Male genital mutilations come in three major forms: A. Circumcision is the removal of the foreskin and is the most common genital modification. It is estimated that 50 percent of the men in the world today have been circumcised. It is required of Jews and customary for Muslims, and circumcision of male babies is a routine medical procedure in some Western societies, including the United States. In non-Western societies circumcision usually occurs later in life, commonly at puberty when boys are initiated into adult status. Some social scientists suggest that circumcision is found primarily in societies where boys develop a strong attachment to their mothers and a weak attachment to their fathers. Circumcision plus other stressful and traumatic activities as part of initiation rites presumably allow the boy to break his emotional ties to his mother and assume a male identity. B. Superincision (supercision) is the slitting of the foreskin lengthwise, without removal. It occurs only in a few Polynesian societies. C. Subincision is the slitting of the underside of the penis lengthwise to the urethra. It is found almost exclusively among a few aboriginal cultures in Australia. These are all cultures located in territories inhabited by kangaroos, the males of which have two-headed penises. It has been suggested, both by the people themselves and anthropologists, that subincision is an attempt to imitate kangaroos. Other forms of male genital mutilation are bleeding the penis without permanent modification, removal of one testicle (hemicastration), complete castration, nipple excision, and inserting objects under the foreskin. All of these only occur under special circumstances and usually only for a select group of boys or men. - Health and Illness: A Cross-Cultural Encyclopedia, David Levinson and Laura Gaccione, Encyclopedias of the Human Experience Series, Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO, 1997, Genital Mutilation (p123-125). http://www.amazon.ca/Health-Illness-David-Levinson/dp/0874368766
en Deibert, Glenn A.: The separation of the prepuce in the human penis, The Daniel Baugh Institute of Anatomy, Jefferson Medical College. http://www.cirp.org/library/anatomy/deibert
most Muslim circumcisions are thought to be carried out by relatives.(the economist, september 15th 2012, p.57, circumcision - odd bedfellows, http://www.economist.com/node/21562905)
In many African countries, male circumcision is a rite of passage, sometimes with dire or lethal results. (the economist, september 15th 2012, p.57, circumcision - odd bedfellows, http://www.economist.com/node/21562905)
In orthodox Judaism the procedure is mandatory eight days after a baby’s birth, carried out by a mohel, a specially trained rabbi, without painkillers. (the economist, september 15th 2012, p.57, circumcision - odd bedfellows, http://www.economist.com/node/21562905)
That could mean dealing with calls for mohelim to undergo medical training (many already do) or licensing. (the economist, september 15th 2012, p.57, circumcision - odd bedfellows, http://www.economist.com/node/21562905)
Opponents cite risks (including botched cutting). They want ritual infant circumcision banned as a traumatic and anachronistic abuse of babies’ bodies. (the economist, september 15th 2012, p.57, circumcision - odd bedfellows, http://www.economist.com/node/21562905)
"În Statele Unite au loc mai multe decese violente decât în orice altă națiune dezvoltată; faptul se datorează în parte gradului mare de răspândire al armelor de foc în populație. […] Populația Statelor Unite suferă de asemenea și de un număr mai mare de persoane decedate din cauza drogurilor, de o mortalitate infantilă mai ridicată și de un procent mai ridicat de indivizi infectați cu virusul responsabil de maladia SIDA decât există în celelalte țări dezvoltate analizate. Rezultatul este că speranța de viață a bărbaților americani este cea mai mică din grupul de 17 țări dezvoltate analizate […] Țările analizate sunt Canada, Japonia, Australia și majoritatea statelor Europei occidentale." - Violence plays role in shorter US life expectancy (Update 2), 9 ianuarie 2013 by Kevin Freking in Health http://medicalxpress.com/news/2013-01-violence-role-shorter-life.html
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en Rickwood, A.M.K.: Medical indications for circumcision, pp. 45–51, BJU International, vol. 83, January 1999, PMID 10349416.
en Krieger, JN: Male circumcision and HIV infection risk, World J. of urology, 2011 May 18, PMID 21590467|doi=10.1007/s00345-011-0696-x
en Siegfried, N., Muller, M, Deeks, JJ, Volmink, J: Male circumcision for prevention of heterosexual acquisition of HIV in men, Cochrane database of systematic reviews (Online), ed. Siegfried - Nandi, Apr. 2009 PMID 19370585, 10.1002/14651858.CD003362.pub2
en Uthman,OA, Popoola, TA, Uthman, MM, Aremu, O.: Economic evaluations of adult male circumcision for prevention of heterosexual acquisition of HIV in men in sub-Saharan Africa: a systematic review, PloS one, 5:3, pp. e9628 2010 Mar 10|PMID 20224784, pmc=2835757, ed. Pieter H. M & Van Baal, 2010 Mar 10.
en Hodges, F.M.: The ideal prepuce in ancient Greece and Rome: male genital aesthetics and their relation to lipodermos, circumcision, foreskin restoration, and the kynodesme, pp.375-405, The Bulletin of the History of Medicine, 75:3, 2001, PMID 11568485
en Dunsmuir, W.D. & Gordon, E.M.: The history of circumcision, pp. 1–12, BJU International, vol. 83, January 1999, PMID 10349416.
en Glass, J.M.: Religious circumcision: a Jewish view, pp. 17–21, BJU International, vol. 83, January 1999, PMID 10349416.
en Goodman, J.: Jewish circumcision: an alternative perspective, pp. 22–27, BJU International, vol. 83, January 1999, PMID 10349416.
en Rizvi, S.A.H., Naqvi, S.A., Hussain, M. and A.S. Hasan: Religious circumcision: a Muslim view, pp. 13–16, BJU International, vol. 83, January 1999, PMID 10349416.
en Freeman, M.D.A.: A child’s right to circumcision, pp. 74–78, BJU International, vol. 83, January 1999, PMID 10349416.
en Van Howe, R.S., Svoboda, J.S., Dwyer, J.G. & Price, C.P.: Involuntary circumcision: the legal issues, pp. 63-73, BJU International, vol. 83, January 1999, PMID 10349416.
en Van Howe, R.S.: Does circumcision influence sexually transmitted diseases?: A literature review, pp. 52–62, BJU International, vol. 83, January 1999, PMID 10349416.
en O’Hara, K. and O’Hara, J.: The effect of male circumcision on the sexual enjoyment of the female partner, pp. 79–84, BJU International, vol. 83, January 1999, PMID 10349416.
WHO/UNAIDS recommendations emphasize that male circumcision should be considered an efficacious intervention for HIV prevention in countries and regions with heterosexual epidemics, high HIV and low male circumcision prevalence. Male circumcision provides only partial protection, and therefore should be only one element of a comprehensive HIV prevention package which includes: the provision of HIV testing and counseling services; treatment for sexually transmitted infections; the promotion of safer sex practices; the provision of male and female condoms and promotion of their correct and consistent use. http://www.who.int/hiv/topics/malecircumcision/en/
whqlibdoc.who.int
Difficulty in maintaining good penile hygiene may contribute to the risk of infections among uncircumcised men. One cross-sectional study of men in Durban, South Africa, found a significantly higher prevalence of HIV among men with penile wetness 14 days after treatment for STI after adjusting for potential confounding factors (odds ratio (OR) = 2.38; 95% confidence interval (CI) = 1.4–4.0), and the circumcised men in the study had a similar prevalence of HIV as the uncircumcised men without penile wetness (43% vs. 46%) (104). Another cross-sectional study, of 150 male partners of women with lower genital tract symptoms from a family planning clinic and an STI clinic in Nairobi, Kenya, also found that increased post-coital washing was associated with lower HIV infection (107). Male circumcision was associated with lower risk of HIV in this study (OR = 0.12; CI = 0.02–0.91), independently of being associated with superior genital hygiene. - Male circumcision: global trends and determinants of prevalence, safety and acceptability, http://whqlibdoc.who.int/publications/2007/9789241596169_eng.pdf
