5. PMID 11356903. Archived from the original on 9 December 2024.
Jacob P, Shulgin AT (1994). "Structure-Activity Relationships of the Classic Hallucinogens and Their Analogs". In Lin GC, Glennon RA (eds.). Hallucinogens: An Update (PDF). National Institute on Drug Abuse Research Monograph Series. Vol. 146. National Institute on Drug Abuse. pp. 74–91. PMID 8742795. Archived from the original on 13 July 2025. [MDA] is also remarkable because the N-methyl homolog 3,4 (MDMA) has biological activity, although the nature of its action places it outside of this review. No other phenethylamine hallucinogen retains central activity on N-methylation.
Milhazes N, Cunha-Oliveira T, Martins P, Garrido J, Oliveira C, Rego AC, et al. (October 2006). "Synthesis and cytotoxic profile of 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine ("ecstasy") and its metabolites on undifferentiated PC12 cells: A putative structure-toxicity relationship" (PDF). Chemical Research in Toxicology. 19 (10): 1294–1304. doi:10.1021/tx060123i. hdl:10316/12872. PMID 17040098. Archived (PDF) from the original on 28 June 2021. Retrieved 24 September 2019.
Mohan J, ed. (June 2014). World Drug Report 2014 (PDF). Vienna, Austria: United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime. pp. 2, 3, 123–152. ISBN 978-92-1-056752-7. Archived (PDF) from the original on 13 November 2014. Retrieved 1 December 2014.
"Early Warning - MDMA and MDA Producers Using Ocotea Cymbarum as a Precursor" (PDF). DEA Microgram Newsletter. 38 (11). Drug Enforcement Agency, U.S. Department of Justice: 166. 11 November 2005. Archived from the original (PDF) on 18 October 2012.
Darmstadt FE (16 May 1914). "German Patent 274350: Verfahren zur Darstellung von Alkyloxyaryl-, Dialkyloxyaryl- und Alkylendioxyarylaminopropanen bzw. deren am Stickstoff monoalkylierten Derivaten". Kaiserliches Patentamt. Archived from the original on 28 August 2021. Retrieved 12 April 2009.
Darmstadt FE (15 October 1914). "German Patent 279194: Verfahren zur Darstellung von Hydrastinin Derivaten". Kaiserliches Patentamt. Archived from the original on 28 August 2021. Retrieved 20 July 2009.
Alles GA (1959). "Some Relations Between Chemical Structure and Physiological Action of Mescaline and Related Compounds / Structure and Action of Phenethylamines". In Abramson HA (ed.). Neuropharmacology: Transactions of the Fourth Conference, September 25, 26, and 27, 1957, Princeton, N. J. New York: Josiah Macy Foundation. pp. 181–268. OCLC 9802642. Archived from the original on 21 March 2025.
Hardman HF, Haavik CO, Seevers MH (June 1973). "Relationship of the structure of mescaline and seven analogs to toxicity and behavior in five species of laboratory animals". Toxicology and Applied Pharmacology. 25 (2): 299–309. Bibcode:1973ToxAP..25..299H. doi:10.1016/S0041-008X(73)80016-X. hdl:2027.42/33868. PMID 4197635. Archived from the original on 21 October 2008. Retrieved 19 April 2009.
Siegel RK (October 1986). "MDMA. Nonmedical use and intoxication" (PDF). Journal of Psychoactive Drugs. 18 (4): 349–354. doi:10.1080/02791072.1986.10472368. PMID 2880950. Archived (PDF) from the original on 4 March 2016. Retrieved 11 August 2015.
The first confirmed sample was seized and identified by Chicago Police in 1970, see Sreenivasan VR (1972). "Problems in Identification of Methylenedioxy and Methoxy Amphetamines". Journal of Criminal Law, Criminology, and Police Science. 63 (2): 304–312. doi:10.2307/1142315. JSTOR 1142315. Archived from the original on 21 October 2008. Retrieved 19 April 2009.
Foderaro LW (11 December 1988). "Psychedelic Drug Called Ecstasy Gains Popularity in Manhattan Nightclubs". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 17 November 2015. Retrieved 27 August 2015.
Brown E (September 2002). "Professor X". Wired. No. 10.09. p. 3. Archived from the original on 25 June 2015. Retrieved 4 January 2015.
Beck JE (April 1987). "Drug Abuse Series: MDMA". Erowid. Drug Abuse Information and Monitoring Project. Archived from the original on 4 August 2015. Retrieved 6 August 2015.
"Alexander 'Sasha' Shulgin". Alexander Shulgin Research Institute. Archived from the original on 20 December 2014. Retrieved 8 January 2015.
Bennett D (30 January 2005). "Dr. Ecstasy". The New York Times Magazine. Archived from the original on 17 November 2011. Retrieved 10 February 2017.
Jennings P (1 April 2004). "Ecstasy Rising". Primetime Thursday. No. Special edition. ABC News. Archived from the original on 27 May 2015.
Shulgin A (2004). "Tribute to Jacob" (PDF). In Doblin R (ed.). The Secret Chief Revealed (2nd ed.). Sarasota, Fl: Multidisciplinary Association for Psychedelic Studies. pp. 17–18. ISBN 978-0-9660019-6-9. Archived from the original (PDF) on 16 September 2018. Retrieved 7 January 2015.
"Ecstasy on Prescription". BBC Business Daily. 29 May 2018. Archived from the original on 10 July 2021. Retrieved 10 July 2021.
Eisner B (1994). Ecstasy: The MDMA Story (Expanded 2nd ed.). Berkeley, CA: Ronin Publishing. ISBN 978-0-914171-68-3. Archived from the original on 13 January 2023. Retrieved 1 February 2016.
Savlov M (12 June 2000). "Countdown to Ecstasy: A New Drug for a New Millennium". The Austin Chronicle. Weekly Wire. Archived from the original on 21 January 2016. Retrieved 6 August 2015.
Owen F, Gavin L (20 October 2013). "Molly Isn't Who You Think She Is: A Deeper Look at MDMA". Playboy. Archived from the original on 27 July 2015. Retrieved 6 August 2015.
Parrott AC (May 2004). "Is ecstasy MDMA? A review of the proportion of ecstasy tablets containing MDMA, their dosage levels, and the changing perceptions of purity" (PDF). Psychopharmacology. 173 (3–4): 234–241. doi:10.1007/s00213-003-1712-7. PMID 15007594. S2CID 3347303. Archived (PDF) from the original on 18 September 2015. Retrieved 7 August 2015.
"Schedules of Controlled Substances Proposed Placement of 3,4-Methylenedioxymethamphetamine in Schedule I" (PDF). Federal Register. 49 (146) 30210. 27 July 1984. Archived (PDF) from the original on 4 March 2016. Retrieved 15 January 2015.
Adler J, Abramson P, Katz S, Hager M (15 April 1985). "Getting High on 'Ecstasy'" (PDF). Newsweek Magazine. Life/Style. p. 96. Archived (PDF) from the original on 20 April 2016. Retrieved 1 February 2015.
"U.S. will ban 'ecstasy,' a hallucinogenic drug". The New York Times. The Associated Press. 1 June 1985. Archived from the original on 24 May 2015. Retrieved 29 April 2015.
"MDMA – FDA REPORT, 1985". Erowid. Food and Drug Administration. 1985. Archived from the original on 11 August 2015. Retrieved 11 August 2015.
Baker K (30 May 1985). "DEA To Ban "Ecstasy" – The Drug MDMA". The Associated Press. Archived from the original on 31 August 2018. Retrieved 7 August 2015.
Corwin M (31 May 1985). "U.S. to Ban Use of Drug MDMA: Street Abuse Cited; Used by Psychiatrists". Los Angeles Times. Archived from the original on 17 November 2015. Retrieved 11 August 2015.
Weber B (7 June 2014). "Alexander Shulgin, Psychedelia Researcher, Dies at 88". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 5 September 2015. Retrieved 28 August 2015.
Vastag B (3 June 2014). "Chemist Alexander Shulgin, popularizer of the drug Ecstasy, dies at 88". The Washington Post. WP Company LLC. Archived from the original on 5 August 2015. Retrieved 28 August 2015.
"Ecstasy has its pros and cons". Kokomo Tribune. Kokomo, Indiana. Harper's Bazaar. 23 November 1985. p. 6. Archived from the original on 28 August 2021. Retrieved 9 September 2017 – via newspaperarchive.com.
"Lester Grinspoon, M.d., Petitioner, v. Drug Enforcement Administration, Respondent, 828 F.2d 881 (1st Cir. 1987)". Justia Law. US Court of Appeals for the First Circuit. Archived from the original on 9 October 2021. Retrieved 9 October 2021.
Halvorsen JØ, Naudet F, Cristea IA (October 2021). "Challenges with benchmarking of MDMA-assisted psychotherapy" (PDF). Nature Medicine. 27 (10): 1689–1690. doi:10.1038/s41591-021-01525-0. PMID 34635857. S2CID 238636360. Archived (PDF) from the original on 22 May 2022. Retrieved 9 May 2022.
WHO Expert Committee on Drug Dependence: Twenty-second Report (PDF). Geneva: World Health Organization. 1985. pp. 24–25. Archived from the original (PDF) on 19 October 2014. Retrieved 29 August 2012.
"Decision to place MDMA into Schedule I" (PDF). UNODC. Commission on Narcotic Drugs. 11 February 1986. Archived (PDF) from the original on 22 September 2015. Retrieved 9 May 2015.
McKinley JC (12 September 2013). "Overdoses of 'Molly' Led to Electric Zoo Deaths". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 4 December 2013. Retrieved 9 December 2013.
"Bibliography of Psychedelic Research Studies". Multidisciplinary Association for Psychedelic Studies (MAPS). Santa Cruz, CA. Archived from the original on 3 December 2013.
James SD (23 February 2015). "What Is Molly and Why Is It Dangerous?". NBCNews.com. Archived from the original on 24 February 2015. Retrieved 23 February 2015. Why is it called Molly? That's short for "molecule." "You can put a ribbon and bow on it and call it a cute name like 'Molly' and people are all in," said Paul Doering, professor emeritus of pharmacology at the University of Florida.
"Mephedrone (4-Methylmethcathinone) appearing in "Ecstasy" in the Netherlands". 19 September 2010. Archived from the original on 5 November 2012. Retrieved 31 December 2012.
"Why ecstasy is 'vanishing' from UK nightclubs". BBC News. 19 January 2010. Archived from the original on 7 September 2017. Retrieved 14 February 2010.
Bish J (4 August 2017). "Watch Out for Pentylone, the Horrible New MDMA Additive". Vice. Archived from the original on 1 September 2020. Retrieved 31 May 2018.
"MDMA and psilocybin: What GPs need to know". Newsgp. Archived from the original on 13 June 2023. Retrieved 13 June 2023.
Bedi G (29 March 2018). "Is psychiatry ready for medical MDMA?". The Conversation. Archived from the original on 4 January 2023. Retrieved 12 April 2024.
"Misuse of Drugs Act 1981". The Government of Western Australia. Department of the Premier and Cabinet. 23 October 1981. Archived from the original on 18 August 2016. Retrieved 22 July 2016.
"ACT government decriminalises small amounts of illicit drugs including speed, heroin and cocaine". ABC News. Australian Broadcasting Corporation. 20 October 2022. Archived from the original on 13 June 2023. Retrieved 13 June 2023.
"Schedule I". Controlled Drugs and Substances Act. Isomer Design. Archived from the original on 10 November 2013. Retrieved 9 December 2013.
"Definitions and interpretations". Controlled Drugs and Substances Act. Isomer Design. Archived from the original on 10 November 2013. Retrieved 9 December 2013.
"Decriminalizing people who use drugs in B.C." Government of BC. Government Communications and Public Engagement. Archived from the original on 9 March 2023. Retrieved 8 March 2023.
"B.C. recorded 211 toxic drug deaths — almost 7 a day — in January, coroner reports". CBC.ca. 7 March 2023. Archived from the original on 8 March 2023. Retrieved 8 March 2023.
"Rapport Drugs in Lijsten". Rijksoverheid.nl. 27 June 2011. Archived from the original on 6 March 2012. Retrieved 29 August 2012.
"Committee: the current system of the Opium Act does not have to be changed". government.nl. 24 June 2011. Archived from the original on 29 April 2012. Retrieved 29 August 2012.
"Misuse of Drugs Act 1971". Statutelaw.gov.uk. 5 January 1998. Archived from the original on 28 August 2021. Retrieved 11 June 2011.
Hope C (7 February 2009). "Ecstasy 'no more dangerous than horse riding'". Telegraph.co.uk. Archived from the original on 10 December 2015. Retrieved 4 December 2015.
Johnson A (2 November 2009). "Why Professor David Nutt was shown the door". The Guardian. London. Archived from the original on 18 January 2014. Retrieved 3 November 2009.
"Court Rejects Harsh Federal Drug Sentencing Guideline as Scientifically Unjustified". American Civil Liberties Union. 15 July 2011. Archived from the original on 14 March 2014. Retrieved 29 August 2012.
European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction (2008). Annual report: the state of the drugs problem in Europe (PDF). Luxembourg: Office for Official Publications of the European Communities. p. 49. ISBN 978-92-9168-324-6. Archived from the original (PDF) on 25 April 2013. Retrieved 1 December 2008.
European Monitoring Centre for Drugs Drug Addiction (2014). "Ecstasy: high purity powder available". European Drug Report (PDF). European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction (EMCDDA). p. 26. doi:10.2810/32306. ISBN 978-92-9168-694-0. Archived from the original (PDF) on 7 September 2014. Retrieved 4 June 2014.
"Ecstasy-type substances Retail and wholesale prices* and purity levels, by drug, region and country or territory". United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime. Archived from the original on 8 December 2015. Retrieved 2 January 2015.
Camargo J, Esseiva P, González F, Wist J, Patiny L (November 2012). "Monitoring of illicit pill distribution networks using an image collection exploration framework". Forensic Science International. 223 (1–3): 298–305. doi:10.1016/j.forsciint.2012.10.004. PMID 23107059. Archived from the original on 28 August 2021. Retrieved 9 December 2013.
Dillon P. "10 years of ecstasy and other party drug use in Australia: What have we done and what is there left to do?". Drugtext.org. Archived from the original on 9 February 2012.
"Erowid MDMA Vault: Images". Archived from the original on 6 March 2016. Retrieved 3 March 2016.
Cork T (31 July 2015). "Now sick dealers peddle Shaun the Sheep Ecstasy tablets". Western Daily Press. Archived from the original on 12 August 2015. Retrieved 3 March 2016.

weeklywire.com (Global: low place; English: low place)

Savlov M (12 June 2000). "Countdown to Ecstasy: A New Drug for a New Millennium". The Austin Chronicle. Weekly Wire. Archived from the original on 21 January 2016. Retrieved 6 August 2015.

westerndailypress.co.uk (Global: low place; English: low place)

Cork T (31 July 2015). "Now sick dealers peddle Shaun the Sheep Ecstasy tablets". Western Daily Press. Archived from the original on 12 August 2015. Retrieved 3 March 2016.

who.int (Global: 213^th place; English: 314^th place)

whqlibdoc.who.int

WHO Expert Committee on Drug Dependence: Twenty-second Report (PDF). Geneva: World Health Organization. 1985. pp. 24–25. Archived from the original (PDF) on 19 October 2014. Retrieved 29 August 2012.

wired.com (Global: 254^th place; English: 178^th place)

archive.wired.com

Brown E (September 2002). "Professor X". Wired. No. 10.09. p. 3. Archived from the original on 25 June 2015. Retrieved 4 January 2015.

worldcat.org (Global: 4^th place; English: 4^th place)

search.worldcat.org

Luciano RL, Perazella MA (June 2014). "Nephrotoxic effects of designer drugs: synthetic is not better!". Nature Reviews. Nephrology. 10 (6): 314–324. doi:10.1038/nrneph.2014.44. ISSN 1759-5061. PMID 24662435. S2CID 9817771.
Kellum JA, Gunn SR, Singer M (2008). Oxford American Handbook of Critical Care. Oxford University Press. p. 464. ISBN 978-0-19-530528-9. OCLC 1003197730.
Halberstadt AL, Nichols DE (2020). "Serotonin and serotonin receptors in hallucinogen action". Handbook of the Behavioral Neurobiology of Serotonin. Handbook of Behavioral Neuroscience. Vol. 31. pp. 843–863. doi:10.1016/B978-0-444-64125-0.00043-8. ISBN 978-0-444-64125-0. ISSN 1569-7339. S2CID 241134396.
Mendelson J, Baggott MJ, Li L, Coyle J, Galloway GP (2012). "Poster Session II (PII 1-111): PII-41. MDMA-Induced Increases in Blood Pressure Are Not Mediated by α-Adrenergic Mechanisms and Are Not Due To Elevated Peripheral Vascular Resistance". Clinical Pharmacology & Therapeutics. 91 (S1 [American Society for Clinical Pharmacology and Therapeutics Abstract of papers, 2012 Annual Meeting Gaylord National Hotel and Convention Center National Harbor, Maryland March 14–17, 2012]): S51–S93 (S66–S66). doi:10.1038/clpt.2011.361. ISSN 0009-9236. MDMA increased heart rate (HR) by 25 bpm (p<.001), [cardiac output (CO)] by 1.75 L/min (p<0.01) but did not alter [stroke volume (SV)] or [systemic vascular resistance (SVR)]. Compared to MDMA alone the combination of MDMA + prazosin further increased HR by 24 bpm (p<0.001) and CO by 3.3L/min (p<0.02). MDMA increased systolic and diastolic blood pressure (SBP, DBP) by 26 mmHg (p<0.001 each); prazosin attenuated MDMA effects on DBP by 9.3 mmHg (p<001) but did not alter SBP. [...] MDMA increases HR, producing elevations in CO. The hypertensive effects of MDMA are not due to elevated peripheral vascular resistance and the blood pressure effects of MDMA are not attenuated by α-adrenergic blockade, suggesting that MDMA may produce CV effects through non-α-adrenergic mechanisms.
Martinez-Price D, Krebs-Thomson K, Geyer M (1 January 2002). "Behavioral Psychopharmacology of MDMA and MDMA-Like Drugs: A Review of Human and Animal Studies". Addiction Research & Theory. 10 (1). Informa UK Limited: 43–67. doi:10.1080/16066350290001704. ISSN 1606-6359.
Doly S, Bertran-Gonzalez J, Callebert J, Bruneau A, Banas SM, Belmer A, et al. (23 November 2009). "Role of Serotonin via 5-HT2B Receptors in the Reinforcing Effects of MDMA in Mice". PLOS ONE. 4 (11) e7952. Bibcode:2009PLoSO...4.7952D. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0007952. ISSN 1932-6203. PMC 2775951. PMID 19956756.
Belmer A, Quentin E, Diaz SL, Guiard BP, Fernandez SP, Doly S, et al. (2018). "Positive regulation of raphe serotonin neurons by serotonin 2B receptors". Neuropsychopharmacology. 43 (7): 1623–1632. doi:10.1038/s41386-018-0013-0. ISSN 0893-133X. PMC 5983540. PMID 29453444.
Nichols DE (2016). "Psychedelics". Pharmacological Reviews. 68 (2): 264–355. doi:10.1124/pr.115.011478. ISSN 0031-6997. PMC 4813425. PMID 26841800.
Holley A, Simonson B, Kivell BM (April 2013). "MDMA regulates serotonin transporter function via a Protein kinase C dependent mechanism". Journal of Addiction & Prevention. 1 (1): 5. ISSN 2330-2178.
Underhill S, Amara S (2020). "MDMA and TAAR1-mediated RhoA Activation in Serotonin Neurons". The FASEB Journal. 34 (S1): 1. doi:10.1096/fasebj.2020.34.s1.05856. ISSN 0892-6638.
Underhill S, Amara S (2022). "3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA) stimulates activation of TAAR1 and subsequent neurotransmitter transporter internalization in serotonin neurons". The FASEB Journal. 36 (S1) fasebj.2022.36.S1.R5394. doi:10.1096/fasebj.2022.36.S1.R5394. ISSN 0892-6638.
Blough B (July 2008). "Dopamine-releasing agents" (PDF). In Trudell ML, Izenwasser S (eds.). Dopamine Transporters: Chemistry, Biology and Pharmacology. Hoboken [NJ]: Wiley. pp. 305–320. ISBN 978-0-470-11790-3. OCLC 181862653. OL 18589888W.
Alles GA (1959). "Some Relations Between Chemical Structure and Physiological Action of Mescaline and Related Compounds / Structure and Action of Phenethylamines". In Abramson HA (ed.). Neuropharmacology: Transactions of the Fourth Conference, September 25, 26, and 27, 1957, Princeton, N. J. New York: Josiah Macy Foundation. pp. 181–268. OCLC 9802642. Archived from the original on 21 March 2025.

youtube.com (Global: 13^th place; English: 14^th place)

"Better Than Ecstasy: Progress in Developing a Novel Class of Therapeutic with Matthew Baggott, PhD". YouTube. 6 March 2024. Retrieved 20 November 2024.

MDMA (English Wikipedia)

abc.net.au (Global: 120th place; English: 70th place)

aclu.org (Global: 5,691st place; English: 3,176th place)

addictionhelp.com (Global: low place; English: low place)

adsabs.harvard.edu (Global: 14th place; English: 9th place)

ui.adsabs.harvard.edu

amazon.com (Global: 159th place; English: 105th place)

apnews.com (Global: 101st place; English: 62nd place)

archive.org (Global: 6th place; English: 6th place)

archives-ouvertes.fr (Global: 1,143rd place; English: 973rd place)

hal.archives-ouvertes.fr

bbc.co.uk (Global: 11th place; English: 10th place)

news.bbc.co.uk

bbc.co.uk

bbc.com (Global: 26th place; English: 23rd place)

bindingdb.org (Global: low place; English: low place)

books.google.com (Global: 3rd place; English: 3rd place)

canada.ca (Global: 1,114th place; English: 605th place)

cbc.ca (Global: 110th place; English: 65th place)

cell.com (Global: 2,821st place; English: 4,262nd place)

csp.org (Global: low place; English: low place)

d1wqtxts1xzle7.cloudfront.net (Global: 6,438th place; English: 5,498th place)

dea.gov (Global: low place; English: 7,442nd place)

didyouno.fr (Global: low place; English: low place)

doi.org (Global: 2nd place; English: 2nd place)

dot.gov (Global: 1,620th place; English: 841st place)

nhtsa.dot.gov

doubleblindmag.com (Global: low place; English: low place)

drugabuse.gov (Global: low place; English: 9,769th place)

drugbank.com (Global: 7,932nd place; English: 7,986th place)

go.drugbank.com

drugs.com (Global: 529th place; English: 550th place)

drugtext.org (Global: low place; English: low place)

erowid.org (Global: 3,273rd place; English: 1,926th place)

escholarship.org (Global: 1,477th place; English: 863rd place)

espacenet.com (Global: 950th place; English: 813th place)

v3.espacenet.com

europa.eu (Global: 62nd place; English: 100th place)

emcdda.europa.eu

fda.gov (Global: 470th place; English: 329th place)

precision.fda.gov

finlex.fi (Global: 3,087th place; English: 6,297th place)

fsijournal.org (Global: low place; English: low place)

ghostarchive.org (Global: 64th place; English: 28th place)

gov.bc.ca (Global: 1,686th place; English: 861st place)

www2.gov.bc.ca

government.nl (Global: low place; English: 9,493rd place)

greenearthfound.org (Global: low place; English: low place)

hdl.handle.net (Global: 66th place; English: 34th place)

in.gov.br (Global: 3,835th place; English: 6,615th place)

isomerdesign.com (Global: low place; English: low place)

jstor.org (Global: 23rd place; English: 15th place)

justia.com (Global: 673rd place; English: 333rd place)

law.justia.com

justice.gov (Global: 884th place; English: 477th place)

kwtx.com (Global: low place; English: low place)

lakemedelsverket.se (Global: low place; English: low place)

latimes.com (Global: 32nd place; English: 21st place)

lycaeum.org (Global: low place; English: low place)

research.lycaeum.org

maps.org (Global: low place; English: 7,618th place)

maps.org

bibliography.maps.org

virtualtrip.maps.org

medscape.com (Global: 1,078th place; English: 916th place)

emedicine.medscape.com

meduniwien.ac.at (Global: low place; English: low place)

repositorium.meduniwien.ac.at

nbcnews.com (Global: 156th place; English: 101st place)

netfirms.com (Global: 9,451st place; English: 4,978th place)

bitnest.netfirms.com

news.com.au (Global: 456th place; English: 254th place)

newspaperarchive.com (Global: 1,148th place; English: 513th place)

nih.gov (Global: 5th place; English: 5th place)

pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov

ncbi.nlm.nih.gov

nlm.nih.gov

archives.nida.nih.gov

nintendoenthusiast.com (Global: low place; English: low place)

nytimes.com (Global: 7th place; English: 7th place)

abc.net.au (Global: 120^th place; English: 70^th place)

aclu.org (Global: 5,691^st place; English: 3,176^th place)

adsabs.harvard.edu (Global: 14^th place; English: 9^th place)

amazon.com (Global: 159^th place; English: 105^th place)

apnews.com (Global: 101^st place; English: 62^nd place)

archive.org (Global: 6^th place; English: 6^th place)

archives-ouvertes.fr (Global: 1,143^rd place; English: 973^rd place)

bbc.co.uk (Global: 11^th place; English: 10^th place)

bbc.com (Global: 26^th place; English: 23^rd place)

books.google.com (Global: 3^rd place; English: 3^rd place)

canada.ca (Global: 1,114^th place; English: 605^th place)

cbc.ca (Global: 110^th place; English: 65^th place)

cell.com (Global: 2,821^st place; English: 4,262^nd place)

d1wqtxts1xzle7.cloudfront.net (Global: 6,438^th place; English: 5,498^th place)

dea.gov (Global: low place; English: 7,442^nd place)

doi.org (Global: 2^nd place; English: 2^nd place)

dot.gov (Global: 1,620^th place; English: 841^st place)

drugabuse.gov (Global: low place; English: 9,769^th place)

drugbank.com (Global: 7,932^nd place; English: 7,986^th place)

drugs.com (Global: 529^th place; English: 550^th place)

erowid.org (Global: 3,273^rd place; English: 1,926^th place)

escholarship.org (Global: 1,477^th place; English: 863^rd place)

espacenet.com (Global: 950^th place; English: 813^th place)

europa.eu (Global: 62^nd place; English: 100^th place)

fda.gov (Global: 470^th place; English: 329^th place)

finlex.fi (Global: 3,087^th place; English: 6,297^th place)

ghostarchive.org (Global: 64^th place; English: 28^th place)

gov.bc.ca (Global: 1,686^th place; English: 861^st place)

government.nl (Global: low place; English: 9,493^rd place)

hdl.handle.net (Global: 66^th place; English: 34^th place)

in.gov.br (Global: 3,835^th place; English: 6,615^th place)

jstor.org (Global: 23^rd place; English: 15^th place)

justia.com (Global: 673^rd place; English: 333^rd place)

justice.gov (Global: 884^th place; English: 477^th place)

latimes.com (Global: 32^nd place; English: 21^st place)

maps.org (Global: low place; English: 7,618^th place)

medscape.com (Global: 1,078^th place; English: 916^th place)

nbcnews.com (Global: 156^th place; English: 101^st place)

netfirms.com (Global: 9,451^st place; English: 4,978^th place)

news.com.au (Global: 456^th place; English: 254^th place)

newspaperarchive.com (Global: 1,148^th place; English: 513^th place)

nih.gov (Global: 5^th place; English: 5^th place)

nytimes.com (Global: 7^th place; English: 7^th place)

openlibrary.org (Global: 185^th place; English: 154^th place)

playboy.com (Global: 4,392^nd place; English: 3,011^th place)

psu.edu (Global: 299^th place; English: 159^th place)

researchgate.net (Global: 96^th place; English: 89^th place)

rijksoverheid.nl (Global: 3,767^th place; English: 5,542^nd place)

science.org (Global: 1,007^th place; English: 665^th place)

semanticscholar.org (Global: 15^th place; English: 8^th place)

springer.com (Global: 182^nd place; English: 172^nd place)

ssrn.com (Global: 907^th place; English: 529^th place)

statutelaw.gov.uk (Global: low place; English: 9,460^th place)

telegraph.co.uk (Global: 40^th place; English: 27^th place)

tga.gov.au (Global: 4,353^rd place; English: 2,806^th place)

theconversation.com (Global: 840^th place; English: 594^th place)

theguardian.com (Global: 16^th place; English: 11^th place)

uc.pt (Global: 5,894^th place; English: 9,117^th place)

un.org (Global: 117^th place; English: 160^th place)

unc.edu (Global: 1,577^th place; English: 913^th place)

unibas.ch (Global: 9,678^th place; English: low place)

unil.ch (Global: 8,014^th place; English: 8,901^st place)

unodc.org (Global: 2,954^th place; English: 2,575^th place)

uzh.ch (Global: 1,380^th place; English: 1,488^th place)

vice.com (Global: 247^th place; English: 175^th place)

washingtonpost.com (Global: 35^th place; English: 24^th place)

web.archive.org (Global: 1^st place; English: 1^st place)

who.int (Global: 213^th place; English: 314^th place)

wired.com (Global: 254^th place; English: 178^th place)

worldcat.org (Global: 4^th place; English: 4^th place)

youtube.com (Global: 13^th place; English: 14^th place)