Second language (English Wikipedia)

"The World's 10 most influential Languages". Archived from the original on 2013-05-07. (reference for entire table)
Fig 6. "number of secondary speakers" is based on a table given in Fischer Weltalamanach [sic]. "Fischer Weltalamanach". 1986. p. 910. Archived from the original on 2013-05-07.

doi.org (Global: 2^nd place; English: 2^nd place)

Beerten, Billiet & Maddens 2003. Beerten, Roeland; Billiet, Jaak; Maddens, Bart (2003). "National Identity and Attitude Toward Foreigners in a Multinational State: A Replication". International Society of Political Psychology. 2. 24 (2): 241–257. doi:10.1111/0162-895X.00327. JSTOR 3792350. Retrieved 4 February 2023.
Jacob 1995. Jacob, Brian (Aug 1995). "Defining Culture in a Multicultural Environment: An Ethnography of Heritage High School". American Journal of Education. 4. 103 (4). University of Chicago Press: 339–376. doi:10.1086/444107. JSTOR 1085750. S2CID 143732020.
Krashen, Long & Scarcella 1979. Krashen, Stephen D.; Long, Michael A.; Scarcella, Robin C. (1979). "Age, Rate and Eventual Attainment in Second Language Acquisition". TESOL Quarterly. 13 (4): 573–582. doi:10.2307/3586451. JSTOR 3586451.
Hyltenstam 1992. Hyltenstam, Kenneth (1992). "Non-native Features of Near-native Speakers: On the Ultimate Attainment of Childhood L2 Learners". Advances in Psychology. 83: 351–368. doi:10.1016/S0166-4115(08)61505-8. ISBN 978-0-444-88922-5.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: periodical has ISBN (link)
Liu, Dingfei (2023). "The Critical-Period Hypothesis and its Implications from Western Scholars". SHS Web of Conferences. 157: 03017. doi:10.1051/shsconf/202315703017. ISSN 2261-2424.
Krashen, Long & Scarcella 1979, p. 573. Krashen, Stephen D.; Long, Michael A.; Scarcella, Robin C. (1979). "Age, Rate and Eventual Attainment in Second Language Acquisition". TESOL Quarterly. 13 (4): 573–582. doi:10.2307/3586451. JSTOR 3586451.
Gauthier & Genesee 2011. Gauthier, Karine; Genesee, Fred (March 2011). "Language Development in Internationally Adopted Children: A Special Case of Early Second Language Learning". Child Development. 82 (3): 887–901. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.2011.01578.x. PMID 21413938. S2CID 8903620.
Beerten, Billiet & Maddens 2003, p. 241. Beerten, Roeland; Billiet, Jaak; Maddens, Bart (2003). "National Identity and Attitude Toward Foreigners in a Multinational State: A Replication". International Society of Political Psychology. 2. 24 (2): 241–257. doi:10.1111/0162-895X.00327. JSTOR 3792350. Retrieved 4 February 2023.
Jacob 1995, p. 364. Jacob, Brian (Aug 1995). "Defining Culture in a Multicultural Environment: An Ethnography of Heritage High School". American Journal of Education. 4. 103 (4). University of Chicago Press: 339–376. doi:10.1086/444107. JSTOR 1085750. S2CID 143732020.
Johnson & Newport 1989. Johnson, Jacqueline; Newport, Elissa (January 1989). "Critical period effects in second language learning: The influence of maturational state on the acquisition of English as a second language". Cognitive Psychology. 21 (1): 60–99. doi:10.1016/0010-0285(89)90003-0. PMID 2920538. S2CID 15842890.
Opitz & Degner 2012. Opitz, Bertram; Degner, Juliane (July 2012). "Emotionality in a second language: It's a matter of time" (PDF). Neuropsychologia. 50 (8): 1961–1967. doi:10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2012.04.021. PMID 22569217. S2CID 1625668. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2020-08-06. Retrieved 2019-09-24.
See (Canale & Swain 1980), (Johnson 1992), (Selinker 1972), and (Selinker & Lamendella 1978). Canale, M.; Swain, M. (1980). "Theoretical bases of communicative approaches to second language teaching and testing". Applied Linguistics. 1 (1): 1–47. doi:10.1093/applin/1.1.1 (inactive 4 June 2026). hdl:11059/14798.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of June 2026 (link) Selinker, L. (1972). "Interlanguage". International Review of Applied Linguistics. 10 (1–4): 209–241. doi:10.1515/iral.1972.10.1-4.209. Selinker, Larry; Lamendella, John T. (1978). "Two perspectives on fossilization in interlanguage learning". Interlanguage Studies Bulletin. 3 (2): 143–191. JSTOR 43136004.
Levis 2005. Levis, John (Autumn 2005). "Changing Contexts and Shifting Paradigms in Pronunciation Teaching". TESOL Quarterly. 39 (3): 369–377. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.466.9352. doi:10.2307/3588485. JSTOR 3588485. {{cite journal}}: Cite uses deprecated parameter |citeseerx= (help)
Stern 1975. Stern, H. H. (March 1975). "What Can We Learn from the Good Language Learner?". Canadian Modern Language Review. 31 (4): 304–318. doi:10.3138/cmlr.31.4.304.
Rubin 1975. Rubin, Joan (1975). "What the "Good Language Learner" Can Teach Us". TESOL Quarterly. 9 (1): 41–51. doi:10.2307/3586011. JSTOR 3586011.
Özgür & Griffiths 2013. Özgür, Burcu; Griffiths, Carol (25 January 2013). "Second Language Motivation". Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences. 70: 1109–1114. doi:10.1016/j.sbspro.2013.01.165.
Service, Elisabet; Yli-Kaitala, Hely; Maury, Sini; Kim, Jeong-Young (2014-04-26). "Adults' and 8-Year-Olds' Learning in a Foreign Word Repetition Task: Similar and Different: Adults' and Children's Foreign Word Repetition" (PDF). Language Learning. 64 (2): 215–246. doi:10.1111/lang.12051. hdl:11375/23532. Retrieved 2022-07-11 – via MacSphere - McMaster University Libraries Institutional Repository.

ethnologue.com (Global: 354^th place; English: 413^th place)

"The most spoken languages". Ethnologue. Archived from the original on 2019-03-24. Retrieved 2013-06-30.

files.wordpress.com (Global: 965^th place; English: 868^th place)

varussellblog.files.wordpress.com

Russell 2009. Russell, Victoria (2009). "Corrective feedback, over a decade of research since Lyster and Ranta (1997): Where do we stand today?" (PDF). Electronic Journal of Foreign Language Teaching. 6 (1): 21–31. Archived (PDF) from the original on 20 April 2017. Retrieved 23 May 2017.

hdl.handle.net (Global: 66^th place; English: 34^th place)

See (Canale & Swain 1980), (Johnson 1992), (Selinker 1972), and (Selinker & Lamendella 1978). Canale, M.; Swain, M. (1980). "Theoretical bases of communicative approaches to second language teaching and testing". Applied Linguistics. 1 (1): 1–47. doi:10.1093/applin/1.1.1 (inactive 4 June 2026). hdl:11059/14798.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of June 2026 (link) Selinker, L. (1972). "Interlanguage". International Review of Applied Linguistics. 10 (1–4): 209–241. doi:10.1515/iral.1972.10.1-4.209. Selinker, Larry; Lamendella, John T. (1978). "Two perspectives on fossilization in interlanguage learning". Interlanguage Studies Bulletin. 3 (2): 143–191. JSTOR 43136004.
Service, Elisabet; Yli-Kaitala, Hely; Maury, Sini; Kim, Jeong-Young (2014-04-26). "Adults' and 8-Year-Olds' Learning in a Foreign Word Repetition Task: Similar and Different: Adults' and Children's Foreign Word Repetition" (PDF). Language Learning. 64 (2): 215–246. doi:10.1111/lang.12051. hdl:11375/23532. Retrieved 2022-07-11 – via MacSphere - McMaster University Libraries Institutional Repository.

ignatius.edu (Global: low place; English: low place)

faculty.ignatius.edu

"The World's Most Widely Spoken Languages". Archived from the original on 2013-12-31. (reference for entire table)

jstor.org (Global: 23^rd place; English: 15^th place)

Pratt 1991. Pratt, Mary (1991). "Arts of the Contact Zone". Profession. Modern Language Association: 33–40. JSTOR 25595469. Retrieved 11 August 2018.
Beerten, Billiet & Maddens 2003. Beerten, Roeland; Billiet, Jaak; Maddens, Bart (2003). "National Identity and Attitude Toward Foreigners in a Multinational State: A Replication". International Society of Political Psychology. 2. 24 (2): 241–257. doi:10.1111/0162-895X.00327. JSTOR 3792350. Retrieved 4 February 2023.
Jacob 1995. Jacob, Brian (Aug 1995). "Defining Culture in a Multicultural Environment: An Ethnography of Heritage High School". American Journal of Education. 4. 103 (4). University of Chicago Press: 339–376. doi:10.1086/444107. JSTOR 1085750. S2CID 143732020.
Krashen, Long & Scarcella 1979. Krashen, Stephen D.; Long, Michael A.; Scarcella, Robin C. (1979). "Age, Rate and Eventual Attainment in Second Language Acquisition". TESOL Quarterly. 13 (4): 573–582. doi:10.2307/3586451. JSTOR 3586451.
Krashen, Long & Scarcella 1979, p. 573. Krashen, Stephen D.; Long, Michael A.; Scarcella, Robin C. (1979). "Age, Rate and Eventual Attainment in Second Language Acquisition". TESOL Quarterly. 13 (4): 573–582. doi:10.2307/3586451. JSTOR 3586451.
Beerten, Billiet & Maddens 2003, p. 241. Beerten, Roeland; Billiet, Jaak; Maddens, Bart (2003). "National Identity and Attitude Toward Foreigners in a Multinational State: A Replication". International Society of Political Psychology. 2. 24 (2): 241–257. doi:10.1111/0162-895X.00327. JSTOR 3792350. Retrieved 4 February 2023.
Jacob 1995, p. 364. Jacob, Brian (Aug 1995). "Defining Culture in a Multicultural Environment: An Ethnography of Heritage High School". American Journal of Education. 4. 103 (4). University of Chicago Press: 339–376. doi:10.1086/444107. JSTOR 1085750. S2CID 143732020.
Pratt 1991, p. 35. Pratt, Mary (1991). "Arts of the Contact Zone". Profession. Modern Language Association: 33–40. JSTOR 25595469. Retrieved 11 August 2018.
See (Canale & Swain 1980), (Johnson 1992), (Selinker 1972), and (Selinker & Lamendella 1978). Canale, M.; Swain, M. (1980). "Theoretical bases of communicative approaches to second language teaching and testing". Applied Linguistics. 1 (1): 1–47. doi:10.1093/applin/1.1.1 (inactive 4 June 2026). hdl:11059/14798.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of June 2026 (link) Selinker, L. (1972). "Interlanguage". International Review of Applied Linguistics. 10 (1–4): 209–241. doi:10.1515/iral.1972.10.1-4.209. Selinker, Larry; Lamendella, John T. (1978). "Two perspectives on fossilization in interlanguage learning". Interlanguage Studies Bulletin. 3 (2): 143–191. JSTOR 43136004.
Levis 2005. Levis, John (Autumn 2005). "Changing Contexts and Shifting Paradigms in Pronunciation Teaching". TESOL Quarterly. 39 (3): 369–377. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.466.9352. doi:10.2307/3588485. JSTOR 3588485. {{cite journal}}: Cite uses deprecated parameter |citeseerx= (help)
Rubin 1975. Rubin, Joan (1975). "What the "Good Language Learner" Can Teach Us". TESOL Quarterly. 9 (1): 41–51. doi:10.2307/3586011. JSTOR 3586011.

lang1234.info (Global: low place; English: low place)

"Good Accents". globe1234.com. January 17, 2012. Archived from the original on 2013-10-05. Retrieved 2013-08-23.

languageeducatorsassemble.com (Global: low place; English: low place)

"Difference Between Second Language and Foreign Language". Language Educators Assemble. 18 June 2023. Retrieved 14 April 2025.

mcmaster.ca (Global: 6,115^th place; English: 4,025^th place)

macsphere.mcmaster.ca

Service, Elisabet; Yli-Kaitala, Hely; Maury, Sini; Kim, Jeong-Young (2014-04-26). "Adults' and 8-Year-Olds' Learning in a Foreign Word Repetition Task: Similar and Different: Adults' and Children's Foreign Word Repetition" (PDF). Language Learning. 64 (2): 215–246. doi:10.1111/lang.12051. hdl:11375/23532. Retrieved 2022-07-11 – via MacSphere - McMaster University Libraries Institutional Repository.

nih.gov (Global: 5^th place; English: 5^th place)

pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov

Gauthier & Genesee 2011. Gauthier, Karine; Genesee, Fred (March 2011). "Language Development in Internationally Adopted Children: A Special Case of Early Second Language Learning". Child Development. 82 (3): 887–901. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.2011.01578.x. PMID 21413938. S2CID 8903620.
Johnson & Newport 1989. Johnson, Jacqueline; Newport, Elissa (January 1989). "Critical period effects in second language learning: The influence of maturational state on the acquisition of English as a second language". Cognitive Psychology. 21 (1): 60–99. doi:10.1016/0010-0285(89)90003-0. PMID 2920538. S2CID 15842890.
Opitz & Degner 2012. Opitz, Bertram; Degner, Juliane (July 2012). "Emotionality in a second language: It's a matter of time" (PDF). Neuropsychologia. 50 (8): 1961–1967. doi:10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2012.04.021. PMID 22569217. S2CID 1625668. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2020-08-06. Retrieved 2019-09-24.

psu.edu (Global: 299^th place; English: 159^th place)

citeseerx.ist.psu.edu

Levis 2005. Levis, John (Autumn 2005). "Changing Contexts and Shifting Paradigms in Pronunciation Teaching". TESOL Quarterly. 39 (3): 369–377. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.466.9352. doi:10.2307/3588485. JSTOR 3588485. {{cite journal}}: Cite uses deprecated parameter |citeseerx= (help)

sdkrashen.com (Global: low place; English: low place)

Krashen 1982. Krashen, S.D. (1982). Principles and Practice in Second Language Acquisition (PDF). Oxford: Pergamon.

semanticscholar.org (Global: 15^th place; English: 8^th place)

api.semanticscholar.org

Jacob 1995. Jacob, Brian (Aug 1995). "Defining Culture in a Multicultural Environment: An Ethnography of Heritage High School". American Journal of Education. 4. 103 (4). University of Chicago Press: 339–376. doi:10.1086/444107. JSTOR 1085750. S2CID 143732020.
Gauthier & Genesee 2011. Gauthier, Karine; Genesee, Fred (March 2011). "Language Development in Internationally Adopted Children: A Special Case of Early Second Language Learning". Child Development. 82 (3): 887–901. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.2011.01578.x. PMID 21413938. S2CID 8903620.
Jacob 1995, p. 364. Jacob, Brian (Aug 1995). "Defining Culture in a Multicultural Environment: An Ethnography of Heritage High School". American Journal of Education. 4. 103 (4). University of Chicago Press: 339–376. doi:10.1086/444107. JSTOR 1085750. S2CID 143732020.
Johnson & Newport 1989. Johnson, Jacqueline; Newport, Elissa (January 1989). "Critical period effects in second language learning: The influence of maturational state on the acquisition of English as a second language". Cognitive Psychology. 21 (1): 60–99. doi:10.1016/0010-0285(89)90003-0. PMID 2920538. S2CID 15842890.
Opitz & Degner 2012. Opitz, Bertram; Degner, Juliane (July 2012). "Emotionality in a second language: It's a matter of time" (PDF). Neuropsychologia. 50 (8): 1961–1967. doi:10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2012.04.021. PMID 22569217. S2CID 1625668. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2020-08-06. Retrieved 2019-09-24.

shs-conferences.org (Global: low place; English: low place)

Liu, Dingfei (2023). "The Critical-Period Hypothesis and its Implications from Western Scholars". SHS Web of Conferences. 157: 03017. doi:10.1051/shsconf/202315703017. ISSN 2261-2424.

simplypsychology.org (Global: low place; English: low place)

"Critical Period In Brain Development and Childhood Learning". 2024-01-24. Retrieved 2025-03-22.

statcan.gc.ca (Global: 285^th place; English: 201^st place)

Government of Canada, Statistics Canada (2020-07-06). "2021 Census: 2A". www.statcan.gc.ca. Retrieved 2025-03-30.

surrey.ac.uk (Global: low place; English: 7,432^nd place)

epubs.surrey.ac.uk

Opitz & Degner 2012. Opitz, Bertram; Degner, Juliane (July 2012). "Emotionality in a second language: It's a matter of time" (PDF). Neuropsychologia. 50 (8): 1961–1967. doi:10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2012.04.021. PMID 22569217. S2CID 1625668. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2020-08-06. Retrieved 2019-09-24.

telegraph.co.uk (Global: 40^th place; English: 27^th place)

Merritt, Anne (2013-09-18). "Merritt, Anne. "Are Children Really Better at Foreign Language Learning?"". Telegraph.co.uk. Archived from the original on 2016-05-11. Retrieved 2016-05-15.

washingtonpost.com (Global: 35^th place; English: 24^th place)

Noack, Rick; Gamio, Lazaro (23 April 2015). "The world's languages, in 7 maps and charts". The Washington Post. Archived from the original on 12 July 2015. Retrieved 9 June 2015.

web.archive.org (Global: 1^st place; English: 1^st place)

"Good Accents". globe1234.com. January 17, 2012. Archived from the original on 2013-10-05. Retrieved 2013-08-23.
Russell 2009. Russell, Victoria (2009). "Corrective feedback, over a decade of research since Lyster and Ranta (1997): Where do we stand today?" (PDF). Electronic Journal of Foreign Language Teaching. 6 (1): 21–31. Archived (PDF) from the original on 20 April 2017. Retrieved 23 May 2017.
Opitz & Degner 2012. Opitz, Bertram; Degner, Juliane (July 2012). "Emotionality in a second language: It's a matter of time" (PDF). Neuropsychologia. 50 (8): 1961–1967. doi:10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2012.04.021. PMID 22569217. S2CID 1625668. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2020-08-06. Retrieved 2019-09-24.
Noack, Rick; Gamio, Lazaro (23 April 2015). "The world's languages, in 7 maps and charts". The Washington Post. Archived from the original on 12 July 2015. Retrieved 9 June 2015.
Merritt, Anne (2013-09-18). "Merritt, Anne. "Are Children Really Better at Foreign Language Learning?"". Telegraph.co.uk. Archived from the original on 2016-05-11. Retrieved 2016-05-15.
"The World's Most Widely Spoken Languages". Archived from the original on 2013-12-31. (reference for entire table)
"The World's 10 most influential Languages". Archived from the original on 2013-05-07. (reference for entire table)
Fig 6. "number of secondary speakers" is based on a table given in Fischer Weltalamanach [sic]. "Fischer Weltalamanach". 1986. p. 910. Archived from the original on 2013-05-07.
"The most spoken languages". Ethnologue. Archived from the original on 2019-03-24. Retrieved 2013-06-30.

worldcat.org (Global: 4^th place; English: 4^th place)

search.worldcat.org

Liu, Dingfei (2023). "The Critical-Period Hypothesis and its Implications from Western Scholars". SHS Web of Conferences. 157: 03017. doi:10.1051/shsconf/202315703017. ISSN 2261-2424.

Second language (English Wikipedia)

andaman.org (Global: low place; English: low place)

doi.org (Global: 2nd place; English: 2nd place)

ethnologue.com (Global: 354th place; English: 413th place)

files.wordpress.com (Global: 965th place; English: 868th place)

varussellblog.files.wordpress.com

hdl.handle.net (Global: 66th place; English: 34th place)

ignatius.edu (Global: low place; English: low place)

faculty.ignatius.edu

jstor.org (Global: 23rd place; English: 15th place)

lang1234.info (Global: low place; English: low place)

languageeducatorsassemble.com (Global: low place; English: low place)

mcmaster.ca (Global: 6,115th place; English: 4,025th place)

macsphere.mcmaster.ca

nih.gov (Global: 5th place; English: 5th place)

pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov

psu.edu (Global: 299th place; English: 159th place)

citeseerx.ist.psu.edu

sdkrashen.com (Global: low place; English: low place)

semanticscholar.org (Global: 15th place; English: 8th place)

api.semanticscholar.org

shs-conferences.org (Global: low place; English: low place)

simplypsychology.org (Global: low place; English: low place)

statcan.gc.ca (Global: 285th place; English: 201st place)

surrey.ac.uk (Global: low place; English: 7,432nd place)

epubs.surrey.ac.uk

telegraph.co.uk (Global: 40th place; English: 27th place)

washingtonpost.com (Global: 35th place; English: 24th place)

web.archive.org (Global: 1st place; English: 1st place)

worldcat.org (Global: 4th place; English: 4th place)

search.worldcat.org

doi.org (Global: 2^nd place; English: 2^nd place)

ethnologue.com (Global: 354^th place; English: 413^th place)

files.wordpress.com (Global: 965^th place; English: 868^th place)

hdl.handle.net (Global: 66^th place; English: 34^th place)

jstor.org (Global: 23^rd place; English: 15^th place)

mcmaster.ca (Global: 6,115^th place; English: 4,025^th place)

nih.gov (Global: 5^th place; English: 5^th place)

psu.edu (Global: 299^th place; English: 159^th place)

semanticscholar.org (Global: 15^th place; English: 8^th place)

statcan.gc.ca (Global: 285^th place; English: 201^st place)

surrey.ac.uk (Global: low place; English: 7,432^nd place)

telegraph.co.uk (Global: 40^th place; English: 27^th place)

washingtonpost.com (Global: 35^th place; English: 24^th place)

web.archive.org (Global: 1^st place; English: 1^st place)

worldcat.org (Global: 4^th place; English: 4^th place)