Analysis of information sources in references of the Wikipedia article "Psychological dependence" in English language version.
Substance-use disorder: A diagnostic term in the fifth edition of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-5) referring to recurrent use of alcohol or other drugs that causes clinically and functionally significant impairment, such as health problems, disability, and failure to meet major responsibilities at work, school, or home. Depending on the level of severity, this disorder is classified as mild, moderate, or severe.
Addiction: A term used to indicate the most severe, chronic stage of substance-use disorder, in which there is a substantial loss of self-control, as indicated by compulsive drug taking despite the desire to stop taking the drug. In the DSM-5, the term addiction is synonymous with the classification of severe substance-use disorder.
Stimulant and opiate drugs of abuse activate CREB in several brain regions important for addiction, including prominently in the NAc. ...
Drug activation of CREB in NAc has been shown to represent a classic negative feedback mechanism, whereby CREB serves to reduce an animal's sensitivity to the rewarding effects of these drugs (tolerance) and to mediate a negative emotional state during drug withdrawal (dependence). These effects have been shown recently to drive increased drug self-administration and relapse, presumably through a process of negative reinforcement.
Results showed a consistent pattern for adverse effects of exercise withdrawal on these mental health measures, particularly depressive symptoms and anxiety. For the studies reviewed, depressive symptoms consistently occurred following the cessation of exercise. Depressive symptoms includes a variety of complaints, including fatigue, tension, confusion, lower self-esteem, insomnia, and irritability. However, the severity of these symptoms did not reach the level of a clinical diagnosis. Exercise deprivation also consistently resulted in an increase in general anxiety (state anxiety), but no information was provided regarding anxiety disorders based on clinical diagnostic criteria. Regarding general mood symptoms and general well-being, results indicated consistent negative changes in both general mood and wellbeing. The most frequently reported feelings were guilt, irritability, anger, confusion, restlessness, tension, frustration, stress, and sluggishness (loss of vigor).
Despite the importance of numerous psychosocial factors, at its core, drug addiction involves a biological process: the ability of repeated exposure to a drug of abuse to induce changes in a vulnerable brain that drive the compulsive seeking and taking of drugs, and loss of control over drug use, that define a state of addiction. ... A large body of literature has demonstrated that such ΔFosB induction in D1-type [nucleus accumbens] neurons increases an animal's sensitivity to drug as well as natural rewards and promotes drug self-administration, presumably through a process of positive reinforcement ... Another ΔFosB target is cFos: as ΔFosB accumulates with repeated drug exposure it represses c-Fos and contributes to the molecular switch whereby ΔFosB is selectively induced in the chronic drug-treated state.41. ... Moreover, there is increasing evidence that, despite a range of genetic risks for addiction across the population, exposure to sufficiently high doses of a drug for long periods of time can transform someone who has relatively lower genetic loading into an addict.
Substance-use disorder: A diagnostic term in the fifth edition of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-5) referring to recurrent use of alcohol or other drugs that causes clinically and functionally significant impairment, such as health problems, disability, and failure to meet major responsibilities at work, school, or home. Depending on the level of severity, this disorder is classified as mild, moderate, or severe.
Addiction: A term used to indicate the most severe, chronic stage of substance-use disorder, in which there is a substantial loss of self-control, as indicated by compulsive drug taking despite the desire to stop taking the drug. In the DSM-5, the term addiction is synonymous with the classification of severe substance-use disorder.
Stimulant and opiate drugs of abuse activate CREB in several brain regions important for addiction, including prominently in the NAc. ...
Drug activation of CREB in NAc has been shown to represent a classic negative feedback mechanism, whereby CREB serves to reduce an animal's sensitivity to the rewarding effects of these drugs (tolerance) and to mediate a negative emotional state during drug withdrawal (dependence). These effects have been shown recently to drive increased drug self-administration and relapse, presumably through a process of negative reinforcement.
Results showed a consistent pattern for adverse effects of exercise withdrawal on these mental health measures, particularly depressive symptoms and anxiety. For the studies reviewed, depressive symptoms consistently occurred following the cessation of exercise. Depressive symptoms includes a variety of complaints, including fatigue, tension, confusion, lower self-esteem, insomnia, and irritability. However, the severity of these symptoms did not reach the level of a clinical diagnosis. Exercise deprivation also consistently resulted in an increase in general anxiety (state anxiety), but no information was provided regarding anxiety disorders based on clinical diagnostic criteria. Regarding general mood symptoms and general well-being, results indicated consistent negative changes in both general mood and wellbeing. The most frequently reported feelings were guilt, irritability, anger, confusion, restlessness, tension, frustration, stress, and sluggishness (loss of vigor).
Despite the importance of numerous psychosocial factors, at its core, drug addiction involves a biological process: the ability of repeated exposure to a drug of abuse to induce changes in a vulnerable brain that drive the compulsive seeking and taking of drugs, and loss of control over drug use, that define a state of addiction. ... A large body of literature has demonstrated that such ΔFosB induction in D1-type [nucleus accumbens] neurons increases an animal's sensitivity to drug as well as natural rewards and promotes drug self-administration, presumably through a process of positive reinforcement ... Another ΔFosB target is cFos: as ΔFosB accumulates with repeated drug exposure it represses c-Fos and contributes to the molecular switch whereby ΔFosB is selectively induced in the chronic drug-treated state.41. ... Moreover, there is increasing evidence that, despite a range of genetic risks for addiction across the population, exposure to sufficiently high doses of a drug for long periods of time can transform someone who has relatively lower genetic loading into an addict.
Substance-use disorder: A diagnostic term in the fifth edition of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-5) referring to recurrent use of alcohol or other drugs that causes clinically and functionally significant impairment, such as health problems, disability, and failure to meet major responsibilities at work, school, or home. Depending on the level of severity, this disorder is classified as mild, moderate, or severe.
Addiction: A term used to indicate the most severe, chronic stage of substance-use disorder, in which there is a substantial loss of self-control, as indicated by compulsive drug taking despite the desire to stop taking the drug. In the DSM-5, the term addiction is synonymous with the classification of severe substance-use disorder.
Stimulant and opiate drugs of abuse activate CREB in several brain regions important for addiction, including prominently in the NAc. ...
Drug activation of CREB in NAc has been shown to represent a classic negative feedback mechanism, whereby CREB serves to reduce an animal's sensitivity to the rewarding effects of these drugs (tolerance) and to mediate a negative emotional state during drug withdrawal (dependence). These effects have been shown recently to drive increased drug self-administration and relapse, presumably through a process of negative reinforcement.
Results showed a consistent pattern for adverse effects of exercise withdrawal on these mental health measures, particularly depressive symptoms and anxiety. For the studies reviewed, depressive symptoms consistently occurred following the cessation of exercise. Depressive symptoms includes a variety of complaints, including fatigue, tension, confusion, lower self-esteem, insomnia, and irritability. However, the severity of these symptoms did not reach the level of a clinical diagnosis. Exercise deprivation also consistently resulted in an increase in general anxiety (state anxiety), but no information was provided regarding anxiety disorders based on clinical diagnostic criteria. Regarding general mood symptoms and general well-being, results indicated consistent negative changes in both general mood and wellbeing. The most frequently reported feelings were guilt, irritability, anger, confusion, restlessness, tension, frustration, stress, and sluggishness (loss of vigor).
