References analysis of the Wikipedia article "États ayant versé un tribut à la Chine impériale" in the French version

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Gundry, R. S. "China and her Tributaries, " National Review (United Kingdom), No. 17, July 1884, pp. 605-619. sur Google Livres.

Kang, David C. (2010). East Asia Before the West: Five Centuries of Trade and Tribute, p. 59. sur Google Livres

(en) Wang, Zhenping (2005), Ambassadors from the islands of immortals: China-Japan relations in the Han-Tang period sur Google Livres. – Ce livre critique la théorie occidentale du "tribut", qui voit le monde seulement du point de vue chinois, caricature des relations complexes et échoue à voir que, même sous les Sui et Tang, les relations entre Chine et Japon n'étaient pas comme entre supérieur et inférieur.

Gundry, "Annam," pp. 613-615. sur Google Livres

Kerr, George. (2000). Okinawa: The History of an Island People, p. 65. sur Google Livres

Gundry, "Burma," pp. 611-613. sur Google Livres

Shambaugh, David L. et al. (2008). International Relations of Asia, p. 54 n15. sur Google Livres citing the 1818 Collected Statutes of the Qing Dynasty (DaQing hui-tien)

(en) Keith L. Pratt, Korea : a historical and cultural dictionary, 1999 (lire en ligne), p. 482

Chisholm, Hugh. (1911). The Encyclopædia Britannica, Vol. 15, p. 224 sur Google Livres

Yoda, Yoshiie et al. (1996) The Foundations of Japan's Modernization: a Comparison with China's Path, p. 40. sur Google Livres; excerpt, "While other countries in East Asia were almost consistently emeshed within the Chinese tribute system, Japan found itself sometimes inside sometimes outside of the system...."

Yoda, p. 40. sur Google Livres; excerpt, "... King Na was awarded the seal of the Monarch of the Kingdom of Wa during the Chinese Han dynasty, and Queen Himiko, who had sent a tribute mission to the Wei Dynasty (third century) was followed by the five kings of Wa who also offered tribute to the Wei. This evidence points to the fact that at this period Japan was inside the Chinese tribute system...."

Delmer M. Brown, John Whitney Hall. The Cambridge History of Japan: Ancient Japan, pp. 280-283. sur Google Livres

Nussbaum, Louis-Frédéric. (2005). "Kentoshi" in Japan encyclopedia, p. 511 sur Google Livres; n.b., Louis-Frédéric is pseudonym of Louis-Frédéric Nussbaum, see Deutsche Nationalbibliothek Authority File.

Yoda, p. 40. sur Google Livres; excerpt, "... Japanese missions to the Sui [Dynasty] (581-604)... were recognized by the Chinese as bearers of imperial tribute...."

Fogel, Joshua A. (2009). Articulating the Sinosphere: Sino-Japanese Relations in Space and Time, pp. 102-107. sur Google Livres

Yoda, p. 40. sur Google Livres; excerpt, "Japanese missions to the... Tang Dynasties were recognized by the Chinese as bearers of imperial tribute; however, in the middle of the ninth century -- the early Heian Period -- Japan rescinded he sending of missions to the Tang Empire. Subsequently Japan conducted a flourishing trade with China and for the next five hundred years also imported much of Chinese culture, while nevertheless remaining outside the tribute system."

Fogel, p. 27. sur Google Livres; Goodrich, Luther Carrington et al. (1976). Dictionary of Ming biography, 1368-1644, p. 1316. sur Google Livres; note: the economic benefit of the Sinocentric tribute system was profitable trade. The tally trade (kangō bōeki or kanhe maoyi in Chinese) was a system devised and monitored by the Chinese -- see Nussbaum, Louis Frédéric et al. (2005). Japan Encyclopedia, p. 471.

Frederick W. Mote, Denis Twitchett, John King Fairbank. The Cambridge history of China: The Ming dynasty, 1368-1644, Part 1, pp. 491-492. sur Google Livres

Kwak, Tae-Hwan et al. (2003). The Korean peace process and the four powers, p. 100. sur Google Livres; excerpt, "The tributary relations between China and Korea came to an end when China was defeated in the Sino-Japanese war of 1894-1895."

Seth, Michael J. (2006). A concise history of Korea, p. 64 sur Google Livres; excerpt, "China found instead that its policy of using trade and cultural exchanges and offering legitimacy and prestige to the Silla monarchy was effective in keeping Silla safely in the tributary system. Indeed, the relationship that was worked out in the late seventh and early eighth centuries can be considered the beginning of the mature tributary relationship that would characterize Sino-Korean interchange most of the time until the late nineteenth century;"

Kwak, p. 99. sur Google Livres; excerpt, "Korea's tributary relations with China began as early as the fifth century, were regularized during the Goryeo dynasty (918-1392), and became fully institutionalized during the Yi dynasty (1392-1910)."

(en) Donald N. Clark, « The Ming Dynasty 1368-1644 Part 2 », The Cambridge history of China, vol. 8,‎ 1998, p. 280 (ISBN 0-521-24333-5, lire en ligne) :

« Between 1392 and 1450, the Choson court dispatched 391 envoys to China: on average, seven each year. »

(en) David C. Kang, East Asia Before the West : Five Centuries of Trade and Tribute, New York, Columbia University Press, 2010, 221 p. (ISBN 978-0-231-15318-8, lire en ligne), p. 59

« thus, between 1637 and 1881, Korea sent 435 special embassies to the Qing court, or an average of almost 1.5 embassies per year. »

Gundry, "Nepal," pp. 609-610. sur Google Livres

Gundry, "Ryūkyū," pp. 615-616. sur Google Livres

Kerr, George. (2000). Okinawa: The History of an Island People, p. 74. sur Google Livres

Kerr, p. 66. sur Google Livres

Gundry, "Siam," pp. 616-619. sur Google Livres

Gundry, "Tibet," pp. 610-611. sur Google Livres

(en) Robert S. Wicks, Money, markets, and trade in early Southeast Asia : the development of indigenous monetary systems to ad 1400, Ithaca (N.Y.), SEAP Publications, 1992 (ISBN 0-87727-710-9, lire en ligne), p. 210

(en) Edward H. Schafer, The golden peaches of Samarkand : a study of Tʻang exotics, Berkeley (Calif.), University of California Press, 1963, 399 p. (ISBN 0-520-05462-8, lire en ligne), p. 50

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Schafer 1963, p. 66.

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(en) Katharine Hyung-Sun Moon, Sex Among Allies : Military Prostitution in U.S.-Korea Relations, Columbia University Press, janvier 1997, 240 p. (ISBN 978-0-231-10642-9, lire en ligne), p. 40–

(en) Boudewijn Walraven et Remco E. Breuker, Korea in the Middle : Korean Studies and Area Studies : Essays in Honour of Boudewijn Walraven, Leiden, Amsterdam University Press, 2007, 380 p. (ISBN 978-90-5789-153-3, lire en ligne), p. 57–

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(en) Jinwung Kim, A history of Korea : from "Land of the Morning Calm" to states in conflict, Bloomington, Indiana University Press, 2012 (ISBN 978-0-253-00024-8 et 0-253-00024-6, lire en ligne), p. 172–

(en) Ki-baek Yi, A New History of Korea, Harvard University Press, 1984, 474 p. (ISBN 978-0-674-61576-2, lire en ligne), p. 157–

(en) Simon Winchester, Korea : A Walk Through the Land of Miracles, HarperCollins, 27 octobre 2009, 336 p. (ISBN 978-0-06-075044-2, lire en ligne), p. 225–

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(en) Edward L. Dreyer, Early Ming China : a political history, 1355-1435, Stanford (Calif.), Stanford University Press, 1982, 315 p. (ISBN 0-8047-1105-4, lire en ligne), p. 116

(en) Jae-eun Kang, The Land of Scholars : Two Thousand Years of Korean Confucianism, Homa & Sekey Books, 2006, 515 p. (ISBN 978-1-931907-30-9, lire en ligne), p. 179 "Reciprocating a tribute usually exceeded the tribute itself, which was a profitable government trade to the small nation but a big burden for China. Therefore, China requested for Joseon to send tribute only "once every three years, " but in contrast, Joseon requested to send a tribute "thrice each year" or "four times per year" instead and achieved it."

(en) E. Bretschneider, Mediæval Researches from Eastern Asiatic Sources : Fragments Toward the Knowledge of the Geography and History of Central and Western Asia from the 13th to the 17th Century, Volume 2, LONDON, Trübner & Co., 1888 (lire en ligne), p. 291(Original from the New York Public Library)

(en) Shih-shan Henry Tsai, The eunuchs in the Ming dynasty, SUNY Press, 1996, 290 p. (ISBN 0-7914-2687-4, lire en ligne), p. 14–15

(en) Shih-shan Henry Tsai, The Eunuchs in the Ming Dynasty, SUNY Press, 1996, 290 p. (ISBN 978-0-7914-2687-6, lire en ligne), p. 16–

(en) Association for Asian Studies. Ming Biographical History Project Committee, Luther Carrington Goodrich et 房兆楹, Dictionary of Ming Biography, 1368-1644, Columbia University Press,‎ 1976 (ISBN 978-0-231-03801-0, lire en ligne), p. 288–

(en) Yuan-kang Wang, Harmony and war : Confucian culture and Chinese power politics, New York, Columbia University Press, 6 décembre 2010, 310 p. (ISBN 978-0-231-52240-3, lire en ligne), p. 301–

(en) Iain Robertson, Understanding international art markets and management, Routledge, 2005 (ISBN 0-415-33956-1, lire en ligne), p. 182

(en) Frederick W. Mote, Denis Twitchett et John King Fairbank, The Cambridge history of China : The Ming dynasty, 1368-1644, Part 1, Cambridge/New York/Melbourne, Cambridge University Press, 1988, 1203 p. (ISBN 0-521-24332-7, lire en ligne), p. 301

(en) Association for Asian Studies. Ming Biographical History Project Committee, Luther Carrington Goodrich, Chao-ying Fang, Dictionary of Ming biography, 1368-1644, Columbia University Press, 1976 (ISBN 0-231-03833-X, lire en ligne), p. 1597

(en) Association Denis Crispin Twitchett, John King Fairbank, The Cambridge history of China, Volume 2; Volume 8, Cambridge University Press, 1978 (ISBN 0-521-24333-5, lire en ligne), p. 284

(en) O. Harrassowitz, Journal of Asian history, Volume 25, 1991 (lire en ligne), p. 130

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(en) John W. Dardess, Ming China, 1368-1644 : A Concise History of a Resilient Empire, Lanham, Md., Rowman & Littlefield, 2012, 155 p. (ISBN 978-1-4422-0490-4, lire en ligne), p. 36–

(en) Frederick W. Mote et Denis Twitchett, The Cambridge History of China : Volume 7, The Ming Dynasty, 1368-1644, Cambridge University Press, 26 février 1988, 976 p. (ISBN 978-0-521-24332-2, lire en ligne), p. 212–

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(en) Shih-shan Henry Tsai, The Eunuchs in the Ming Dynasty, SUNY Press, 1996, 290 p. (ISBN 978-0-7914-2687-6, lire en ligne), p. 14–

(en) Association for Asian Studies. Ming Biographical History Project Committee, Luther Carrington Goodrich et 房兆楹, Dictionary of Ming Biography, 1368-1644, Columbia University Press,‎ janvier 1976, 1751 p. (ISBN 978-0-231-03833-1, lire en ligne), p. 1363–

(en) Denis C. Twitchett et Frederick W. Mote, The Cambridge History of China : Volume 8, The Ming Dynasty, Cambridge University Press, 28 janvier 1998, 1203 p. (ISBN 978-0-521-24333-9, lire en ligne), p. 283–

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(en) Jae-un Kang, The land of scholars : two thousand years of Korean Confucianism, Paramus (N.J.), Homa & Sekey Books, 2006, 515 p. (ISBN 1-931907-30-7, lire en ligne)

« Joseon requested to send a tribute "thrice each year" or "four times per year" instead and achieved it. »

(en) Martin Robinson et Andrew Bender, Korea, Lonely Planet, 2004 (ISBN 1-74059-449-5, lire en ligne)

« The tribute taken to Beijing three or four times a year during most of the Joseon period provides an interesting insight into Korean products at this time. »

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(en) 梨大史學會 (Korea), 梨大史苑, Volume 7, 梨大史學會,‎ 1968 (lire en ligne), p. 105

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heritageofjapan.wordpress.com

Imperial envoys made perilous passages on kentoshi-sen ships to Tang China "The cross-cultural exchanges began with 5 missions between 600 and 614, initially to Sui China (on kenzuishi-sen), and at least 18 or 19 missions were sent to T’ang China from 630 to 894 although not all of them were designated kentoshi."

hku.hk

ebook.lib.hku.hk

van Braam Houckgeest, Andreas Everardus. (1797). Voyage de l'ambassade de la Compagnie des Indes Orientales hollandaises vers l'empereur de la Chine, dans les années 1794 et 1794; see also 1798 English translation: An authentic account of the embassy of the Dutch East-India company, to the court of the emperor of China, in the years 1974 and 1795, Vol. I.

nus.edu.sg

ari.nus.edu.sg

wikipedia.org

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Par exemple, la traduction en français par Google du titre de cette page dans le wiki chinois est : « Liste des régimes qui ont rendu hommage à la dynastie des Plaines centrales (=empire du milieu) ». Le mot “hommage” a déjà un sens moins fort que “tribut”. Significativement les rédacteurs chinois de cette liste utilisent le mot gòng (贡) et non cóng (賨 : “tribut payé aux Han”).

D'après le Book of Later Han vol. 85, Records of Three Kingdoms vol. 30 and Book of Jin, vol. 97, il y a 2 envois de tribut vers la Chine au I^er siècle, 4 au III^e siècle et 10 au V^e siècle.

Book of Sui, vol. 81

Old book of Tang, vol. 199

États ayant versé un tribut à la Chine impériale (French Wikipedia)

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