Programming language (English Wikipedia)

Bezanson, Jeff; Karpinski, Stefan; Shah, Viral B.; Edelman, Alan (2012). "Julia: A Fast Dynamic Language for Technical Computing". arXiv:1209.5145 [cs.PL].

books.google.com (Global: 3^rd place; English: 3^rd place)

Chauhan, Sharad (2013). "10". Programming Languages - Design and Constructs. University Science Press. p. 235. ISBN 978-93-81159-41-5. Retrieved 10 September 2025. Like our natural languages, programming languages facilitate the expression and communication between people. However, programming languages differ from natural languages in two ways. First, programming languages also enables communication of ideas between people and computing machines. Second, programming languages have a narrower expressive domain than our natural languages. That is, they facilitate only the communication of computational ideas.
Winskel, Glynn (5 February 1993). The Formal Semantics of Programming Languages: An Introduction. MIT Press. ISBN 978-0-262-73103-4.^{[page needed]}

computer.org (Global: 6,549^th place; English: 4,616^th place)

Hierso, Severine (10 June 2022). "Coding From 1849 to 2022: a Guide to The Timeline of Programming Languages". IEEE Computer Society. Retrieved 1 March 2026.

computerscience.org (Global: low place; English: low place)

"Guide to Programming Languages | ComputerScience.org". ComputerScience.org. Archived from the original on 13 May 2018. Retrieved 13 May 2018.

computerweekly.com (Global: 9,143^rd place; English: 5,845^th place)

Nicholas Enticknap. "SSL/Computer Weekly IT salary survey: finance boom drives IT job growth". Computer Weekly. Archived from the original on 26 October 2011. Retrieved 14 June 2013.

computerworld.com.au (Global: low place; English: low place)

Georgina Swan (21 September 2009). "COBOL turns 50". Computerworld. Archived from the original on 19 October 2013. Retrieved 19 October 2013.

developer.com (Global: low place; English: low place)

Ed Airey (3 May 2012). "7 Myths of COBOL Debunked". developer.com. Archived from the original on 19 October 2013. Retrieved 19 October 2013.

doi.org (Global: 2^nd place; English: 2^nd place)

Leivant, Daniel (1983). Polymorphic type inference. ACM SIGACT-SIGPLAN symposium on Principles of programming languages. Austin, Texas: ACM Press. pp. 88–98. doi:10.1145/567067.567077. ISBN 978-0-89791-090-3.
Nofre, Priestley & Alberts 2014, p. 55. Nofre, David; Priestley, Mark; Alberts, Gerard (2014). "When Technology Became Language: The Origins of the Linguistic Conception of Computer Programming, 1950–1960". Technology and Culture. 55 (1): 40–75. doi:10.1353/tech.2014.0031. ISSN 0040-165X. JSTOR 24468397. PMID 24988794.
Nofre, Priestley & Alberts 2014, p. 60. Nofre, David; Priestley, Mark; Alberts, Gerard (2014). "When Technology Became Language: The Origins of the Linguistic Conception of Computer Programming, 1950–1960". Technology and Culture. 55 (1): 40–75. doi:10.1353/tech.2014.0031. ISSN 0040-165X. JSTOR 24468397. PMID 24988794.
Abdelaziz, Abdullah I.; Hanson, Kent A.; Gaber, Charles E.; Lee, Todd A. (2023). "Optimizing large real-world data analysis with parquet files in R: A step-by-step tutorial". Pharmacoepidemiology and Drug Safety. 33 (3) e5728. doi:10.1002/pds.5728. PMID 37984998.
Mayer, Philip; Bauer, Alexander (2015). "An empirical analysis of the utilization of multiple programming languages in open source projects". Proceedings of the 19th International Conference on Evaluation and Assessment in Software Engineering. Proceedings of the 19th International Conference on Evaluation and Assessment in Software Engineering – EASE '15. New York, NY, US: ACM. pp. 4:1–4:10. doi:10.1145/2745802.2745805. ISBN 978-1-4503-3350-4. Results: We found (a) a mean number of 5 languages per project with a clearly dominant main general-purpose language and 5 often-used DSL types, (b) a significant influence of the size, number of commits, and the main language on the number of languages as well as no significant influence of age and number of contributors, and (c) three language ecosystems grouped around XML, Shell/Make, and HTML/CSS. Conclusions: Multi-language programming seems to be common in open-source projects and is a factor that must be dealt with in tooling and when assessing the development and maintenance of such software systems.

emu.edu.tr (Global: low place; English: low place)

Aaby, Anthony (2004). Introduction to Programming Languages. Archived from the original on 8 November 2012. Retrieved 29 September 2012.

ibm.com (Global: 1,369^th place; English: 968^th place)

"The basics". ibm.com. 10 May 2011. Archived from the original on 14 May 2018. Retrieved 13 May 2018.

ieee.org (Global: 912^th place; English: 722^nd place)

spectrum.ieee.org

"IEEE Spectrum". Retrieved 25 September 2025.

iso.org (Global: 1,190^th place; English: 1,097^th place)

Information technology — Vocabulary. ISO.

jeffreykegler.com (Global: low place; English: low place)

Jeffrey Kegler, "Perl and Undecidability Archived 17 August 2009 at the Wayback Machine", The Perl Review. Papers 2 and 3 prove, using respectively Rice's theorem and direct reduction to the halting problem, that the parsing of Perl programs is in general undecidable.

jhu.edu (Global: 560^th place; English: 313^th place)

apl.jhu.edu

Marty Hall, 1995, Lecture Notes: Macros Archived 6 August 2013 at the Wayback Machine, PostScript version Archived 17 August 2000 at the Wayback Machine

jstor.org (Global: 23^rd place; English: 15^th place)

Nofre, Priestley & Alberts 2014, p. 55. Nofre, David; Priestley, Mark; Alberts, Gerard (2014). "When Technology Became Language: The Origins of the Linguistic Conception of Computer Programming, 1950–1960". Technology and Culture. 55 (1): 40–75. doi:10.1353/tech.2014.0031. ISSN 0040-165X. JSTOR 24468397. PMID 24988794.
Nofre, Priestley & Alberts 2014, p. 60. Nofre, David; Priestley, Mark; Alberts, Gerard (2014). "When Technology Became Language: The Origins of the Linguistic Conception of Computer Programming, 1950–1960". Technology and Culture. 55 (1): 40–75. doi:10.1353/tech.2014.0031. ISSN 0040-165X. JSTOR 24468397. PMID 24988794.

mactech.com (Global: low place; English: low place)

Vicki, Brown; Morin, Rich (1999). "Scripting Languages". MacTech. Archived from the original on 2 December 2017.

mit.edu (Global: 476^th place; English: 340^th place)

mitpress.mit.edu

Abelson, Sussman, and Sussman. "Structure and Interpretation of Computer Programs". Archived from the original on 26 February 2009. Retrieved 3 March 2009.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)

murdoch.edu.au (Global: 9,576^th place; English: 6,089^th place)

hopl.murdoch.edu.au

"HOPL: an interactive Roster of Programming Languages". Australia: Murdoch University. Archived from the original on 20 February 2011. Retrieved 1 June 2009. This site lists 8512 languages.

nih.gov (Global: 5^th place; English: 5^th place)

pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov

Nofre, Priestley & Alberts 2014, p. 55. Nofre, David; Priestley, Mark; Alberts, Gerard (2014). "When Technology Became Language: The Origins of the Linguistic Conception of Computer Programming, 1950–1960". Technology and Culture. 55 (1): 40–75. doi:10.1353/tech.2014.0031. ISSN 0040-165X. JSTOR 24468397. PMID 24988794.
Nofre, Priestley & Alberts 2014, p. 60. Nofre, David; Priestley, Mark; Alberts, Gerard (2014). "When Technology Became Language: The Origins of the Linguistic Conception of Computer Programming, 1950–1960". Technology and Culture. 55 (1): 40–75. doi:10.1353/tech.2014.0031. ISSN 0040-165X. JSTOR 24468397. PMID 24988794.
Abdelaziz, Abdullah I.; Hanson, Kent A.; Gaber, Charles E.; Lee, Todd A. (2023). "Optimizing large real-world data analysis with parquet files in R: A step-by-step tutorial". Pharmacoepidemiology and Drug Safety. 33 (3) e5728. doi:10.1002/pds.5728. PMID 37984998.

oreilly.com (Global: 6,944^th place; English: 5,088^th place)

radar.oreilly.com

"Counting programming languages by book sales". Radar.oreilly.com. 2 August 2006. Archived from the original on 17 May 2008.

rebus.community (Global: low place; English: low place)

press.rebus.community

Busbee, Kenneth Leroy; Braunschweig, Dave (15 December 2018). "Standard Libraries". Programming Fundamentals – A Modular Structured Approach. Retrieved 27 January 2024.

schemers.org (Global: low place; English: low place)

Kelsey, Richard; William Clinger; Jonathan Rees (February 1998). "Section 7.2 Formal semantics". Revised⁵ Report on the Algorithmic Language Scheme. Archived from the original on 6 July 2006.

stackify.com (Global: low place; English: low place)

"Most Popular and Influential Programming Languages of 2018". stackify.com. 18 December 2017. Archived from the original on 30 August 2018. Retrieved 29 August 2018.

tiobe.com (Global: low place; English: low place)

"TIOBE Index". Retrieved 24 June 2024.

twobithistory.org (Global: low place; English: low place)

"How Lisp Became God's Own Programming Language". twobithistory.org. Archived from the original on 10 April 2024. Retrieved 10 April 2024.

u-picardie.fr (Global: low place; English: low place)

home.mis.u-picardie.fr

Pascal Lando, Anne Lapujade, Gilles Kassel, and Frédéric Fürst, Towards a General Ontology of Computer Programs Archived 7 July 2015 at the Wayback Machine, ICSOFT 2007 Archived 27 April 2010 at the Wayback Machine, pp. 163–170

uni-trier.de (Global: 9,199^th place; English: low place)

dblp.uni-trier.de

Pascal Lando, Anne Lapujade, Gilles Kassel, and Frédéric Fürst, Towards a General Ontology of Computer Programs Archived 7 July 2015 at the Wayback Machine, ICSOFT 2007 Archived 27 April 2010 at the Wayback Machine, pp. 163–170

uni-tuebingen.de (Global: 5,980^th place; English: 8,047^th place)

www-pu.informatik.uni-tuebingen.de

Perlis, Alan (September 1982). "Epigrams on Programming". SIGPLAN Notices Vol. 17, No. 9. pp. 7–13. Archived from the original on 17 January 1999.

utexas.edu (Global: 868^th place; English: 634^th place)

cs.utexas.edu

Dijkstra, Edsger W. On the foolishness of "natural language programming." Archived 20 January 2008 at the Wayback Machine EWD667.

web.archive.org (Global: 1^st place; English: 1^st place)

Pascal Lando, Anne Lapujade, Gilles Kassel, and Frédéric Fürst, Towards a General Ontology of Computer Programs Archived 7 July 2015 at the Wayback Machine, ICSOFT 2007 Archived 27 April 2010 at the Wayback Machine, pp. 163–170
"How Lisp Became God's Own Programming Language". twobithistory.org. Archived from the original on 10 April 2024. Retrieved 10 April 2024.
Jeffrey Kegler, "Perl and Undecidability Archived 17 August 2009 at the Wayback Machine", The Perl Review. Papers 2 and 3 prove, using respectively Rice's theorem and direct reduction to the halting problem, that the parsing of Perl programs is in general undecidable.
Marty Hall, 1995, Lecture Notes: Macros Archived 6 August 2013 at the Wayback Machine, PostScript version Archived 17 August 2000 at the Wayback Machine
Aaby, Anthony (2004). Introduction to Programming Languages. Archived from the original on 8 November 2012. Retrieved 29 September 2012.
Andrew Cooke. "Introduction To Computer Languages". Archived from the original on 15 August 2012. Retrieved 13 July 2012.
Dijkstra, Edsger W. On the foolishness of "natural language programming." Archived 20 January 2008 at the Wayback Machine EWD667.
Perlis, Alan (September 1982). "Epigrams on Programming". SIGPLAN Notices Vol. 17, No. 9. pp. 7–13. Archived from the original on 17 January 1999.
Kelsey, Richard; William Clinger; Jonathan Rees (February 1998). "Section 7.2 Formal semantics". Revised⁵ Report on the Algorithmic Language Scheme. Archived from the original on 6 July 2006.
"Guide to Programming Languages | ComputerScience.org". ComputerScience.org. Archived from the original on 13 May 2018. Retrieved 13 May 2018.
"The basics". ibm.com. 10 May 2011. Archived from the original on 14 May 2018. Retrieved 13 May 2018.
"HOPL: an interactive Roster of Programming Languages". Australia: Murdoch University. Archived from the original on 20 February 2011. Retrieved 1 June 2009. This site lists 8512 languages.
Abelson, Sussman, and Sussman. "Structure and Interpretation of Computer Programs". Archived from the original on 26 February 2009. Retrieved 3 March 2009.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
Vicki, Brown; Morin, Rich (1999). "Scripting Languages". MacTech. Archived from the original on 2 December 2017.
Georgina Swan (21 September 2009). "COBOL turns 50". Computerworld. Archived from the original on 19 October 2013. Retrieved 19 October 2013.
Ed Airey (3 May 2012). "7 Myths of COBOL Debunked". developer.com. Archived from the original on 19 October 2013. Retrieved 19 October 2013.
Nicholas Enticknap. "SSL/Computer Weekly IT salary survey: finance boom drives IT job growth". Computer Weekly. Archived from the original on 26 October 2011. Retrieved 14 June 2013.
"Counting programming languages by book sales". Radar.oreilly.com. 2 August 2006. Archived from the original on 17 May 2008.
"Most Popular and Influential Programming Languages of 2018". stackify.com. 18 December 2017. Archived from the original on 30 August 2018. Retrieved 29 August 2018.

worldcat.org (Global: 4^th place; English: 4^th place)

search.worldcat.org

Nofre, Priestley & Alberts 2014, p. 55. Nofre, David; Priestley, Mark; Alberts, Gerard (2014). "When Technology Became Language: The Origins of the Linguistic Conception of Computer Programming, 1950–1960". Technology and Culture. 55 (1): 40–75. doi:10.1353/tech.2014.0031. ISSN 0040-165X. JSTOR 24468397. PMID 24988794.
Nofre, Priestley & Alberts 2014, p. 60. Nofre, David; Priestley, Mark; Alberts, Gerard (2014). "When Technology Became Language: The Origins of the Linguistic Conception of Computer Programming, 1950–1960". Technology and Culture. 55 (1): 40–75. doi:10.1353/tech.2014.0031. ISSN 0040-165X. JSTOR 24468397. PMID 24988794.

Programming language (English Wikipedia)

acooke.org (Global: low place; English: low place)

adacomputerscience.org (Global: low place; English: low place)

arxiv.org (Global: 49th place; English: 31st place)

books.google.com (Global: 3rd place; English: 3rd place)

computer.org (Global: 6,549th place; English: 4,616th place)

computerscience.org (Global: low place; English: low place)

computerweekly.com (Global: 9,143rd place; English: 5,845th place)

computerworld.com.au (Global: low place; English: low place)

developer.com (Global: low place; English: low place)

doi.org (Global: 2nd place; English: 2nd place)

emu.edu.tr (Global: low place; English: low place)

ibm.com (Global: 1,369th place; English: 968th place)

ieee.org (Global: 912th place; English: 722nd place)

spectrum.ieee.org

iso.org (Global: 1,190th place; English: 1,097th place)

jeffreykegler.com (Global: low place; English: low place)

jhu.edu (Global: 560th place; English: 313th place)

apl.jhu.edu

jstor.org (Global: 23rd place; English: 15th place)

mactech.com (Global: low place; English: low place)

mit.edu (Global: 476th place; English: 340th place)

mitpress.mit.edu

murdoch.edu.au (Global: 9,576th place; English: 6,089th place)

hopl.murdoch.edu.au

nih.gov (Global: 5th place; English: 5th place)

pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov

oreilly.com (Global: 6,944th place; English: 5,088th place)

radar.oreilly.com

rebus.community (Global: low place; English: low place)

press.rebus.community

schemers.org (Global: low place; English: low place)

stackify.com (Global: low place; English: low place)

tiobe.com (Global: low place; English: low place)

twobithistory.org (Global: low place; English: low place)

u-picardie.fr (Global: low place; English: low place)

home.mis.u-picardie.fr

uni-trier.de (Global: 9,199th place; English: low place)

dblp.uni-trier.de

uni-tuebingen.de (Global: 5,980th place; English: 8,047th place)

www-pu.informatik.uni-tuebingen.de

utexas.edu (Global: 868th place; English: 634th place)

cs.utexas.edu

web.archive.org (Global: 1st place; English: 1st place)

worldcat.org (Global: 4th place; English: 4th place)

search.worldcat.org

arxiv.org (Global: 49^th place; English: 31^st place)

books.google.com (Global: 3^rd place; English: 3^rd place)

computer.org (Global: 6,549^th place; English: 4,616^th place)

computerweekly.com (Global: 9,143^rd place; English: 5,845^th place)

doi.org (Global: 2^nd place; English: 2^nd place)

ibm.com (Global: 1,369^th place; English: 968^th place)

ieee.org (Global: 912^th place; English: 722^nd place)

iso.org (Global: 1,190^th place; English: 1,097^th place)

jhu.edu (Global: 560^th place; English: 313^th place)

jstor.org (Global: 23^rd place; English: 15^th place)

mit.edu (Global: 476^th place; English: 340^th place)

murdoch.edu.au (Global: 9,576^th place; English: 6,089^th place)

nih.gov (Global: 5^th place; English: 5^th place)

oreilly.com (Global: 6,944^th place; English: 5,088^th place)

uni-trier.de (Global: 9,199^th place; English: low place)

uni-tuebingen.de (Global: 5,980^th place; English: 8,047^th place)

utexas.edu (Global: 868^th place; English: 634^th place)

web.archive.org (Global: 1^st place; English: 1^st place)

worldcat.org (Global: 4^th place; English: 4^th place)