Psilocybin mushroom (English Wikipedia)

Analysis of information sources in references of the Wikipedia article "Psilocybin mushroom" in English language version.

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Samorini, Giorgio (1992). "The oldest representations of hallucinogenic mushrooms in the world (Sahara Desert, 9000-7000 BP)". Integration. Zeitschrift für geistbewegende Pflanzen und Kultur. 2/3: 69–75.^{[permanent dead link]}

archive.org

Kuhn, Cynthia; Swartzwelder, Scott; Wilson, Wilkie (2003). Buzzed: The Straight Facts about the Most Used and Abused Drugs from Alcohol to Ecstasy. W.W. Norton & Company. p. 83. ISBN 978-0-393-32493-8.
Albert Hofmann (1968). "Psychotomimetic Agents". In Burger A (ed.). Drugs Affecting the Central Nervous System. Vol. 2. New York: M. Dekker. pp. 169–235. OCLC 245452885. OL 13539506M. Psilocin is approximately 1.4 times as potent as psilocybin. This ratio is the same as that of the molecular weights of the two drugs.
Schultes, Richard Evans (1976). Hallucinogenic Plants. Illustrated by Elmer W. Smith. New York: Golden Press. p. 68. ISBN 978-0-307-24362-1.
Lattin, Don (2010). The Harvard Psychedelic Club: How Timothy Leary, Ram Dass, Huston Smith, and Andrew Weil killed the fifties and ushered in a new age for America (1st ed.). New York: HarperOne. pp. 37–44. ISBN 978-0-06-165593-7.
Monaghan, John D.; Cohen, Jeffrey H. (2000). "Thirty years of Oaxacan ethnography". In Monaghan, John; Edmonson, Barbara (eds.). Ethnology. Austin, Texas: University of Texas Press. p. 165. ISBN 978-0-292-70881-5.

ballotpedia.org

"Oregon Measure 109, Psilocybin Mushroom Services Program Initiative (2020)". ballotpedia.org. November 3, 2020. Archived from the original on January 5, 2023. Retrieved January 4, 2023.
"Colorado Proposition 122, Decriminalization and Regulated Access Program for Certain Psychedelic Plants and Fungi Initiative (2022)". ballotpedia.org. November 8, 2022. Archived from the original on July 20, 2023. Retrieved July 5, 2023.

books.google.com

Albert Hofmann (1968). "Psychotomimetic Agents". In Burger A (ed.). Drugs Affecting the Central Nervous System. Vol. 2. New York: M. Dekker. pp. 169–235. OCLC 245452885. OL 13539506M. Psilocin is approximately 1.4 times as potent as psilocybin. This ratio is the same as that of the molecular weights of the two drugs.
Ballesteros, S.; Ramón, M.F.; Iturralde, M.J.; Martínez-Arrieta, R. (2006). "Natural Sources of Drugs of Abuse: Magic Mushrooms". In Cole, S.M. (ed.). New Research on Street Drugs. Nova Science Publishers. p. 175. ISBN 978-1-59454-961-8. Archived from the original on February 24, 2024. Retrieved October 19, 2016.
Brande E. (1799). "Mr. E. Brande, on a poisonous species of Agaric". The Medical and Physical Journal: Containing the Earliest Information on Subjects of Medicine, Surgery, Pharmacy, Chemistry, and Natural History. 3 (11): 41–44. PMC 5659401. PMID 30490162. Archived from the original on February 24, 2024. Retrieved October 19, 2016.
Wasson RG (1957). "Seeking the magic mushroom". Life. No. May 13. pp. 100–120. Archived from the original on February 24, 2024. Retrieved October 19, 2016.
Monaghan, John D.; Cohen, Jeffrey H. (2000). "Thirty years of Oaxacan ethnography". In Monaghan, John; Edmonson, Barbara (eds.). Ethnology. Austin, Texas: University of Texas Press. p. 165. ISBN 978-0-292-70881-5.

businesswire.com

"FDA grants Breakthrough Therapy Designation to Usona Institute's psilocybin program for major depressive disorder". Business Wire. November 22, 2019. Archived from the original on October 26, 2021. Retrieved September 17, 2020.

canada.ca

Canada, Health (January 12, 2012). "Magic mushrooms – Canada.ca". www.canada.ca. Archived from the original on December 22, 2017. Retrieved December 20, 2017.

coloradosun.com

Brown, Jennifer (November 10, 2022). "Colorado becomes second state to legalize "magic mushrooms"". The Colorado Sun. Archived from the original on November 10, 2022. Retrieved November 10, 2022.

dea.gov

"Psilocybin Drug Fact Sheet" (PDF). dea.gov. April 21, 2020. Archived (PDF) from the original on January 5, 2023. Retrieved January 4, 2023.

doi.org

Pepe M, Hesami M, de la Cerda KA, Perreault ML, Hsiang T, Jones AM (December 2023). "A journey with psychedelic mushrooms: From historical relevance to biology, cultivation, medicinal uses, biotechnology, and beyond". Biotechnol Adv. 69: 108247. doi:10.1016/j.biotechadv.2023.108247. PMID 37659744. On a dry weight basis, psilocybin content within the basidiocarp ranges from 0.03% to 1.6% across various Psilocybe species (Anastos et al., 2006; Beug and Bigwood, 1982; Fricke et al., 2019; Gartz et al., 1994; Pedersen-Bjergaard et al., 1997). However, newly developed lineages with higher average amounts of psilocybin are continuously being produced. A recent survey of 14 Psilocybe species sourced from around the world established that tryptamine content including psilocybin is greatest in P. cyanescens, whereas Psilocybe fus cofulva contains no psilocybin (Gotvaldova ´ et al., 2022). Tryptamines can also vary across varieties of a species, and their individual collec tions as is the case for Psilocybe serbica varieties 'arcana', bohemica' and 'moravica' (Boroviˇcka et al., 2015; Gotvaldova ´ et al., 2022; Reynolds et al., 2018). Psilocybin levels can be on par to an order of magnitude greater than psilocin levels (Borner and Brenneisen, 1987; Gartz et al., 1994; Gotvaldov´ a et al., 2022). [...] With respect to other tryptamines, baeocystin content is absent in some psilocybin-containing species but as high as 0.45% on a dry weight basis in certain species (Christiansen and Rasmussen, 1982; Gartz et al., 1994; Gotvaldova ´ et al., 2022; Pedersen-Bjergaard et al., 1997). [...] Apart from the abovementioned tryptamines, β-carbolines such as harmane and har mine are also known to occur in Psilocybe, albeit at 0.1% or less of psilocybin levels in these same mushrooms (Blei et al., 2020). [...] Additionally, various compounds can collectively contribute to what is known as "the entourage effect", which describes the synergistic interaction of a variety of different metabolites that enhance the activity of the primary active components (Russo, 2019). Tryptamine concentrations and profiles across different Psilocybe species are highly variable. Thus, the diversity of Psilocybe species results in differential production of an assortment of tryptamines in different concentrations (Glatfelter et al., 2022), which is likely responsible for variable psychoactive effects of various mushrooms.
Gotvaldova, Klara; Borovicka, Jan; Hajkova, Katerina; Cihlarova, Petra; Rockefeller, Alan; Kuchar, Martin (2022). "Extensive Collection of Psychotropic Mushrooms with Determination of Their Tryptamine Alkaloids". International Journal of Molecular Sciences. 23 (22): 14068. doi:10.3390/ijms232214068. ISSN 1422-0067. PMC 9693126. PMID 36430546.
Guzmán, G. (2005). "Species diversity of the genus Psilocybe (Basidiomycotina, Agaricales, Strophariaceae) in the world mycobiota, with special attention to hallucinogenic properties". International Journal of Medicinal Mushrooms. 7 (1–2): 305–331. doi:10.1615/intjmedmushr.v7.i12.280.
Wurst, M.; Kysilka, R.; Flieger, M. (2002). "Psychoactive tryptamines from Basidiomycetes". Folia Microbiologica. 47 (1): 3–27 [5]. doi:10.1007/BF02818560. PMID 11980266. S2CID 31056807.
van der Merwe, B.; Rockefeller, A.; Kilian, A.; Clark, C.; Sethathi, M.; Moult, T.; Jacobs (September 2, 2024). "A description of two novel Psilocybe species from southern Africa and some notes on African traditional hallucinogenic mushroom use". Mycologia. 116 (5): 821–834. doi:10.1080/00275514.2024.2363137. ISSN 0027-5514. PMID 38953774.
Guzmán G (2015). "New Studies on Hallucinogenic Mushrooms: History, Diversity, and Applications in Psychiatry". Int J Med Mushrooms. 17 (11): 1019–1029. doi:10.1615/intjmedmushrooms.v17.i11.10. PMID 26853956.
Arora, David (2008). "Notes on Economic Mushrooms. Xiao Ren Ren: The "Little People" of Yunnan" (PDF). Economic Botany. 62 (3). New York Botanical Garden Press: 540–544. doi:10.1007/s12231-008-9049-0. ISSN 0013-0001. JSTOR 40390492. Retrieved February 18, 2025.
Sherwood AM, Halberstadt AL, Klein AK, McCorvy JD, Kaylo KW, Kargbo RB, Meisenheimer P (February 2020). "Synthesis and Biological Evaluation of Tryptamines Found in Hallucinogenic Mushrooms: Norbaeocystin, Baeocystin, Norpsilocin, and Aeruginascin". J Nat Prod. 83 (2): 461–467. doi:10.1021/acs.jnatprod.9b01061. PMID 32077284.
Glatfelter GC, Pottie E, Partilla JS, Sherwood AM, Kaylo K, Pham DN, Naeem M, Sammeta VR, DeBoer S, Golen JA, Hulley EB, Stove CP, Chadeayne AR, Manke DR, Baumann MH (November 2022). "Structure-Activity Relationships for Psilocybin, Baeocystin, Aeruginascin, and Related Analogues to Produce Pharmacological Effects in Mice". ACS Pharmacol Transl Sci. 5 (11): 1181–1196. doi:10.1021/acsptsci.2c00177. PMC 9667540. PMID 36407948.
Rakoczy RJ, Runge GN, Sen AK, Sandoval O, Wells HG, Nguyen Q, Roberts BR, Sciortino JH, Gibbons WJ, Friedberg LM, Jones JA, McMurray MS (October 2024). "Pharmacological and behavioural effects of tryptamines present in psilocybin-containing mushrooms". Br J Pharmacol. 181 (19): 3627–3641. doi:10.1111/bph.16466. PMID 38825326.
Lerer L, Botvinnik A, Spear K, Shahar O, Lipski P, Calderon H, Blakolmer K, Lifschytz T, Lerer B (December 2022). "ACNP 61st Annual Meeting: Poster Abstracts P271-P540: P425. Tripping Mice and Stoned Fish: Head Twitch Response (HTR) and Behavioral Phenotypic Evidence of Effect Differences Between Synthetic Psilocybin and Psychedelic Mushroom Extract". Neuropsychopharmacology. 47 (Suppl 1): 220–370 (308–309). doi:10.1038/s41386-022-01485-0. PMC 9714399. PMID 36456694.
Zhuk O, Jasicka-Misiak I, Poliwoda A, Kazakova A, Godovan VV, Halama M, Wieczorek PP (March 2015). "Research on acute toxicity and the behavioral effects of methanolic extract from psilocybin mushrooms and psilocin in mice". Toxins (Basel). 7 (4): 1018–1029. doi:10.3390/toxins7041018. PMC 4417952. PMID 25826052.
Plazas E, Faraone N (February 2023). "Indole Alkaloids from Psychoactive Mushrooms: Chemical and Pharmacological Potential as Psychotherapeutic Agents". Biomedicines. 11 (2): 461. doi:10.3390/biomedicines11020461. PMC 9953455. PMID 36830997.
Blei F, Dörner S, Fricke J, Baldeweg F, Trottmann F, Komor A, Meyer F, Hertweck C, Hoffmeister D (January 2020). "Simultaneous Production of Psilocybin and a Cocktail of β-Carboline Monoamine Oxidase Inhibitors in 'Magic' Mushrooms". Chemistry: A European Journal. 26 (3): 729–734. doi:10.1002/chem.201904363. PMC 7003923. PMID 31729089.
Krüzselyi D, Vetter J, Ott PG, Darcsi A, Béni S, Gömöry Á, Drahos L, Zsila F, Móricz ÁM (September 2019). "Isolation and structural elucidation of a novel brunnein-type antioxidant β-carboline alkaloid from Cyclocybe cylindracea". Fitoterapia. 137: 104180. doi:10.1016/j.fitote.2019.104180. PMID 31150766. S2CID 172137046.
Teichert A, Lübken T, Schmidt J, Kuhnt C, Huth M, Porzel A, Wessjohann L, Arnold N (2008). "Determination of beta-carboline alkaloids in fruiting bodies of Hygrophorus spp. by liquid chromatography/electrospray ionization tandem mass spectrometry". Phytochemical Analysis. 19 (4): 335–41. Bibcode:2008PChAn..19..335T. doi:10.1002/pca.1057. PMID 18401852.
van Amsterdam J, Opperhuizen A, van den Brink W (April 2011). "Harm potential of magic mushroom use: a review" (PDF). Regul Toxicol Pharmacol. 59 (3): 423–429. doi:10.1016/j.yrtph.2011.01.006. PMID 21256914. Magic mushrooms show a large variation in potency; their potency depends on the species or variety that is used, their origin, growing conditions and age. P. cubensis and Psilocybe semilanceata or 'Psilocybe', commonly known as liberty caps, contain 10 mg of psylocybin per gram of dried mushroom weight (1% w/w). Some other species (e.g. Psilocybe azurenscens and Psilocybe bohemica) contain slightly more psylocybin. The averaged dose of psilocybin that induces hallucinogenic effects is 4–10 mg (Beck et al., 1998) or 50–300 μg/kg body weight (Hasler et al., 2004), and therefore the minimum amount of mushrooms needed to get the desired recreational effect is about 1 g of dried magic mushrooms or 10 g of fresh magic mushrooms. The dose 'recommended' for recreational use is reported to be somewhat higher: between 1 and 3.5–5 g of dried mushrooms or 10–50 g for fresh mushrooms (Erowid, 2006). These dose ranges should be interpreted with caution, because it is difficult to estimate the dose of the active or hallucinogenic substance (e.g. psilocybin) into mushrooms (weight or number), as the concentration may vary. Furthermore, in addition to psilocybin and psilocin usually other pharmacologically active substance like indoles, phenylethylamines and baeocystin are present in magic mushrooms. However, as short-term tolerance may develop rapidly to both physical and psychological effect, dosages may have to be increased to obtain the desired effect.
Bigwood J, Beug MW (1982). "Variation of psilocybin and psilocin levels with repeated flushes (harvests) of mature sporocarps of Psilocybe cubensis (Earle) Singer". Journal of Ethnopharmacology. 5 (3): 287–291. doi:10.1016/0378-8741(82)90014-9. PMID 7201054.
Tylš F, Páleníček T, Horáček J (March 2014). "Psilocybin--summary of knowledge and new perspectives" (PDF). Eur Neuropsychopharmacol. 24 (3): 342–356. doi:10.1016/j.euroneuro.2013.12.006. PMID 24444771. The content of psilocybin and psilocin in hallucinogenic mushrooms varies in the range from 0.2% to 1% of dry weight (Table 2.). [...] Table 2 Content of psilocybin and psilocin in the dry state of selected representatives of psychoactive mushrooms, x=content is not known. [...] An equimolar dose to 1 mol of psilocin is 1.4 mol of psilocybin (Wolbach et al., 1962).
Lowe H, Toyang N, Steele B, Valentine H, Grant J, Ali A, Ngwa W, Gordon L (May 2021). "The Therapeutic Potential of Psilocybin". Molecules. 26 (10): 2948. doi:10.3390/molecules26102948. PMC 8156539. PMID 34063505. S2CID 235227972. Even though there is interest in the extraction of psilocybin from naturally growing or cultivated mushrooms, the psilocybin yield obtained (0.1–0.2% of dry weight) is not economically viable for drug research and development [...] Recreationally, users typically ingest anywhere between 10–50 g of fresh mushrooms (1–5 g of dried mushrooms), which corresponds to a dosage of about 10–50 mg psilocybin [233].
Laussmann, Tim; Meier-Giebing, Sigrid (2010). "Forensic analysis of hallucinogenic mushrooms and khat (Catha edulisForsk) using cation-exchange liquid chromatography". Forensic Science International. 1 (3): 160–164. doi:10.1016/j.forsciint.2009.12.013. PMID 20047807.
Nichols DE (October 2020). "Psilocybin: from ancient magic to modern medicine". J Antibiot (Tokyo). 73 (10): 679–686. doi:10.1038/s41429-020-0311-8. PMID 32398764. Total psilocybin and psilocin levels in species known to be used recreationally varied from 0.1% to nearly 2% by dry weight [8]. The medium oral dose of psilocybin is 4–8 mg, which elicits the same symptoms as the consumption of about 2 g of dried Psilocybe Mexicana [9].
Kurzbaum, Eyal; Páleníček, Tomáš; Shrchaton, Amiel; Azerrad, Sara; Dekel, Yaron (January 28, 2025). "Exploring Psilocybe cubensis Strains: Cultivation Techniques, Psychoactive Compounds, Genetics and Research Gaps". Journal of Fungi. 11 (2): 99. doi:10.3390/jof11020099. ISSN 2309-608X. PMC 11856550. Prior to detailing specific strains, it is important to acknowledge that the following examples are predominantly sourced from non-academic, community-based reports. This is due, in part, to legislative restrictions on psilocybin, which have limited formal academic research on Psilocybe species. The following descriptions provide a nuanced understanding of the variety within P. cubensis strains. Among the most prominent strains, 'Golden Teacher' is renowned for its vigorous growth and substantial psychotropic effects, garnering substantial preference among both novices and experienced mycologists. The 'B+' strain is lauded for its resilience and consistent productivity under diverse environmental conditions. Furthermore, the 'Penis Envy' strain is noted for its exceptional potency and distinct morphological characteristics, which have contributed to its recognition and prominence within the community.
Goff R, Smith M, Islam S, Sisley S, Ferguson J, Kuzdzal S, Badal S, Kumar AB, Sreenivasan U, Schug KA (February 2024). "Determination of psilocybin and psilocin content in multiple Psilocybe cubensis mushroom strains using liquid chromatography - tandem mass spectrometry". Anal Chim Acta. 1288: 342161. Bibcode:2024AcAC.128842161G. doi:10.1016/j.aca.2023.342161. PMID 38220293. A method for clinical potency determination of psilocybin and psilocin in hallucinogenic mushroom species Psilocybe cubensis was developed using liquid chromatography with tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS). Five strains of dried, intact mushrooms were obtained and analyzed: Blue Meanie, Creeper, B-Plus, Texas Yellow, and Thai Cubensis. [...] From most to least potent, the study found that the average total psilocybin and psilocin concentrations for the Creeper, Blue Meanie, B+, Texas Yellow, and Thai Cubensis strains were 1.36, 1.221, 1.134, 1.103, and 0.879 % (w/w), respectively.
Gotvaldová K, Borovička J, Hájková K, Cihlářová P, Rockefeller A, Kuchař M (November 2022). "Extensive Collection of Psychotropic Mushrooms with Determination of Their Tryptamine Alkaloids". Int J Mol Sci. 23 (22): 14068. doi:10.3390/ijms232214068. PMC 9693126. PMID 36430546.
Holze F, Singh N, Liechti ME, D'Souza DC (May 2024). "Serotonergic Psychedelics: A Comparative Review of Efficacy, Safety, Pharmacokinetics, and Binding Profile". Biol Psychiatry Cogn Neurosci Neuroimaging. 9 (5): 472–489. doi:10.1016/j.bpsc.2024.01.007. PMID 38301886.
Wolbach AB, Miner EJ, Isbell H (1962). "Comparison of psilocin with psilocybin, mescaline and LSD-25". Psychopharmacologia. 3 (3): 219–223. doi:10.1007/BF00412109. PMID 14007905. Psilocin is approximately 1.4 times as potent as psilocybin. This ratio is the same as that of the molecular weights of the two drugs.
Kozlowska U, Nichols C, Wiatr K, Figiel M (July 2022). "From psychiatry to neurology: Psychedelics as prospective therapeutics for neurodegenerative disorders". J Neurochem. 162 (1): 89–108. doi:10.1111/jnc.15509. PMID 34519052. One dosing method of psychedelics is the use of so called "microdoses"—very low concentrations of various psychedelics that do not reach the threshold of perceivable behavioral effects. This is usually 10% of active recreational doses (e.g., 10–15 µg of LSD, or 0.1–0.3 g of dry "magic mushrooms") taken up to three times per week.
Nutt DJ, King LA, Phillips LD (November 2010). "Drug harms in the UK: a multicriteria decision analysis". Lancet. 376 (9752): 1558–1565. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.690.1283. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(10)61462-6. PMID 21036393. S2CID 5667719.
Passie, T.; Seifert, J.; Schneider, und; Emrich, H.M. (2002). "The pharmacology of psilocybin". Addiction Biology. 7 (4): 357–364. doi:10.1080/1355621021000005937. PMID 14578010. S2CID 12656091.
van Amsterdam, J.; Opperhuizen, A.; van den Brink, W. (2011). "Harm potential of magic mushroom use: A review". Regulatory Toxicology and Pharmacology. 59 (3): 423–429. doi:10.1016/j.yrtph.2011.01.006. PMID 21256914.
Wittmann, M.; Carter, O.; Hasler, F.; Cahn, B.R.; Grimberg, und; Spring, P.; Hell, D.; Flohr, H.; Vollenweider, F.X. (2007). "Effects of psilocybin on time perception and temporal control of behavior in humans". Journal of Psychopharmacology. 21 (1): 50–64. doi:10.1177/0269881106065859. PMID 16714323. S2CID 3165579.
Kosentka, Pawel (2013). "Evolution of the toxins muscarine and psilocybin in a family of mushroom-forming fungi". PLOS ONE. 8 (5): e64646. Bibcode:2013PLoSO...864646K. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0064646. PMC 3662758. PMID 23717644.
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Guzmán G. (2008). "Hallucinogenic mushrooms in Mexico: An overview". Economic Botany. 62 (3): 404–412. Bibcode:2008EcBot..62..404G. doi:10.1007/s12231-008-9033-8. S2CID 22085876.
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Hofmann A, Frey A, Ott H, Petrzilka T, Troxler F (1958). "Konstitutionsaufklärung und Synthese von Psilocybin" [The composition and synthesis of psilocybin]. Cellular and Molecular Life Sciences (in German). 14 (11): 397–399. doi:10.1007/BF02160424. PMID 13609599. S2CID 33692940.
Hofmann A, Heim R, Brack A, Kobel H (1958). "Psilocybin, ein psychotroper Wirkstoff aus dem mexikanischen Rauschpilz Psilocybe mexicana Heim" [Psilocybin, a psychotropic drug from the Mexican magic mushroom Psilocybe mexicana Heim]. Experientia (in German). 14 (3): 107–109. doi:10.1007/BF02159243. PMID 13537892. S2CID 42898430.
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drugabuse.gov

Abuse, National Institute on Drug (April 22, 2019). "Hallucinogens DrugFacts". National Institute on Drug Abuse. Archived from the original on December 26, 2018. Retrieved December 27, 2020.

erowid.org

Erowid (2006). "Erowid Psilocybin Mushroom Vault: Dosage" (shtml). Erowid. Archived from the original on December 23, 2023. Retrieved November 26, 2006.

europa.eu

emcdda.europa.eu

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harvard.edu

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Teichert A, Lübken T, Schmidt J, Kuhnt C, Huth M, Porzel A, Wessjohann L, Arnold N (2008). "Determination of beta-carboline alkaloids in fruiting bodies of Hygrophorus spp. by liquid chromatography/electrospray ionization tandem mass spectrometry". Phytochemical Analysis. 19 (4): 335–41. Bibcode:2008PChAn..19..335T. doi:10.1002/pca.1057. PMID 18401852.
Goff R, Smith M, Islam S, Sisley S, Ferguson J, Kuzdzal S, Badal S, Kumar AB, Sreenivasan U, Schug KA (February 2024). "Determination of psilocybin and psilocin content in multiple Psilocybe cubensis mushroom strains using liquid chromatography - tandem mass spectrometry". Anal Chim Acta. 1288: 342161. Bibcode:2024AcAC.128842161G. doi:10.1016/j.aca.2023.342161. PMID 38220293. A method for clinical potency determination of psilocybin and psilocin in hallucinogenic mushroom species Psilocybe cubensis was developed using liquid chromatography with tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS). Five strains of dried, intact mushrooms were obtained and analyzed: Blue Meanie, Creeper, B-Plus, Texas Yellow, and Thai Cubensis. [...] From most to least potent, the study found that the average total psilocybin and psilocin concentrations for the Creeper, Blue Meanie, B+, Texas Yellow, and Thai Cubensis strains were 1.36, 1.221, 1.134, 1.103, and 0.879 % (w/w), respectively.
Kosentka, Pawel (2013). "Evolution of the toxins muscarine and psilocybin in a family of mushroom-forming fungi". PLOS ONE. 8 (5): e64646. Bibcode:2013PLoSO...864646K. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0064646. PMC 3662758. PMID 23717644.
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Pepe M, Hesami M, de la Cerda KA, Perreault ML, Hsiang T, Jones AM (December 2023). "A journey with psychedelic mushrooms: From historical relevance to biology, cultivation, medicinal uses, biotechnology, and beyond". Biotechnol Adv. 69: 108247. doi:10.1016/j.biotechadv.2023.108247. PMID 37659744. On a dry weight basis, psilocybin content within the basidiocarp ranges from 0.03% to 1.6% across various Psilocybe species (Anastos et al., 2006; Beug and Bigwood, 1982; Fricke et al., 2019; Gartz et al., 1994; Pedersen-Bjergaard et al., 1997). However, newly developed lineages with higher average amounts of psilocybin are continuously being produced. A recent survey of 14 Psilocybe species sourced from around the world established that tryptamine content including psilocybin is greatest in P. cyanescens, whereas Psilocybe fus cofulva contains no psilocybin (Gotvaldova ´ et al., 2022). Tryptamines can also vary across varieties of a species, and their individual collec tions as is the case for Psilocybe serbica varieties 'arcana', bohemica' and 'moravica' (Boroviˇcka et al., 2015; Gotvaldova ´ et al., 2022; Reynolds et al., 2018). Psilocybin levels can be on par to an order of magnitude greater than psilocin levels (Borner and Brenneisen, 1987; Gartz et al., 1994; Gotvaldov´ a et al., 2022). [...] With respect to other tryptamines, baeocystin content is absent in some psilocybin-containing species but as high as 0.45% on a dry weight basis in certain species (Christiansen and Rasmussen, 1982; Gartz et al., 1994; Gotvaldova ´ et al., 2022; Pedersen-Bjergaard et al., 1997). [...] Apart from the abovementioned tryptamines, β-carbolines such as harmane and har mine are also known to occur in Psilocybe, albeit at 0.1% or less of psilocybin levels in these same mushrooms (Blei et al., 2020). [...] Additionally, various compounds can collectively contribute to what is known as "the entourage effect", which describes the synergistic interaction of a variety of different metabolites that enhance the activity of the primary active components (Russo, 2019). Tryptamine concentrations and profiles across different Psilocybe species are highly variable. Thus, the diversity of Psilocybe species results in differential production of an assortment of tryptamines in different concentrations (Glatfelter et al., 2022), which is likely responsible for variable psychoactive effects of various mushrooms.
Gotvaldova, Klara; Borovicka, Jan; Hajkova, Katerina; Cihlarova, Petra; Rockefeller, Alan; Kuchar, Martin (2022). "Extensive Collection of Psychotropic Mushrooms with Determination of Their Tryptamine Alkaloids". International Journal of Molecular Sciences. 23 (22): 14068. doi:10.3390/ijms232214068. ISSN 1422-0067. PMC 9693126. PMID 36430546.
Wurst, M.; Kysilka, R.; Flieger, M. (2002). "Psychoactive tryptamines from Basidiomycetes". Folia Microbiologica. 47 (1): 3–27 [5]. doi:10.1007/BF02818560. PMID 11980266. S2CID 31056807.
van der Merwe, B.; Rockefeller, A.; Kilian, A.; Clark, C.; Sethathi, M.; Moult, T.; Jacobs (September 2, 2024). "A description of two novel Psilocybe species from southern Africa and some notes on African traditional hallucinogenic mushroom use". Mycologia. 116 (5): 821–834. doi:10.1080/00275514.2024.2363137. ISSN 0027-5514. PMID 38953774.
Guzmán G (2015). "New Studies on Hallucinogenic Mushrooms: History, Diversity, and Applications in Psychiatry". Int J Med Mushrooms. 17 (11): 1019–1029. doi:10.1615/intjmedmushrooms.v17.i11.10. PMID 26853956.
Sherwood AM, Halberstadt AL, Klein AK, McCorvy JD, Kaylo KW, Kargbo RB, Meisenheimer P (February 2020). "Synthesis and Biological Evaluation of Tryptamines Found in Hallucinogenic Mushrooms: Norbaeocystin, Baeocystin, Norpsilocin, and Aeruginascin". J Nat Prod. 83 (2): 461–467. doi:10.1021/acs.jnatprod.9b01061. PMID 32077284.
Glatfelter GC, Pottie E, Partilla JS, Sherwood AM, Kaylo K, Pham DN, Naeem M, Sammeta VR, DeBoer S, Golen JA, Hulley EB, Stove CP, Chadeayne AR, Manke DR, Baumann MH (November 2022). "Structure-Activity Relationships for Psilocybin, Baeocystin, Aeruginascin, and Related Analogues to Produce Pharmacological Effects in Mice". ACS Pharmacol Transl Sci. 5 (11): 1181–1196. doi:10.1021/acsptsci.2c00177. PMC 9667540. PMID 36407948.
Rakoczy RJ, Runge GN, Sen AK, Sandoval O, Wells HG, Nguyen Q, Roberts BR, Sciortino JH, Gibbons WJ, Friedberg LM, Jones JA, McMurray MS (October 2024). "Pharmacological and behavioural effects of tryptamines present in psilocybin-containing mushrooms". Br J Pharmacol. 181 (19): 3627–3641. doi:10.1111/bph.16466. PMID 38825326.
Lerer L, Botvinnik A, Spear K, Shahar O, Lipski P, Calderon H, Blakolmer K, Lifschytz T, Lerer B (December 2022). "ACNP 61st Annual Meeting: Poster Abstracts P271-P540: P425. Tripping Mice and Stoned Fish: Head Twitch Response (HTR) and Behavioral Phenotypic Evidence of Effect Differences Between Synthetic Psilocybin and Psychedelic Mushroom Extract". Neuropsychopharmacology. 47 (Suppl 1): 220–370 (308–309). doi:10.1038/s41386-022-01485-0. PMC 9714399. PMID 36456694.
Zhuk O, Jasicka-Misiak I, Poliwoda A, Kazakova A, Godovan VV, Halama M, Wieczorek PP (March 2015). "Research on acute toxicity and the behavioral effects of methanolic extract from psilocybin mushrooms and psilocin in mice". Toxins (Basel). 7 (4): 1018–1029. doi:10.3390/toxins7041018. PMC 4417952. PMID 25826052.
Plazas E, Faraone N (February 2023). "Indole Alkaloids from Psychoactive Mushrooms: Chemical and Pharmacological Potential as Psychotherapeutic Agents". Biomedicines. 11 (2): 461. doi:10.3390/biomedicines11020461. PMC 9953455. PMID 36830997.
Blei F, Dörner S, Fricke J, Baldeweg F, Trottmann F, Komor A, Meyer F, Hertweck C, Hoffmeister D (January 2020). "Simultaneous Production of Psilocybin and a Cocktail of β-Carboline Monoamine Oxidase Inhibitors in 'Magic' Mushrooms". Chemistry: A European Journal. 26 (3): 729–734. doi:10.1002/chem.201904363. PMC 7003923. PMID 31729089.
Krüzselyi D, Vetter J, Ott PG, Darcsi A, Béni S, Gömöry Á, Drahos L, Zsila F, Móricz ÁM (September 2019). "Isolation and structural elucidation of a novel brunnein-type antioxidant β-carboline alkaloid from Cyclocybe cylindracea". Fitoterapia. 137: 104180. doi:10.1016/j.fitote.2019.104180. PMID 31150766. S2CID 172137046.
Teichert A, Lübken T, Schmidt J, Kuhnt C, Huth M, Porzel A, Wessjohann L, Arnold N (2008). "Determination of beta-carboline alkaloids in fruiting bodies of Hygrophorus spp. by liquid chromatography/electrospray ionization tandem mass spectrometry". Phytochemical Analysis. 19 (4): 335–41. Bibcode:2008PChAn..19..335T. doi:10.1002/pca.1057. PMID 18401852.
van Amsterdam J, Opperhuizen A, van den Brink W (April 2011). "Harm potential of magic mushroom use: a review" (PDF). Regul Toxicol Pharmacol. 59 (3): 423–429. doi:10.1016/j.yrtph.2011.01.006. PMID 21256914. Magic mushrooms show a large variation in potency; their potency depends on the species or variety that is used, their origin, growing conditions and age. P. cubensis and Psilocybe semilanceata or 'Psilocybe', commonly known as liberty caps, contain 10 mg of psylocybin per gram of dried mushroom weight (1% w/w). Some other species (e.g. Psilocybe azurenscens and Psilocybe bohemica) contain slightly more psylocybin. The averaged dose of psilocybin that induces hallucinogenic effects is 4–10 mg (Beck et al., 1998) or 50–300 μg/kg body weight (Hasler et al., 2004), and therefore the minimum amount of mushrooms needed to get the desired recreational effect is about 1 g of dried magic mushrooms or 10 g of fresh magic mushrooms. The dose 'recommended' for recreational use is reported to be somewhat higher: between 1 and 3.5–5 g of dried mushrooms or 10–50 g for fresh mushrooms (Erowid, 2006). These dose ranges should be interpreted with caution, because it is difficult to estimate the dose of the active or hallucinogenic substance (e.g. psilocybin) into mushrooms (weight or number), as the concentration may vary. Furthermore, in addition to psilocybin and psilocin usually other pharmacologically active substance like indoles, phenylethylamines and baeocystin are present in magic mushrooms. However, as short-term tolerance may develop rapidly to both physical and psychological effect, dosages may have to be increased to obtain the desired effect.
Bigwood J, Beug MW (1982). "Variation of psilocybin and psilocin levels with repeated flushes (harvests) of mature sporocarps of Psilocybe cubensis (Earle) Singer". Journal of Ethnopharmacology. 5 (3): 287–291. doi:10.1016/0378-8741(82)90014-9. PMID 7201054.
Tylš F, Páleníček T, Horáček J (March 2014). "Psilocybin--summary of knowledge and new perspectives" (PDF). Eur Neuropsychopharmacol. 24 (3): 342–356. doi:10.1016/j.euroneuro.2013.12.006. PMID 24444771. The content of psilocybin and psilocin in hallucinogenic mushrooms varies in the range from 0.2% to 1% of dry weight (Table 2.). [...] Table 2 Content of psilocybin and psilocin in the dry state of selected representatives of psychoactive mushrooms, x=content is not known. [...] An equimolar dose to 1 mol of psilocin is 1.4 mol of psilocybin (Wolbach et al., 1962).
Lowe H, Toyang N, Steele B, Valentine H, Grant J, Ali A, Ngwa W, Gordon L (May 2021). "The Therapeutic Potential of Psilocybin". Molecules. 26 (10): 2948. doi:10.3390/molecules26102948. PMC 8156539. PMID 34063505. S2CID 235227972. Even though there is interest in the extraction of psilocybin from naturally growing or cultivated mushrooms, the psilocybin yield obtained (0.1–0.2% of dry weight) is not economically viable for drug research and development [...] Recreationally, users typically ingest anywhere between 10–50 g of fresh mushrooms (1–5 g of dried mushrooms), which corresponds to a dosage of about 10–50 mg psilocybin [233].
Laussmann, Tim; Meier-Giebing, Sigrid (2010). "Forensic analysis of hallucinogenic mushrooms and khat (Catha edulisForsk) using cation-exchange liquid chromatography". Forensic Science International. 1 (3): 160–164. doi:10.1016/j.forsciint.2009.12.013. PMID 20047807.
Nichols DE (October 2020). "Psilocybin: from ancient magic to modern medicine". J Antibiot (Tokyo). 73 (10): 679–686. doi:10.1038/s41429-020-0311-8. PMID 32398764. Total psilocybin and psilocin levels in species known to be used recreationally varied from 0.1% to nearly 2% by dry weight [8]. The medium oral dose of psilocybin is 4–8 mg, which elicits the same symptoms as the consumption of about 2 g of dried Psilocybe Mexicana [9].
Goff R, Smith M, Islam S, Sisley S, Ferguson J, Kuzdzal S, Badal S, Kumar AB, Sreenivasan U, Schug KA (February 2024). "Determination of psilocybin and psilocin content in multiple Psilocybe cubensis mushroom strains using liquid chromatography - tandem mass spectrometry". Anal Chim Acta. 1288: 342161. Bibcode:2024AcAC.128842161G. doi:10.1016/j.aca.2023.342161. PMID 38220293. A method for clinical potency determination of psilocybin and psilocin in hallucinogenic mushroom species Psilocybe cubensis was developed using liquid chromatography with tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS). Five strains of dried, intact mushrooms were obtained and analyzed: Blue Meanie, Creeper, B-Plus, Texas Yellow, and Thai Cubensis. [...] From most to least potent, the study found that the average total psilocybin and psilocin concentrations for the Creeper, Blue Meanie, B+, Texas Yellow, and Thai Cubensis strains were 1.36, 1.221, 1.134, 1.103, and 0.879 % (w/w), respectively.
Gotvaldová K, Borovička J, Hájková K, Cihlářová P, Rockefeller A, Kuchař M (November 2022). "Extensive Collection of Psychotropic Mushrooms with Determination of Their Tryptamine Alkaloids". Int J Mol Sci. 23 (22): 14068. doi:10.3390/ijms232214068. PMC 9693126. PMID 36430546.
Holze F, Singh N, Liechti ME, D'Souza DC (May 2024). "Serotonergic Psychedelics: A Comparative Review of Efficacy, Safety, Pharmacokinetics, and Binding Profile". Biol Psychiatry Cogn Neurosci Neuroimaging. 9 (5): 472–489. doi:10.1016/j.bpsc.2024.01.007. PMID 38301886.
Wolbach AB, Miner EJ, Isbell H (1962). "Comparison of psilocin with psilocybin, mescaline and LSD-25". Psychopharmacologia. 3 (3): 219–223. doi:10.1007/BF00412109. PMID 14007905. Psilocin is approximately 1.4 times as potent as psilocybin. This ratio is the same as that of the molecular weights of the two drugs.
Kozlowska U, Nichols C, Wiatr K, Figiel M (July 2022). "From psychiatry to neurology: Psychedelics as prospective therapeutics for neurodegenerative disorders". J Neurochem. 162 (1): 89–108. doi:10.1111/jnc.15509. PMID 34519052. One dosing method of psychedelics is the use of so called "microdoses"—very low concentrations of various psychedelics that do not reach the threshold of perceivable behavioral effects. This is usually 10% of active recreational doses (e.g., 10–15 µg of LSD, or 0.1–0.3 g of dry "magic mushrooms") taken up to three times per week.
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ncbi.nlm.nih.gov

Gotvaldova, Klara; Borovicka, Jan; Hajkova, Katerina; Cihlarova, Petra; Rockefeller, Alan; Kuchar, Martin (2022). "Extensive Collection of Psychotropic Mushrooms with Determination of Their Tryptamine Alkaloids". International Journal of Molecular Sciences. 23 (22): 14068. doi:10.3390/ijms232214068. ISSN 1422-0067. PMC 9693126. PMID 36430546.
Glatfelter GC, Pottie E, Partilla JS, Sherwood AM, Kaylo K, Pham DN, Naeem M, Sammeta VR, DeBoer S, Golen JA, Hulley EB, Stove CP, Chadeayne AR, Manke DR, Baumann MH (November 2022). "Structure-Activity Relationships for Psilocybin, Baeocystin, Aeruginascin, and Related Analogues to Produce Pharmacological Effects in Mice". ACS Pharmacol Transl Sci. 5 (11): 1181–1196. doi:10.1021/acsptsci.2c00177. PMC 9667540. PMID 36407948.
Lerer L, Botvinnik A, Spear K, Shahar O, Lipski P, Calderon H, Blakolmer K, Lifschytz T, Lerer B (December 2022). "ACNP 61st Annual Meeting: Poster Abstracts P271-P540: P425. Tripping Mice and Stoned Fish: Head Twitch Response (HTR) and Behavioral Phenotypic Evidence of Effect Differences Between Synthetic Psilocybin and Psychedelic Mushroom Extract". Neuropsychopharmacology. 47 (Suppl 1): 220–370 (308–309). doi:10.1038/s41386-022-01485-0. PMC 9714399. PMID 36456694.
Zhuk O, Jasicka-Misiak I, Poliwoda A, Kazakova A, Godovan VV, Halama M, Wieczorek PP (March 2015). "Research on acute toxicity and the behavioral effects of methanolic extract from psilocybin mushrooms and psilocin in mice". Toxins (Basel). 7 (4): 1018–1029. doi:10.3390/toxins7041018. PMC 4417952. PMID 25826052.
Plazas E, Faraone N (February 2023). "Indole Alkaloids from Psychoactive Mushrooms: Chemical and Pharmacological Potential as Psychotherapeutic Agents". Biomedicines. 11 (2): 461. doi:10.3390/biomedicines11020461. PMC 9953455. PMID 36830997.
Blei F, Dörner S, Fricke J, Baldeweg F, Trottmann F, Komor A, Meyer F, Hertweck C, Hoffmeister D (January 2020). "Simultaneous Production of Psilocybin and a Cocktail of β-Carboline Monoamine Oxidase Inhibitors in 'Magic' Mushrooms". Chemistry: A European Journal. 26 (3): 729–734. doi:10.1002/chem.201904363. PMC 7003923. PMID 31729089.
Lowe H, Toyang N, Steele B, Valentine H, Grant J, Ali A, Ngwa W, Gordon L (May 2021). "The Therapeutic Potential of Psilocybin". Molecules. 26 (10): 2948. doi:10.3390/molecules26102948. PMC 8156539. PMID 34063505. S2CID 235227972. Even though there is interest in the extraction of psilocybin from naturally growing or cultivated mushrooms, the psilocybin yield obtained (0.1–0.2% of dry weight) is not economically viable for drug research and development [...] Recreationally, users typically ingest anywhere between 10–50 g of fresh mushrooms (1–5 g of dried mushrooms), which corresponds to a dosage of about 10–50 mg psilocybin [233].
Kurzbaum, Eyal; Páleníček, Tomáš; Shrchaton, Amiel; Azerrad, Sara; Dekel, Yaron (January 28, 2025). "Exploring Psilocybe cubensis Strains: Cultivation Techniques, Psychoactive Compounds, Genetics and Research Gaps". Journal of Fungi. 11 (2): 99. doi:10.3390/jof11020099. ISSN 2309-608X. PMC 11856550. Prior to detailing specific strains, it is important to acknowledge that the following examples are predominantly sourced from non-academic, community-based reports. This is due, in part, to legislative restrictions on psilocybin, which have limited formal academic research on Psilocybe species. The following descriptions provide a nuanced understanding of the variety within P. cubensis strains. Among the most prominent strains, 'Golden Teacher' is renowned for its vigorous growth and substantial psychotropic effects, garnering substantial preference among both novices and experienced mycologists. The 'B+' strain is lauded for its resilience and consistent productivity under diverse environmental conditions. Furthermore, the 'Penis Envy' strain is noted for its exceptional potency and distinct morphological characteristics, which have contributed to its recognition and prominence within the community.
Gotvaldová K, Borovička J, Hájková K, Cihlářová P, Rockefeller A, Kuchař M (November 2022). "Extensive Collection of Psychotropic Mushrooms with Determination of Their Tryptamine Alkaloids". Int J Mol Sci. 23 (22): 14068. doi:10.3390/ijms232214068. PMC 9693126. PMID 36430546.
Kosentka, Pawel (2013). "Evolution of the toxins muscarine and psilocybin in a family of mushroom-forming fungi". PLOS ONE. 8 (5): e64646. Bibcode:2013PLoSO...864646K. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0064646. PMC 3662758. PMID 23717644.
Zhuk, Olga (2015). "Research on acute toxicity and the behavioral effects of methanolic extract from psilocybin mushrooms and psilocin in mice". Toxins. 7 (4): 1018–1029. doi:10.3390/toxins7041018. PMC 4417952. PMID 25826052.
Brande E. (1799). "Mr. E. Brande, on a poisonous species of Agaric". The Medical and Physical Journal: Containing the Earliest Information on Subjects of Medicine, Surgery, Pharmacy, Chemistry, and Natural History. 3 (11): 41–44. PMC 5659401. PMID 30490162. Archived from the original on February 24, 2024. Retrieved October 19, 2016.
Bui, Eric; King, Franklin; Melaragno, Andrew (December 1, 2019). "Pharmacotherapy of anxiety disorders in the 21st century: A call for novel approaches (Review)". General Psychiatry. 32 (6): e100136. doi:10.1136/gpsych-2019-100136. PMC 6936967. PMID 31922087.

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Gotvaldova, Klara; Borovicka, Jan; Hajkova, Katerina; Cihlarova, Petra; Rockefeller, Alan; Kuchar, Martin (2022). "Extensive Collection of Psychotropic Mushrooms with Determination of Their Tryptamine Alkaloids". International Journal of Molecular Sciences. 23 (22): 14068. doi:10.3390/ijms232214068. ISSN 1422-0067. PMC 9693126. PMID 36430546.
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