That is, in the southern portion of the Petén Basin, in southern Belize, and the area around Lake Izabal (Thompson 1966, p. 27, Jones 2000, p. 353). Wanyerka 2009, p. 181 describes the Territory as stretching from "southeastern Guatemala and northwestern Honduras, from Cahabón in northeastern Alta Verapaz, to the area around the Rió Dulce in the lower Motagua Valley, and up into southern Belize, to the area around the Sarstoon River up to the Monkey River and out to the Caribbean Coast." Thompson, J. Eric S. (1966). "The Maya Central Area at the Spanish Conquest and Later: A Problem in Demography". Proceedings of the Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland (1966). Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland: 23–37. doi:10.2307/3031712. JSTOR3031712. (subscription required) Jones, Grant D. (2000). "The Lowland Maya, from the Conquest to the Present". In Adams, Richard E.W.; Macleod, Murdo J. (eds.). Mesoamerica, Part 2. The Cambridge History of the Native Peoples of the Americas. Vol. II. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. pp. 346–391. ISBN0-521-65204-9. OCLC33359444. Wanyerka, Phillip Julius (August 2009). Classic Maya Political Organization: Epigraphic Evidence of Hierarchical Organization in the Southern Maya Mountains Region of Belize(PDF) (PhD dissertation). Carbondale, Illinois, US: Southern Illinois University. OCLC776149169. Archived(PDF) from the original on 20 August 2023. Retrieved 12 August 2014.
Ch'olan lands extended from the Laguna de Términos through the Lacandon Jungle across the foothills of the Sierra de los Cuchumatanes eastwards to southern Belize. Their inhabitants were referred to in Spanish colonial documents as Chols or Cholans. Becquey 2012, para. 3, map 3 has identified seven such groups at circa 1500 AD, namely, the Ch'orti', Manche Ch'ol, Ch'ol Palencano, Chontal, Toquegua, Ch'ol Lacandon, and Acala. Becquey, Cédric (5 December 2012). "Quelles frontières pour les populations cholanes?". Ateliers d'anthropologie (in French). 37 (37). doi:10.4000/ateliers.9181.
Though Becquey 2012, para 19, map 6 locates Manche midway between the Cancuen and Moho, and sets Tzalac some distance off the Sarstoon proper. Further note some of the settlements were rechristened by the Spanish, namely Yol (Santo Domingo Yol), Yaxha (San Pablo Yaxhá), Manche (San Miguel Manché), and Tzalac (San Lucas Salac) (Caso Barrera & Aliphat Fernández 2006, pp. 34–35). Becquey, Cédric (5 December 2012). "Quelles frontières pour les populations cholanes?". Ateliers d'anthropologie (in French). 37 (37). doi:10.4000/ateliers.9181. Caso Barrera, Laura; Aliphat Fernández, Mario (2006). "Cacao, vanilla and annatto: three production and exchange systems in the Southern Maya lowlands, XVI–XVII centuries". Journal of Latin American Geography. 5 (2). Austin, Texas, US: University of Texas Press: 29–52. doi:10.1353/lag.2006.0015. ISSN1545-2476. JSTOR25765138. OCLC356573308. S2CID201743707.
Becquey 2012, para. 17, map 5 notes that les données historiques mettent en évidence l'importance du commerce que ces différentes populations entretenaient entre elles, les terres chol manché en constituant le cœur, "the historical data highlights the importance of the trade that these different populations [Q'eqchi', Ch'olan, and Yucatecan groups] maintained between them, the Manche Ch'ol lands constituting the heart of it." Wanyerka 2009, pp. 182–183 suggests that "bilingualism may have been long-standing in the [Territory] as a result of close cultural contact, trade, and interaction between [Ch'olti'-] speakers of this region and those of adjoining regions [eg Mopan speakers]." Becquey, Cédric (5 December 2012). "Quelles frontières pour les populations cholanes?". Ateliers d'anthropologie (in French). 37 (37). doi:10.4000/ateliers.9181. Wanyerka, Phillip Julius (August 2009). Classic Maya Political Organization: Epigraphic Evidence of Hierarchical Organization in the Southern Maya Mountains Region of Belize(PDF) (PhD dissertation). Carbondale, Illinois, US: Southern Illinois University. OCLC776149169. Archived(PDF) from the original on 20 August 2023. Retrieved 12 August 2014.
Machault 2018, p. 110 further notes that Lacandon Ch'ol–Manche Ch'ol relations may have been frosty despite their commercial ties, as the Spanish friar Gabriel de Salazar reported in 1620 that los del manche temen al lacandon y son enemigos, "those [residents] of Manche fear the Lacandon [residents] and they are enemies." Machault, Julien (2018). "Organización y modalidad del intercambio a larga distancia en 'la Montaña' del Petén, siglos XVI-XVII". Indiana. 35 (1): 97–120. doi:10.18441/ind.v35i1.97-120.
Caso Barrera & Aliphat Fernández 2006, p. 44 suggest that local leaders and principal inhabitants of the Territory may have monopolised agricultural production and trade. Firstly, they note that though "historical sources do not specify to whom these orchards [pakaboob, cacao–annatto–vanilla permacultures] belonged, but, it is almost certain they were the property of their rulers and principales." They further suggest, "it seems that the kinsmen of the rulers acted as aicaloob [elite merchants who monopolised trade with the Itza and Verapaz]." Caso Barrera, Laura; Aliphat Fernández, Mario (2006). "Cacao, vanilla and annatto: three production and exchange systems in the Southern Maya lowlands, XVI–XVII centuries". Journal of Latin American Geography. 5 (2). Austin, Texas, US: University of Texas Press: 29–52. doi:10.1353/lag.2006.0015. ISSN1545-2476. JSTOR25765138. OCLC356573308. S2CID201743707.
Wanyerka 2009, p. 182 notes that "[the Spanish friar Joseph] Delgado reported [in the 1670s] that the Manche Ch'ol lived in small settlements and that they lacked any real political cohesion[; p]etty chiefs ruled over a few homesteads with no allegiance or tribute to anyone other than themselves." However, Caso Barrera & Aliphat Fernández 2006, p. 31 notes that this apparent political simplicity may be illusory, given that this conclusion originally comes from reports by Dominican friars, who were themselves trying "to convert and control this group [the Manche Ch'ol]." Caso Barrera & Aliphat Fernández 2006, pp. 44–45 further suggest that the increasing influence a certain "great lord Acusaha [Ah Cusaha?]," reportedly "respected very much" in the Territory by circa 1600, might indicate greater political organisation than apparent in Dominican reports. They further posit that said lord's increasing authority in the early 17th century may have been "due to the constant attacks [against the Territory] carried out by the Itzá polity, as well as the fact of being under continuous pressure by the Spaniards and the Dominican Order, which tried to convert them whatever the cost." Wanyerka, Phillip Julius (August 2009). Classic Maya Political Organization: Epigraphic Evidence of Hierarchical Organization in the Southern Maya Mountains Region of Belize(PDF) (PhD dissertation). Carbondale, Illinois, US: Southern Illinois University. OCLC776149169. Archived(PDF) from the original on 20 August 2023. Retrieved 12 August 2014. Caso Barrera, Laura; Aliphat Fernández, Mario (2006). "Cacao, vanilla and annatto: three production and exchange systems in the Southern Maya lowlands, XVI–XVII centuries". Journal of Latin American Geography. 5 (2). Austin, Texas, US: University of Texas Press: 29–52. doi:10.1353/lag.2006.0015. ISSN1545-2476. JSTOR25765138. OCLC356573308. S2CID201743707. Caso Barrera, Laura; Aliphat Fernández, Mario (2006). "Cacao, vanilla and annatto: three production and exchange systems in the Southern Maya lowlands, XVI–XVII centuries". Journal of Latin American Geography. 5 (2). Austin, Texas, US: University of Texas Press: 29–52. doi:10.1353/lag.2006.0015. ISSN1545-2476. JSTOR25765138. OCLC356573308. S2CID201743707.
Similarly, Caso Barrera & Aliphat Fernández 2006, p. 31 note that "this group [the Manche Ch'ol] has not been well-studied and it is poorly understood since, in relation to the neighboring Lacandón and Itzá, it appears that their political and social organisation was distinctive." Caso Barrera, Laura; Aliphat Fernández, Mario (2006). "Cacao, vanilla and annatto: three production and exchange systems in the Southern Maya lowlands, XVI–XVII centuries". Journal of Latin American Geography. 5 (2). Austin, Texas, US: University of Texas Press: 29–52. doi:10.1353/lag.2006.0015. ISSN1545-2476. JSTOR25765138. OCLC356573308. S2CID201743707.
Thompson 1966, p. 27; Jones 2000, p. 353. Thompson, J. Eric S. (1966). "The Maya Central Area at the Spanish Conquest and Later: A Problem in Demography". Proceedings of the Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland (1966). Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland: 23–37. doi:10.2307/3031712. JSTOR3031712. (subscription required) Jones, Grant D. (2000). "The Lowland Maya, from the Conquest to the Present". In Adams, Richard E.W.; Macleod, Murdo J. (eds.). Mesoamerica, Part 2. The Cambridge History of the Native Peoples of the Americas. Vol. II. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. pp. 346–391. ISBN0-521-65204-9. OCLC33359444.
Thompson 1966, p. 28. Thompson, J. Eric S. (1966). "The Maya Central Area at the Spanish Conquest and Later: A Problem in Demography". Proceedings of the Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland (1966). Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland: 23–37. doi:10.2307/3031712. JSTOR3031712. (subscription required)
Caso Barrera & Aliphat Fernández 2006, p. 54; Thompson 1988, p. 34. Caso Barrera, Laura; Aliphat Fernández, Mario (2006). "Cacao, vanilla and annatto: three production and exchange systems in the Southern Maya lowlands, XVI–XVII centuries". Journal of Latin American Geography. 5 (2). Austin, Texas, US: University of Texas Press: 29–52. doi:10.1353/lag.2006.0015. ISSN1545-2476. JSTOR25765138. OCLC356573308. S2CID201743707. Thompson, J. Eric S. (1988) [first published 1972 by Benex Press]. The Maya of Belize: Historical Chapters Since Columbus. Benque Viejo del Carmen, Belize: Cubola Productions. ISBN968-6233-03-2. OCLC19255525.
Becquey 2012, para 10, maps 2, 3; Jones 2000, p. 354. Becquey, Cédric (5 December 2012). "Quelles frontières pour les populations cholanes?". Ateliers d'anthropologie (in French). 37 (37). doi:10.4000/ateliers.9181. Jones, Grant D. (2000). "The Lowland Maya, from the Conquest to the Present". In Adams, Richard E.W.; Macleod, Murdo J. (eds.). Mesoamerica, Part 2. The Cambridge History of the Native Peoples of the Americas. Vol. II. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. pp. 346–391. ISBN0-521-65204-9. OCLC33359444.
Thompson 1966, pp. 27–28. Thompson, J. Eric S. (1966). "The Maya Central Area at the Spanish Conquest and Later: A Problem in Demography". Proceedings of the Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland (1966). Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland: 23–37. doi:10.2307/3031712. JSTOR3031712. (subscription required)
Thompson 1938, p. 586. Thompson, J. Eric S. (October–December 1938). "Sixteenth and Seventeenth Century Reports on the Chol Mayas". American Anthropologist. New Series. 40 (4 (Part 1)). Wiley on behalf of the American Anthropological Association: 584–604. doi:10.1525/aa.1938.40.4.02a00040. JSTOR661615. (subscription required)
Machault 2018, p. 110. Machault, Julien (2018). "Organización y modalidad del intercambio a larga distancia en 'la Montaña' del Petén, siglos XVI-XVII". Indiana. 35 (1): 97–120. doi:10.18441/ind.v35i1.97-120.
Thompson 1938, p. 594. Thompson, J. Eric S. (October–December 1938). "Sixteenth and Seventeenth Century Reports on the Chol Mayas". American Anthropologist. New Series. 40 (4 (Part 1)). Wiley on behalf of the American Anthropological Association: 584–604. doi:10.1525/aa.1938.40.4.02a00040. JSTOR661615. (subscription required)
That is, in the southern portion of the Petén Basin, in southern Belize, and the area around Lake Izabal (Thompson 1966, p. 27, Jones 2000, p. 353). Wanyerka 2009, p. 181 describes the Territory as stretching from "southeastern Guatemala and northwestern Honduras, from Cahabón in northeastern Alta Verapaz, to the area around the Rió Dulce in the lower Motagua Valley, and up into southern Belize, to the area around the Sarstoon River up to the Monkey River and out to the Caribbean Coast." Thompson, J. Eric S. (1966). "The Maya Central Area at the Spanish Conquest and Later: A Problem in Demography". Proceedings of the Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland (1966). Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland: 23–37. doi:10.2307/3031712. JSTOR3031712. (subscription required) Jones, Grant D. (2000). "The Lowland Maya, from the Conquest to the Present". In Adams, Richard E.W.; Macleod, Murdo J. (eds.). Mesoamerica, Part 2. The Cambridge History of the Native Peoples of the Americas. Vol. II. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. pp. 346–391. ISBN0-521-65204-9. OCLC33359444. Wanyerka, Phillip Julius (August 2009). Classic Maya Political Organization: Epigraphic Evidence of Hierarchical Organization in the Southern Maya Mountains Region of Belize(PDF) (PhD dissertation). Carbondale, Illinois, US: Southern Illinois University. OCLC776149169. Archived(PDF) from the original on 20 August 2023. Retrieved 12 August 2014.
Though Yucatecan speakers were reported "around the Sittee River," at least during the 17th century (Peramaki-Brown, Morton & Jordan 2020, p. 223). Graham 2011, p. 249 similarly claims that by 1641 "Soite (Sittee) [Tzoite] had both Yucatec and Manche Chol [ie Yucatecan and Ch'olan] speakers." Some scholars therefore exclude the Sittee from the Manche Ch'ol Territory, as does Wanyerka 2009, p. 181, for instance. Peramaki-Brown, Meaghan M.; Morton, Sean G.; Jordan, Jillian M. (2020). "Maya Archaeology of the Stann Creek District, Belize: Early Explorations to Recent Research". Research Reports in Belizean Archaeology. 17: 221–235. ISBN978-9-7682-6422-0. Graham, Elizabeth (2011). Maya Christians and their Churches in Sixteenth-Century Belize. Maya Studies. Gainesville, Florida, US: University Press of Florida. ISBN978-0-8130-3666-3. Wanyerka, Phillip Julius (August 2009). Classic Maya Political Organization: Epigraphic Evidence of Hierarchical Organization in the Southern Maya Mountains Region of Belize(PDF) (PhD dissertation). Carbondale, Illinois, US: Southern Illinois University. OCLC776149169. Archived(PDF) from the original on 20 August 2023. Retrieved 12 August 2014.
Their language, Ch'olti', descends from Eastern Ch'olan, an ancestral Ch'olan language now considered the likeliest candidate for Classical Mayan. Furthermore, the Manche Ch'ol reportedly donned headresses similar to those depicted in Classic art of the region's city-states (Wanyerka 2009, p. 182). Lastly, archeaological excavations have revealed continuous Classic-to-Postclassic occupation or use of at least some of the Territory (eg Peramaki-Brown, Morton & Jordan 2020, p. 224 for the northeastern portion). Wanyerka, Phillip Julius (August 2009). Classic Maya Political Organization: Epigraphic Evidence of Hierarchical Organization in the Southern Maya Mountains Region of Belize(PDF) (PhD dissertation). Carbondale, Illinois, US: Southern Illinois University. OCLC776149169. Archived(PDF) from the original on 20 August 2023. Retrieved 12 August 2014. Peramaki-Brown, Meaghan M.; Morton, Sean G.; Jordan, Jillian M. (2020). "Maya Archaeology of the Stann Creek District, Belize: Early Explorations to Recent Research". Research Reports in Belizean Archaeology. 17: 221–235. ISBN978-9-7682-6422-0.
Becquey 2012, para. 17, map 5 notes that les données historiques mettent en évidence l'importance du commerce que ces différentes populations entretenaient entre elles, les terres chol manché en constituant le cœur, "the historical data highlights the importance of the trade that these different populations [Q'eqchi', Ch'olan, and Yucatecan groups] maintained between them, the Manche Ch'ol lands constituting the heart of it." Wanyerka 2009, pp. 182–183 suggests that "bilingualism may have been long-standing in the [Territory] as a result of close cultural contact, trade, and interaction between [Ch'olti'-] speakers of this region and those of adjoining regions [eg Mopan speakers]." Becquey, Cédric (5 December 2012). "Quelles frontières pour les populations cholanes?". Ateliers d'anthropologie (in French). 37 (37). doi:10.4000/ateliers.9181. Wanyerka, Phillip Julius (August 2009). Classic Maya Political Organization: Epigraphic Evidence of Hierarchical Organization in the Southern Maya Mountains Region of Belize(PDF) (PhD dissertation). Carbondale, Illinois, US: Southern Illinois University. OCLC776149169. Archived(PDF) from the original on 20 August 2023. Retrieved 12 August 2014.
Wanyerka 2009, p. 182 notes that "[the Spanish friar Joseph] Delgado reported [in the 1670s] that the Manche Ch'ol lived in small settlements and that they lacked any real political cohesion[; p]etty chiefs ruled over a few homesteads with no allegiance or tribute to anyone other than themselves." However, Caso Barrera & Aliphat Fernández 2006, p. 31 notes that this apparent political simplicity may be illusory, given that this conclusion originally comes from reports by Dominican friars, who were themselves trying "to convert and control this group [the Manche Ch'ol]." Caso Barrera & Aliphat Fernández 2006, pp. 44–45 further suggest that the increasing influence a certain "great lord Acusaha [Ah Cusaha?]," reportedly "respected very much" in the Territory by circa 1600, might indicate greater political organisation than apparent in Dominican reports. They further posit that said lord's increasing authority in the early 17th century may have been "due to the constant attacks [against the Territory] carried out by the Itzá polity, as well as the fact of being under continuous pressure by the Spaniards and the Dominican Order, which tried to convert them whatever the cost." Wanyerka, Phillip Julius (August 2009). Classic Maya Political Organization: Epigraphic Evidence of Hierarchical Organization in the Southern Maya Mountains Region of Belize(PDF) (PhD dissertation). Carbondale, Illinois, US: Southern Illinois University. OCLC776149169. Archived(PDF) from the original on 20 August 2023. Retrieved 12 August 2014. Caso Barrera, Laura; Aliphat Fernández, Mario (2006). "Cacao, vanilla and annatto: three production and exchange systems in the Southern Maya lowlands, XVI–XVII centuries". Journal of Latin American Geography. 5 (2). Austin, Texas, US: University of Texas Press: 29–52. doi:10.1353/lag.2006.0015. ISSN1545-2476. JSTOR25765138. OCLC356573308. S2CID201743707. Caso Barrera, Laura; Aliphat Fernández, Mario (2006). "Cacao, vanilla and annatto: three production and exchange systems in the Southern Maya lowlands, XVI–XVII centuries". Journal of Latin American Geography. 5 (2). Austin, Texas, US: University of Texas Press: 29–52. doi:10.1353/lag.2006.0015. ISSN1545-2476. JSTOR25765138. OCLC356573308. S2CID201743707.
That is, in the southern portion of the Petén Basin, in southern Belize, and the area around Lake Izabal (Thompson 1966, p. 27, Jones 2000, p. 353). Wanyerka 2009, p. 181 describes the Territory as stretching from "southeastern Guatemala and northwestern Honduras, from Cahabón in northeastern Alta Verapaz, to the area around the Rió Dulce in the lower Motagua Valley, and up into southern Belize, to the area around the Sarstoon River up to the Monkey River and out to the Caribbean Coast." Thompson, J. Eric S. (1966). "The Maya Central Area at the Spanish Conquest and Later: A Problem in Demography". Proceedings of the Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland (1966). Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland: 23–37. doi:10.2307/3031712. JSTOR3031712. (subscription required) Jones, Grant D. (2000). "The Lowland Maya, from the Conquest to the Present". In Adams, Richard E.W.; Macleod, Murdo J. (eds.). Mesoamerica, Part 2. The Cambridge History of the Native Peoples of the Americas. Vol. II. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. pp. 346–391. ISBN0-521-65204-9. OCLC33359444. Wanyerka, Phillip Julius (August 2009). Classic Maya Political Organization: Epigraphic Evidence of Hierarchical Organization in the Southern Maya Mountains Region of Belize(PDF) (PhD dissertation). Carbondale, Illinois, US: Southern Illinois University. OCLC776149169. Archived(PDF) from the original on 20 August 2023. Retrieved 12 August 2014.
Though Becquey 2012, para 19, map 6 locates Manche midway between the Cancuen and Moho, and sets Tzalac some distance off the Sarstoon proper. Further note some of the settlements were rechristened by the Spanish, namely Yol (Santo Domingo Yol), Yaxha (San Pablo Yaxhá), Manche (San Miguel Manché), and Tzalac (San Lucas Salac) (Caso Barrera & Aliphat Fernández 2006, pp. 34–35). Becquey, Cédric (5 December 2012). "Quelles frontières pour les populations cholanes?". Ateliers d'anthropologie (in French). 37 (37). doi:10.4000/ateliers.9181. Caso Barrera, Laura; Aliphat Fernández, Mario (2006). "Cacao, vanilla and annatto: three production and exchange systems in the Southern Maya lowlands, XVI–XVII centuries". Journal of Latin American Geography. 5 (2). Austin, Texas, US: University of Texas Press: 29–52. doi:10.1353/lag.2006.0015. ISSN1545-2476. JSTOR25765138. OCLC356573308. S2CID201743707.
Caso Barrera & Aliphat Fernández 2006, p. 44 suggest that local leaders and principal inhabitants of the Territory may have monopolised agricultural production and trade. Firstly, they note that though "historical sources do not specify to whom these orchards [pakaboob, cacao–annatto–vanilla permacultures] belonged, but, it is almost certain they were the property of their rulers and principales." They further suggest, "it seems that the kinsmen of the rulers acted as aicaloob [elite merchants who monopolised trade with the Itza and Verapaz]." Caso Barrera, Laura; Aliphat Fernández, Mario (2006). "Cacao, vanilla and annatto: three production and exchange systems in the Southern Maya lowlands, XVI–XVII centuries". Journal of Latin American Geography. 5 (2). Austin, Texas, US: University of Texas Press: 29–52. doi:10.1353/lag.2006.0015. ISSN1545-2476. JSTOR25765138. OCLC356573308. S2CID201743707.
Wanyerka 2009, p. 182 notes that "[the Spanish friar Joseph] Delgado reported [in the 1670s] that the Manche Ch'ol lived in small settlements and that they lacked any real political cohesion[; p]etty chiefs ruled over a few homesteads with no allegiance or tribute to anyone other than themselves." However, Caso Barrera & Aliphat Fernández 2006, p. 31 notes that this apparent political simplicity may be illusory, given that this conclusion originally comes from reports by Dominican friars, who were themselves trying "to convert and control this group [the Manche Ch'ol]." Caso Barrera & Aliphat Fernández 2006, pp. 44–45 further suggest that the increasing influence a certain "great lord Acusaha [Ah Cusaha?]," reportedly "respected very much" in the Territory by circa 1600, might indicate greater political organisation than apparent in Dominican reports. They further posit that said lord's increasing authority in the early 17th century may have been "due to the constant attacks [against the Territory] carried out by the Itzá polity, as well as the fact of being under continuous pressure by the Spaniards and the Dominican Order, which tried to convert them whatever the cost." Wanyerka, Phillip Julius (August 2009). Classic Maya Political Organization: Epigraphic Evidence of Hierarchical Organization in the Southern Maya Mountains Region of Belize(PDF) (PhD dissertation). Carbondale, Illinois, US: Southern Illinois University. OCLC776149169. Archived(PDF) from the original on 20 August 2023. Retrieved 12 August 2014. Caso Barrera, Laura; Aliphat Fernández, Mario (2006). "Cacao, vanilla and annatto: three production and exchange systems in the Southern Maya lowlands, XVI–XVII centuries". Journal of Latin American Geography. 5 (2). Austin, Texas, US: University of Texas Press: 29–52. doi:10.1353/lag.2006.0015. ISSN1545-2476. JSTOR25765138. OCLC356573308. S2CID201743707. Caso Barrera, Laura; Aliphat Fernández, Mario (2006). "Cacao, vanilla and annatto: three production and exchange systems in the Southern Maya lowlands, XVI–XVII centuries". Journal of Latin American Geography. 5 (2). Austin, Texas, US: University of Texas Press: 29–52. doi:10.1353/lag.2006.0015. ISSN1545-2476. JSTOR25765138. OCLC356573308. S2CID201743707.
Similarly, Caso Barrera & Aliphat Fernández 2006, p. 31 note that "this group [the Manche Ch'ol] has not been well-studied and it is poorly understood since, in relation to the neighboring Lacandón and Itzá, it appears that their political and social organisation was distinctive." Caso Barrera, Laura; Aliphat Fernández, Mario (2006). "Cacao, vanilla and annatto: three production and exchange systems in the Southern Maya lowlands, XVI–XVII centuries". Journal of Latin American Geography. 5 (2). Austin, Texas, US: University of Texas Press: 29–52. doi:10.1353/lag.2006.0015. ISSN1545-2476. JSTOR25765138. OCLC356573308. S2CID201743707.
Thompson 1966, p. 27; Jones 2000, p. 353. Thompson, J. Eric S. (1966). "The Maya Central Area at the Spanish Conquest and Later: A Problem in Demography". Proceedings of the Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland (1966). Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland: 23–37. doi:10.2307/3031712. JSTOR3031712. (subscription required) Jones, Grant D. (2000). "The Lowland Maya, from the Conquest to the Present". In Adams, Richard E.W.; Macleod, Murdo J. (eds.). Mesoamerica, Part 2. The Cambridge History of the Native Peoples of the Americas. Vol. II. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. pp. 346–391. ISBN0-521-65204-9. OCLC33359444.
Thompson 1966, p. 28. Thompson, J. Eric S. (1966). "The Maya Central Area at the Spanish Conquest and Later: A Problem in Demography". Proceedings of the Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland (1966). Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland: 23–37. doi:10.2307/3031712. JSTOR3031712. (subscription required)
Caso Barrera & Aliphat Fernández 2006, p. 54; Thompson 1988, p. 34. Caso Barrera, Laura; Aliphat Fernández, Mario (2006). "Cacao, vanilla and annatto: three production and exchange systems in the Southern Maya lowlands, XVI–XVII centuries". Journal of Latin American Geography. 5 (2). Austin, Texas, US: University of Texas Press: 29–52. doi:10.1353/lag.2006.0015. ISSN1545-2476. JSTOR25765138. OCLC356573308. S2CID201743707. Thompson, J. Eric S. (1988) [first published 1972 by Benex Press]. The Maya of Belize: Historical Chapters Since Columbus. Benque Viejo del Carmen, Belize: Cubola Productions. ISBN968-6233-03-2. OCLC19255525.
Thompson 1966, pp. 27–28. Thompson, J. Eric S. (1966). "The Maya Central Area at the Spanish Conquest and Later: A Problem in Demography". Proceedings of the Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland (1966). Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland: 23–37. doi:10.2307/3031712. JSTOR3031712. (subscription required)
Thompson 1938, p. 586. Thompson, J. Eric S. (October–December 1938). "Sixteenth and Seventeenth Century Reports on the Chol Mayas". American Anthropologist. New Series. 40 (4 (Part 1)). Wiley on behalf of the American Anthropological Association: 584–604. doi:10.1525/aa.1938.40.4.02a00040. JSTOR661615. (subscription required)
Thompson 1938, p. 594. Thompson, J. Eric S. (October–December 1938). "Sixteenth and Seventeenth Century Reports on the Chol Mayas". American Anthropologist. New Series. 40 (4 (Part 1)). Wiley on behalf of the American Anthropological Association: 584–604. doi:10.1525/aa.1938.40.4.02a00040. JSTOR661615. (subscription required)
Though Becquey 2012, para 19, map 6 locates Manche midway between the Cancuen and Moho, and sets Tzalac some distance off the Sarstoon proper. Further note some of the settlements were rechristened by the Spanish, namely Yol (Santo Domingo Yol), Yaxha (San Pablo Yaxhá), Manche (San Miguel Manché), and Tzalac (San Lucas Salac) (Caso Barrera & Aliphat Fernández 2006, pp. 34–35). Becquey, Cédric (5 December 2012). "Quelles frontières pour les populations cholanes?". Ateliers d'anthropologie (in French). 37 (37). doi:10.4000/ateliers.9181. Caso Barrera, Laura; Aliphat Fernández, Mario (2006). "Cacao, vanilla and annatto: three production and exchange systems in the Southern Maya lowlands, XVI–XVII centuries". Journal of Latin American Geography. 5 (2). Austin, Texas, US: University of Texas Press: 29–52. doi:10.1353/lag.2006.0015. ISSN1545-2476. JSTOR25765138. OCLC356573308. S2CID201743707.
Caso Barrera & Aliphat Fernández 2006, p. 44 suggest that local leaders and principal inhabitants of the Territory may have monopolised agricultural production and trade. Firstly, they note that though "historical sources do not specify to whom these orchards [pakaboob, cacao–annatto–vanilla permacultures] belonged, but, it is almost certain they were the property of their rulers and principales." They further suggest, "it seems that the kinsmen of the rulers acted as aicaloob [elite merchants who monopolised trade with the Itza and Verapaz]." Caso Barrera, Laura; Aliphat Fernández, Mario (2006). "Cacao, vanilla and annatto: three production and exchange systems in the Southern Maya lowlands, XVI–XVII centuries". Journal of Latin American Geography. 5 (2). Austin, Texas, US: University of Texas Press: 29–52. doi:10.1353/lag.2006.0015. ISSN1545-2476. JSTOR25765138. OCLC356573308. S2CID201743707.
Wanyerka 2009, p. 182 notes that "[the Spanish friar Joseph] Delgado reported [in the 1670s] that the Manche Ch'ol lived in small settlements and that they lacked any real political cohesion[; p]etty chiefs ruled over a few homesteads with no allegiance or tribute to anyone other than themselves." However, Caso Barrera & Aliphat Fernández 2006, p. 31 notes that this apparent political simplicity may be illusory, given that this conclusion originally comes from reports by Dominican friars, who were themselves trying "to convert and control this group [the Manche Ch'ol]." Caso Barrera & Aliphat Fernández 2006, pp. 44–45 further suggest that the increasing influence a certain "great lord Acusaha [Ah Cusaha?]," reportedly "respected very much" in the Territory by circa 1600, might indicate greater political organisation than apparent in Dominican reports. They further posit that said lord's increasing authority in the early 17th century may have been "due to the constant attacks [against the Territory] carried out by the Itzá polity, as well as the fact of being under continuous pressure by the Spaniards and the Dominican Order, which tried to convert them whatever the cost." Wanyerka, Phillip Julius (August 2009). Classic Maya Political Organization: Epigraphic Evidence of Hierarchical Organization in the Southern Maya Mountains Region of Belize(PDF) (PhD dissertation). Carbondale, Illinois, US: Southern Illinois University. OCLC776149169. Archived(PDF) from the original on 20 August 2023. Retrieved 12 August 2014. Caso Barrera, Laura; Aliphat Fernández, Mario (2006). "Cacao, vanilla and annatto: three production and exchange systems in the Southern Maya lowlands, XVI–XVII centuries". Journal of Latin American Geography. 5 (2). Austin, Texas, US: University of Texas Press: 29–52. doi:10.1353/lag.2006.0015. ISSN1545-2476. JSTOR25765138. OCLC356573308. S2CID201743707. Caso Barrera, Laura; Aliphat Fernández, Mario (2006). "Cacao, vanilla and annatto: three production and exchange systems in the Southern Maya lowlands, XVI–XVII centuries". Journal of Latin American Geography. 5 (2). Austin, Texas, US: University of Texas Press: 29–52. doi:10.1353/lag.2006.0015. ISSN1545-2476. JSTOR25765138. OCLC356573308. S2CID201743707.
Similarly, Caso Barrera & Aliphat Fernández 2006, p. 31 note that "this group [the Manche Ch'ol] has not been well-studied and it is poorly understood since, in relation to the neighboring Lacandón and Itzá, it appears that their political and social organisation was distinctive." Caso Barrera, Laura; Aliphat Fernández, Mario (2006). "Cacao, vanilla and annatto: three production and exchange systems in the Southern Maya lowlands, XVI–XVII centuries". Journal of Latin American Geography. 5 (2). Austin, Texas, US: University of Texas Press: 29–52. doi:10.1353/lag.2006.0015. ISSN1545-2476. JSTOR25765138. OCLC356573308. S2CID201743707.
Caso Barrera & Aliphat Fernández 2006, p. 54; Thompson 1988, p. 34. Caso Barrera, Laura; Aliphat Fernández, Mario (2006). "Cacao, vanilla and annatto: three production and exchange systems in the Southern Maya lowlands, XVI–XVII centuries". Journal of Latin American Geography. 5 (2). Austin, Texas, US: University of Texas Press: 29–52. doi:10.1353/lag.2006.0015. ISSN1545-2476. JSTOR25765138. OCLC356573308. S2CID201743707. Thompson, J. Eric S. (1988) [first published 1972 by Benex Press]. The Maya of Belize: Historical Chapters Since Columbus. Benque Viejo del Carmen, Belize: Cubola Productions. ISBN968-6233-03-2. OCLC19255525.
That is, in the southern portion of the Petén Basin, in southern Belize, and the area around Lake Izabal (Thompson 1966, p. 27, Jones 2000, p. 353). Wanyerka 2009, p. 181 describes the Territory as stretching from "southeastern Guatemala and northwestern Honduras, from Cahabón in northeastern Alta Verapaz, to the area around the Rió Dulce in the lower Motagua Valley, and up into southern Belize, to the area around the Sarstoon River up to the Monkey River and out to the Caribbean Coast." Thompson, J. Eric S. (1966). "The Maya Central Area at the Spanish Conquest and Later: A Problem in Demography". Proceedings of the Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland (1966). Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland: 23–37. doi:10.2307/3031712. JSTOR3031712. (subscription required) Jones, Grant D. (2000). "The Lowland Maya, from the Conquest to the Present". In Adams, Richard E.W.; Macleod, Murdo J. (eds.). Mesoamerica, Part 2. The Cambridge History of the Native Peoples of the Americas. Vol. II. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. pp. 346–391. ISBN0-521-65204-9. OCLC33359444. Wanyerka, Phillip Julius (August 2009). Classic Maya Political Organization: Epigraphic Evidence of Hierarchical Organization in the Southern Maya Mountains Region of Belize(PDF) (PhD dissertation). Carbondale, Illinois, US: Southern Illinois University. OCLC776149169. Archived(PDF) from the original on 20 August 2023. Retrieved 12 August 2014.
Though Yucatecan speakers were reported "around the Sittee River," at least during the 17th century (Peramaki-Brown, Morton & Jordan 2020, p. 223). Graham 2011, p. 249 similarly claims that by 1641 "Soite (Sittee) [Tzoite] had both Yucatec and Manche Chol [ie Yucatecan and Ch'olan] speakers." Some scholars therefore exclude the Sittee from the Manche Ch'ol Territory, as does Wanyerka 2009, p. 181, for instance. Peramaki-Brown, Meaghan M.; Morton, Sean G.; Jordan, Jillian M. (2020). "Maya Archaeology of the Stann Creek District, Belize: Early Explorations to Recent Research". Research Reports in Belizean Archaeology. 17: 221–235. ISBN978-9-7682-6422-0. Graham, Elizabeth (2011). Maya Christians and their Churches in Sixteenth-Century Belize. Maya Studies. Gainesville, Florida, US: University Press of Florida. ISBN978-0-8130-3666-3. Wanyerka, Phillip Julius (August 2009). Classic Maya Political Organization: Epigraphic Evidence of Hierarchical Organization in the Southern Maya Mountains Region of Belize(PDF) (PhD dissertation). Carbondale, Illinois, US: Southern Illinois University. OCLC776149169. Archived(PDF) from the original on 20 August 2023. Retrieved 12 August 2014.
Their language, Ch'olti', descends from Eastern Ch'olan, an ancestral Ch'olan language now considered the likeliest candidate for Classical Mayan. Furthermore, the Manche Ch'ol reportedly donned headresses similar to those depicted in Classic art of the region's city-states (Wanyerka 2009, p. 182). Lastly, archeaological excavations have revealed continuous Classic-to-Postclassic occupation or use of at least some of the Territory (eg Peramaki-Brown, Morton & Jordan 2020, p. 224 for the northeastern portion). Wanyerka, Phillip Julius (August 2009). Classic Maya Political Organization: Epigraphic Evidence of Hierarchical Organization in the Southern Maya Mountains Region of Belize(PDF) (PhD dissertation). Carbondale, Illinois, US: Southern Illinois University. OCLC776149169. Archived(PDF) from the original on 20 August 2023. Retrieved 12 August 2014. Peramaki-Brown, Meaghan M.; Morton, Sean G.; Jordan, Jillian M. (2020). "Maya Archaeology of the Stann Creek District, Belize: Early Explorations to Recent Research". Research Reports in Belizean Archaeology. 17: 221–235. ISBN978-9-7682-6422-0.
Becquey 2012, para. 17, map 5 notes that les données historiques mettent en évidence l'importance du commerce que ces différentes populations entretenaient entre elles, les terres chol manché en constituant le cœur, "the historical data highlights the importance of the trade that these different populations [Q'eqchi', Ch'olan, and Yucatecan groups] maintained between them, the Manche Ch'ol lands constituting the heart of it." Wanyerka 2009, pp. 182–183 suggests that "bilingualism may have been long-standing in the [Territory] as a result of close cultural contact, trade, and interaction between [Ch'olti'-] speakers of this region and those of adjoining regions [eg Mopan speakers]." Becquey, Cédric (5 December 2012). "Quelles frontières pour les populations cholanes?". Ateliers d'anthropologie (in French). 37 (37). doi:10.4000/ateliers.9181. Wanyerka, Phillip Julius (August 2009). Classic Maya Political Organization: Epigraphic Evidence of Hierarchical Organization in the Southern Maya Mountains Region of Belize(PDF) (PhD dissertation). Carbondale, Illinois, US: Southern Illinois University. OCLC776149169. Archived(PDF) from the original on 20 August 2023. Retrieved 12 August 2014.
Wanyerka 2009, p. 182 notes that "[the Spanish friar Joseph] Delgado reported [in the 1670s] that the Manche Ch'ol lived in small settlements and that they lacked any real political cohesion[; p]etty chiefs ruled over a few homesteads with no allegiance or tribute to anyone other than themselves." However, Caso Barrera & Aliphat Fernández 2006, p. 31 notes that this apparent political simplicity may be illusory, given that this conclusion originally comes from reports by Dominican friars, who were themselves trying "to convert and control this group [the Manche Ch'ol]." Caso Barrera & Aliphat Fernández 2006, pp. 44–45 further suggest that the increasing influence a certain "great lord Acusaha [Ah Cusaha?]," reportedly "respected very much" in the Territory by circa 1600, might indicate greater political organisation than apparent in Dominican reports. They further posit that said lord's increasing authority in the early 17th century may have been "due to the constant attacks [against the Territory] carried out by the Itzá polity, as well as the fact of being under continuous pressure by the Spaniards and the Dominican Order, which tried to convert them whatever the cost." Wanyerka, Phillip Julius (August 2009). Classic Maya Political Organization: Epigraphic Evidence of Hierarchical Organization in the Southern Maya Mountains Region of Belize(PDF) (PhD dissertation). Carbondale, Illinois, US: Southern Illinois University. OCLC776149169. Archived(PDF) from the original on 20 August 2023. Retrieved 12 August 2014. Caso Barrera, Laura; Aliphat Fernández, Mario (2006). "Cacao, vanilla and annatto: three production and exchange systems in the Southern Maya lowlands, XVI–XVII centuries". Journal of Latin American Geography. 5 (2). Austin, Texas, US: University of Texas Press: 29–52. doi:10.1353/lag.2006.0015. ISSN1545-2476. JSTOR25765138. OCLC356573308. S2CID201743707. Caso Barrera, Laura; Aliphat Fernández, Mario (2006). "Cacao, vanilla and annatto: three production and exchange systems in the Southern Maya lowlands, XVI–XVII centuries". Journal of Latin American Geography. 5 (2). Austin, Texas, US: University of Texas Press: 29–52. doi:10.1353/lag.2006.0015. ISSN1545-2476. JSTOR25765138. OCLC356573308. S2CID201743707.
That is, in the southern portion of the Petén Basin, in southern Belize, and the area around Lake Izabal (Thompson 1966, p. 27, Jones 2000, p. 353). Wanyerka 2009, p. 181 describes the Territory as stretching from "southeastern Guatemala and northwestern Honduras, from Cahabón in northeastern Alta Verapaz, to the area around the Rió Dulce in the lower Motagua Valley, and up into southern Belize, to the area around the Sarstoon River up to the Monkey River and out to the Caribbean Coast." Thompson, J. Eric S. (1966). "The Maya Central Area at the Spanish Conquest and Later: A Problem in Demography". Proceedings of the Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland (1966). Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland: 23–37. doi:10.2307/3031712. JSTOR3031712. (subscription required) Jones, Grant D. (2000). "The Lowland Maya, from the Conquest to the Present". In Adams, Richard E.W.; Macleod, Murdo J. (eds.). Mesoamerica, Part 2. The Cambridge History of the Native Peoples of the Americas. Vol. II. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. pp. 346–391. ISBN0-521-65204-9. OCLC33359444. Wanyerka, Phillip Julius (August 2009). Classic Maya Political Organization: Epigraphic Evidence of Hierarchical Organization in the Southern Maya Mountains Region of Belize(PDF) (PhD dissertation). Carbondale, Illinois, US: Southern Illinois University. OCLC776149169. Archived(PDF) from the original on 20 August 2023. Retrieved 12 August 2014.
Though Becquey 2012, para 19, map 6 locates Manche midway between the Cancuen and Moho, and sets Tzalac some distance off the Sarstoon proper. Further note some of the settlements were rechristened by the Spanish, namely Yol (Santo Domingo Yol), Yaxha (San Pablo Yaxhá), Manche (San Miguel Manché), and Tzalac (San Lucas Salac) (Caso Barrera & Aliphat Fernández 2006, pp. 34–35). Becquey, Cédric (5 December 2012). "Quelles frontières pour les populations cholanes?". Ateliers d'anthropologie (in French). 37 (37). doi:10.4000/ateliers.9181. Caso Barrera, Laura; Aliphat Fernández, Mario (2006). "Cacao, vanilla and annatto: three production and exchange systems in the Southern Maya lowlands, XVI–XVII centuries". Journal of Latin American Geography. 5 (2). Austin, Texas, US: University of Texas Press: 29–52. doi:10.1353/lag.2006.0015. ISSN1545-2476. JSTOR25765138. OCLC356573308. S2CID201743707.
Though Yucatecan speakers were reported "around the Sittee River," at least during the 17th century (Peramaki-Brown, Morton & Jordan 2020, p. 223). Graham 2011, p. 249 similarly claims that by 1641 "Soite (Sittee) [Tzoite] had both Yucatec and Manche Chol [ie Yucatecan and Ch'olan] speakers." Some scholars therefore exclude the Sittee from the Manche Ch'ol Territory, as does Wanyerka 2009, p. 181, for instance. Peramaki-Brown, Meaghan M.; Morton, Sean G.; Jordan, Jillian M. (2020). "Maya Archaeology of the Stann Creek District, Belize: Early Explorations to Recent Research". Research Reports in Belizean Archaeology. 17: 221–235. ISBN978-9-7682-6422-0. Graham, Elizabeth (2011). Maya Christians and their Churches in Sixteenth-Century Belize. Maya Studies. Gainesville, Florida, US: University Press of Florida. ISBN978-0-8130-3666-3. Wanyerka, Phillip Julius (August 2009). Classic Maya Political Organization: Epigraphic Evidence of Hierarchical Organization in the Southern Maya Mountains Region of Belize(PDF) (PhD dissertation). Carbondale, Illinois, US: Southern Illinois University. OCLC776149169. Archived(PDF) from the original on 20 August 2023. Retrieved 12 August 2014.
Their language, Ch'olti', descends from Eastern Ch'olan, an ancestral Ch'olan language now considered the likeliest candidate for Classical Mayan. Furthermore, the Manche Ch'ol reportedly donned headresses similar to those depicted in Classic art of the region's city-states (Wanyerka 2009, p. 182). Lastly, archeaological excavations have revealed continuous Classic-to-Postclassic occupation or use of at least some of the Territory (eg Peramaki-Brown, Morton & Jordan 2020, p. 224 for the northeastern portion). Wanyerka, Phillip Julius (August 2009). Classic Maya Political Organization: Epigraphic Evidence of Hierarchical Organization in the Southern Maya Mountains Region of Belize(PDF) (PhD dissertation). Carbondale, Illinois, US: Southern Illinois University. OCLC776149169. Archived(PDF) from the original on 20 August 2023. Retrieved 12 August 2014. Peramaki-Brown, Meaghan M.; Morton, Sean G.; Jordan, Jillian M. (2020). "Maya Archaeology of the Stann Creek District, Belize: Early Explorations to Recent Research". Research Reports in Belizean Archaeology. 17: 221–235. ISBN978-9-7682-6422-0.
Becquey 2012, para. 17, map 5 notes that les données historiques mettent en évidence l'importance du commerce que ces différentes populations entretenaient entre elles, les terres chol manché en constituant le cœur, "the historical data highlights the importance of the trade that these different populations [Q'eqchi', Ch'olan, and Yucatecan groups] maintained between them, the Manche Ch'ol lands constituting the heart of it." Wanyerka 2009, pp. 182–183 suggests that "bilingualism may have been long-standing in the [Territory] as a result of close cultural contact, trade, and interaction between [Ch'olti'-] speakers of this region and those of adjoining regions [eg Mopan speakers]." Becquey, Cédric (5 December 2012). "Quelles frontières pour les populations cholanes?". Ateliers d'anthropologie (in French). 37 (37). doi:10.4000/ateliers.9181. Wanyerka, Phillip Julius (August 2009). Classic Maya Political Organization: Epigraphic Evidence of Hierarchical Organization in the Southern Maya Mountains Region of Belize(PDF) (PhD dissertation). Carbondale, Illinois, US: Southern Illinois University. OCLC776149169. Archived(PDF) from the original on 20 August 2023. Retrieved 12 August 2014.
Caso Barrera & Aliphat Fernández 2006, p. 44 suggest that local leaders and principal inhabitants of the Territory may have monopolised agricultural production and trade. Firstly, they note that though "historical sources do not specify to whom these orchards [pakaboob, cacao–annatto–vanilla permacultures] belonged, but, it is almost certain they were the property of their rulers and principales." They further suggest, "it seems that the kinsmen of the rulers acted as aicaloob [elite merchants who monopolised trade with the Itza and Verapaz]." Caso Barrera, Laura; Aliphat Fernández, Mario (2006). "Cacao, vanilla and annatto: three production and exchange systems in the Southern Maya lowlands, XVI–XVII centuries". Journal of Latin American Geography. 5 (2). Austin, Texas, US: University of Texas Press: 29–52. doi:10.1353/lag.2006.0015. ISSN1545-2476. JSTOR25765138. OCLC356573308. S2CID201743707.
Wanyerka 2009, p. 182 notes that "[the Spanish friar Joseph] Delgado reported [in the 1670s] that the Manche Ch'ol lived in small settlements and that they lacked any real political cohesion[; p]etty chiefs ruled over a few homesteads with no allegiance or tribute to anyone other than themselves." However, Caso Barrera & Aliphat Fernández 2006, p. 31 notes that this apparent political simplicity may be illusory, given that this conclusion originally comes from reports by Dominican friars, who were themselves trying "to convert and control this group [the Manche Ch'ol]." Caso Barrera & Aliphat Fernández 2006, pp. 44–45 further suggest that the increasing influence a certain "great lord Acusaha [Ah Cusaha?]," reportedly "respected very much" in the Territory by circa 1600, might indicate greater political organisation than apparent in Dominican reports. They further posit that said lord's increasing authority in the early 17th century may have been "due to the constant attacks [against the Territory] carried out by the Itzá polity, as well as the fact of being under continuous pressure by the Spaniards and the Dominican Order, which tried to convert them whatever the cost." Wanyerka, Phillip Julius (August 2009). Classic Maya Political Organization: Epigraphic Evidence of Hierarchical Organization in the Southern Maya Mountains Region of Belize(PDF) (PhD dissertation). Carbondale, Illinois, US: Southern Illinois University. OCLC776149169. Archived(PDF) from the original on 20 August 2023. Retrieved 12 August 2014. Caso Barrera, Laura; Aliphat Fernández, Mario (2006). "Cacao, vanilla and annatto: three production and exchange systems in the Southern Maya lowlands, XVI–XVII centuries". Journal of Latin American Geography. 5 (2). Austin, Texas, US: University of Texas Press: 29–52. doi:10.1353/lag.2006.0015. ISSN1545-2476. JSTOR25765138. OCLC356573308. S2CID201743707. Caso Barrera, Laura; Aliphat Fernández, Mario (2006). "Cacao, vanilla and annatto: three production and exchange systems in the Southern Maya lowlands, XVI–XVII centuries". Journal of Latin American Geography. 5 (2). Austin, Texas, US: University of Texas Press: 29–52. doi:10.1353/lag.2006.0015. ISSN1545-2476. JSTOR25765138. OCLC356573308. S2CID201743707.
Similarly, Caso Barrera & Aliphat Fernández 2006, p. 31 note that "this group [the Manche Ch'ol] has not been well-studied and it is poorly understood since, in relation to the neighboring Lacandón and Itzá, it appears that their political and social organisation was distinctive." Caso Barrera, Laura; Aliphat Fernández, Mario (2006). "Cacao, vanilla and annatto: three production and exchange systems in the Southern Maya lowlands, XVI–XVII centuries". Journal of Latin American Geography. 5 (2). Austin, Texas, US: University of Texas Press: 29–52. doi:10.1353/lag.2006.0015. ISSN1545-2476. JSTOR25765138. OCLC356573308. S2CID201743707.
Thompson 1966, p. 27; Jones 2000, p. 353. Thompson, J. Eric S. (1966). "The Maya Central Area at the Spanish Conquest and Later: A Problem in Demography". Proceedings of the Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland (1966). Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland: 23–37. doi:10.2307/3031712. JSTOR3031712. (subscription required) Jones, Grant D. (2000). "The Lowland Maya, from the Conquest to the Present". In Adams, Richard E.W.; Macleod, Murdo J. (eds.). Mesoamerica, Part 2. The Cambridge History of the Native Peoples of the Americas. Vol. II. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. pp. 346–391. ISBN0-521-65204-9. OCLC33359444.
Jones 2000, p. 353. Jones, Grant D. (2000). "The Lowland Maya, from the Conquest to the Present". In Adams, Richard E.W.; Macleod, Murdo J. (eds.). Mesoamerica, Part 2. The Cambridge History of the Native Peoples of the Americas. Vol. II. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. pp. 346–391. ISBN0-521-65204-9. OCLC33359444.
Caso Barrera & Aliphat Fernández 2006, p. 54; Thompson 1988, p. 34. Caso Barrera, Laura; Aliphat Fernández, Mario (2006). "Cacao, vanilla and annatto: three production and exchange systems in the Southern Maya lowlands, XVI–XVII centuries". Journal of Latin American Geography. 5 (2). Austin, Texas, US: University of Texas Press: 29–52. doi:10.1353/lag.2006.0015. ISSN1545-2476. JSTOR25765138. OCLC356573308. S2CID201743707. Thompson, J. Eric S. (1988) [first published 1972 by Benex Press]. The Maya of Belize: Historical Chapters Since Columbus. Benque Viejo del Carmen, Belize: Cubola Productions. ISBN968-6233-03-2. OCLC19255525.
Becquey 2012, para 10, maps 2, 3; Jones 2000, p. 354. Becquey, Cédric (5 December 2012). "Quelles frontières pour les populations cholanes?". Ateliers d'anthropologie (in French). 37 (37). doi:10.4000/ateliers.9181. Jones, Grant D. (2000). "The Lowland Maya, from the Conquest to the Present". In Adams, Richard E.W.; Macleod, Murdo J. (eds.). Mesoamerica, Part 2. The Cambridge History of the Native Peoples of the Americas. Vol. II. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. pp. 346–391. ISBN0-521-65204-9. OCLC33359444.
Lovell 2000, p. 415. Lovell, W. George (2000). "The Highland Maya". In Adams, Richard E.W.; Macleod, Murdo J. (eds.). Mesoamerica, Part 2. The Cambridge History of the Native Peoples of the Americas. Vol. II. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. pp. 392–444. ISBN0-521-65204-9. OCLC33359444.
Thompson 1988, p. 35. Thompson, J. Eric S. (1988) [first published 1972 by Benex Press]. The Maya of Belize: Historical Chapters Since Columbus. Benque Viejo del Carmen, Belize: Cubola Productions. ISBN968-6233-03-2. OCLC19255525.
Thompson 1988, p. 46. Thompson, J. Eric S. (1988) [first published 1972 by Benex Press]. The Maya of Belize: Historical Chapters Since Columbus. Benque Viejo del Carmen, Belize: Cubola Productions. ISBN968-6233-03-2. OCLC19255525.
