廣義相對論 (Chinese Wikipedia)

Analysis of information sources in references of the Wikipedia article "廣義相對論" in Chinese language version.

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关于恒星演化的最终阶段参见Oppenheimer & Snyder 1939，以及Font 2003，sec. 4.1包含了更多更新的数值计算成果；对于超新星爆发的过程仍有一些主要问题没有被解决，参见Buras et al. 2003；关于吸积和喷流形成的数值模拟，参见Font 2003，sec. 4.2。而引力透镜效应则被认为在接收来自X射线脉冲星的信号中起到了一定作用，参见Kraus 1998。 Oppenheimer, J. Robert; Snyder, H., On continued gravitational contraction, Physical Review, 1939, 56: 455–459, doi:10.1103/PhysRev.56.455 Font, José A., Numerical Hydrodynamics in General Relativity, Living Rev. Relativity, 2003, 6 [2007-08-19], （原始内容存档于2016-05-15） Buras, R.; Rampp, M.; Janka, H.-Th.; Kifonidis, K., Improved Models of Stellar Core Collapse and Still no Explosions: What is Missing?, Phys. Rev. Lett., 2003, 90: 241101, doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.90.241101, arXiv:astro-ph/0303171 Font, José A., Numerical Hydrodynamics in General Relativity, Living Rev. Relativity, 2003, 6 [2007-08-19], （原始内容存档于2016-05-15） Kraus, Ute, Light Deflection Near Neutron Stars, Relativistic Astrophysics, Vieweg: 66–81, 1998, ISBN 352-806909-0

arxiv.org

参见Kennefick 2005和Kennefick 2007。 Kennefick, Daniel, Astronomers Test General Relativity: Light-bending and the Solar Redshift, Renn, Jürgen (编), One hundred authors for Einstein, Wiley-VCH: 178–181, 2005, ISBN 3-527-40574-7 Kennefick, Daniel, Not Only Because of Theory: Dyson, Eddington and the Competing Myths of the 1919 Eclipse Expedition, Proceedings of the 7th Conference on the History of General Relativity, Tenerife, 2005, 2007, arXiv:0709.0685
关于这两种对称群的比较请见Giulini 2006a。 Giulini, Domenico, Algebraic and Geometric Structures in Special Relativity, Ehlers, Jürgen; Lämmerzahl, Claus (编), Special Relativity—Will it Survive the Next 101 Years?, Springer: 45–111, 2006a, ISBN 3-540-34522-1, arXiv:math-ph/0602018
关于更多的替代理论参见Brans & Dicke 1961，Weinberg 1972的第七章第三节， Goenner 2004，sec. 7.2以及Trautman 2006。 Brans, C. H.; Dicke, R. H., Mach's Principle and a Relativistic Theory of Gravitation, Physical Review, 1961, 124 (3): 925–935, doi:10.1103/PhysRev.124.925 Weinberg, Steven, Gravitation and Cosmology, John Wiley, 1972, ISBN 0-471-92567-5 Goenner, Hubert F. M., On the History of Unified Field Theories, Living Rev. Relativity, 2004, 7 [2008-02-28], （原始内容存档于2020-01-22） Trautman, Andrzej, Einstein-Cartan theory, Francoise, J.-P.; Naber, G. L.; Tsou, S. T. (编), Encyclopedia of Mathematical Physics, Vol. 2, Elsevier: 189–195, 2006, arXiv:gr-qc/0606062
关于定义广义相对性原理以及将其从广义协变性的观念中分离出来这一过程中所遇到的困难，参见Giulini 2006b。 Giulini, Domenico, Some remarks on the notions of general covariance and background independence, Stamatescu, I. O. (编), An assessment of current paradigms in the physics of fundamental interactions, Springer, 2006b, arXiv:gr-qc/0603087
在Geroch 1996中有关于爱因斯坦场方程在联系其他具有物理意义的偏微分方程下的回顾讨论。 Geroch, Robert, Partial Differential Equations of Physics, 1996, arXiv:gr-qc/9602055
关于这些解的背景和列表，参见Stephani et al. 2003；另一个更新的回顾讨论是MacCallum 2006。 Stephani, H.; Kramer, D.; MacCallum, M.; Hoenselaers, C.; Herlt, E., Exact Solutions of Einstein's Field Equations 2, Cambridge University Press, 2003, ISBN 0-521-46136-7 MacCallum, M., Finding and using exact solutions of the Einstein equations, Mornas, L.; Alonso, J. D. (编), A Century of Relativity Physics (ERE05, the XXVIII Spanish Relativity Meeting), American Institute of Physics, 2006, arXiv:gr-qc/0601102
参见Lehner 2002的概述。 Lehner, Luis, Numerical Relativity: Status and Prospects, 2002, arXiv:gr-qc/0202055
例如参见Greenstein, Oke & Shipman 1971；最新也是最精确的对于天狼星B的观测成果发表在Barstow, Bond & Holberg 2005。 Greenstein, J. L.; Oke, J. B.; Shipman, H. L., Effective Temperature, Radius, and Gravitational Redshift of Sirius B, Astrophysical Journal, 1971, 169: 563 [2008-09-04], doi:10.1086/151174, （原始内容存档于2011-10-14） Barstow, M.; Bond, Howard E.; Holberg, J.B., Hubble Space Telescope Spectroscopy of the Balmer lines in Sirius B, Mon. Not. Roy. Astron. Soc., 2005, 362: 1134–1142, doi:10.1111/j.1365-2966.2005.09359.x, arXiv:astro-ph/0506600
在Stairs 2003和Kramer 2004中有回顾评论。 Stairs, Ingrid H., Testing General Relativity with Pulsar Timing, Living Rev. Relativity, 2003, 6 [2007-07-21] Kramer, Michael, Millisecond Pulsars as Tools of Fundamental Physics, Karshenboim, S. G.; Peik, E. (编), Astrophysics, Clocks and Fundamental Constants (Lecture Notes in Physics Vol. 648), Springer: 33–54, 2004, arXiv:astro-ph/0405178
关于数值相对论方法的简要介绍参见Lehner 2002，而Seidel 1998介绍了数值相对论与引力波天文学之间的衔接关系。 Lehner, Luis, Numerical Relativity: Status and Prospects, 2002, arXiv:gr-qc/0202055 Seidel, Edward, Numerical Relativity: Towards Simulations of 3D Black Hole Coalescence, Narlikar, J. V.; Dadhich, N. (编), Gravitation and Relativity: At the turn of the millennium (Proceedings of the GR-15 Conference, held at IUCAA, Pune, India, December 16–21, 1997), IUCAA, 1998, ISBN 81-900378-3-8, arXiv:gr-qc/9806088
参见Kramer et al. 2006。 Kramer, M.; Stairs, I. H.; Manchester, R. N.; McLaughlin, M. A., Tests of general relativity from timing the double pulsar, Science, 2006, 314: 97–102, PMID 16973838, doi:10.1126/science.1132305, arXiv:astro-ph/0609417
参见Kramer 2004。 Kramer, Michael, Millisecond Pulsars as Tools of Fundamental Physics, Karshenboim, S. G.; Peik, E. (编), Astrophysics, Clocks and Fundamental Constants (Lecture Notes in Physics Vol. 648), Springer: 33–54, 2004, arXiv:astro-ph/0405178
参见Bertotti, Ciufolini & Bender 1987和更新的评论Nordtvedt 2003。 Bertotti, Bruno; Ciufolini, Ignazio; Bender, Peter L., New test of general relativity: Measurement of de Sitter geodetic precession rate for lunar perigee, Physical Review Letters, 1987, 58: 1062–1065, doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.58.1062 Nordtvedt, Kenneth, Lunar Laser Ranging—a comprehensive probe of post-Newtonian gravity, 2003, arXiv:gr-qc/0301024
例如参见Townsend 1997，sec. 4.2.1和Ohanian & Ruffini 1994，pp. 469–471.。 Townsend, Paul K., Black Holes (Lecture notes), 1997, arXiv:gr-qc/9707012 Ohanian, Hans C.; Ruffini, Remo; Ruffini, Gravitation and Spacetime, W. W. Norton & Company, 1994, ISBN 0-393-96501-5
例如参见Ohanian & Ruffini 1994，sec. 4.7和Weinberg 1972，sec. 9.7；更新的评论在Schäfer 2004。 Ohanian, Hans C.; Ruffini, Remo; Ruffini, Gravitation and Spacetime, W. W. Norton & Company, 1994, ISBN 0-393-96501-5 Weinberg, Steven, Gravitation and Cosmology, John Wiley, 1972, ISBN 0-471-92567-5 Schäfer, Gerhard, Gravitomagnetic Effects, General Relativity and Gravitation, 2004, 36: 2223–2235, doi:10.1023/B:GERG.0000046180.97877.32, arXiv:gr-qc/0407116
Iorio L., COMMENTS, REPLIES AND NOTES: A note on the evidence of the gravitomagnetic field of Mars, Classical Quantum Gravity, August 2006, 23 (17): 5451–5454, Bibcode:2006CQGra..23.5451I, arXiv:gr-qc/0606092 , doi:10.1088/0264-9381/23/17/N01
Iorio L., On the Lense-Thirring test with the Mars Global Surveyor in the gravitational field of Mars, Central European Journal of Physics, June 2010, 8 (3): 509–513, Bibcode:2010CEJPh...8..509I, arXiv:gr-qc/0701146 , doi:10.2478/s11534-009-0117-6
关于引力透镜效应的简单推导参见 Schutz 2003，ch. 23；以及Narayan & Bartelmann 1997，sec. 3。 Schutz, Bernard F., Gravity from the ground up, Cambridge University Press, 2003, ISBN 0-521-45506-5 Narayan, Ramesh; Bartelmann, Matthias, Lectures on Gravitational Lensing, 1997, arXiv:astro-ph/9606001
参见Narayan & Bartelmann 1997，sec. 3.7。 Narayan, Ramesh; Bartelmann, Matthias, Lectures on Gravitational Lensing, 1997, arXiv:astro-ph/9606001
参见Thorne 1995。 Thorne, Kip S., Gravitational radiation, 1995, arXiv:gr-qc/9506086
参见 Cutler & Thorne 2002。 Cutler, Curt; Thorne, Kip S., An overview of gravitational wave sources, Bishop, Nigel; Maharaj, Sunil D. (编), Proceedings of 16th International Conference on General Relativity and Gravitation (GR16), World Scientific, 2002, ISBN 981-238-171-6, arXiv:gr-qc/0204090
例如参见Celotti, Miller & Sciama 1999，sec. 3。 Celotti, Annalisa; Miller, John C.; Sciama, Dennis W., Astrophysical evidence for the existence of black holes, Class. Quant. Grav., 1999, 16: A3–A21, doi:10.1088/0264-9381/16/12A/301, arXiv:astro-ph/9912186v1
关于恒星演化的最终阶段参见Oppenheimer & Snyder 1939，以及Font 2003，sec. 4.1包含了更多更新的数值计算成果；对于超新星爆发的过程仍有一些主要问题没有被解决，参见Buras et al. 2003；关于吸积和喷流形成的数值模拟，参见Font 2003，sec. 4.2。而引力透镜效应则被认为在接收来自X射线脉冲星的信号中起到了一定作用，参见Kraus 1998。 Oppenheimer, J. Robert; Snyder, H., On continued gravitational contraction, Physical Review, 1939, 56: 455–459, doi:10.1103/PhysRev.56.455 Font, José A., Numerical Hydrodynamics in General Relativity, Living Rev. Relativity, 2003, 6 [2007-08-19], （原始内容存档于2016-05-15） Buras, R.; Rampp, M.; Janka, H.-Th.; Kifonidis, K., Improved Models of Stellar Core Collapse and Still no Explosions: What is Missing?, Phys. Rev. Lett., 2003, 90: 241101, doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.90.241101, arXiv:astro-ph/0303171 Font, José A., Numerical Hydrodynamics in General Relativity, Living Rev. Relativity, 2003, 6 [2007-08-19], （原始内容存档于2016-05-15） Kraus, Ute, Light Deflection Near Neutron Stars, Relativistic Astrophysics, Vieweg: 66–81, 1998, ISBN 352-806909-0
这些证据包括通过对吸积驱动效应的观测得到的星体致密度的极限（“爱丁顿光度”），参见Celotti, Miller & Sciama 1999；对我们的银河系中心附近的恒星动力学观测，参见Schödel et al. 2003；对某些X射线暴（其中心星体往往是一颗中子星或黑洞）的研究表明宇宙中至少有某些致密星体并没有固态的表面，参见Remillard et al. 2006及Narayan 2006，sec. 5；以及对银河系中心的超大质量黑洞的事件视界的“阴暗”部分的搜索观测正在积极进行中，参见Falcke, Melia & Agol 2000. Celotti, Annalisa; Miller, John C.; Sciama, Dennis W., Astrophysical evidence for the existence of black holes, Class. Quant. Grav., 1999, 16: A3–A21, doi:10.1088/0264-9381/16/12A/301, arXiv:astro-ph/9912186v1 Schödel, R.; Ott, T.; Genzel, R.; Eckart, A., Stellar Dynamics in the Central Arcsecond of Our Galaxy, Astrophysical Journal, 2003, 596: 1015–1034, doi:10.1086/378122, arXiv:astro-ph/0306214 Remillard, Ronald A.; Lin, Dacheng; Cooper, Randall L.; Narayan, Ramesh, The Rates of Type I X-Ray Bursts from Transients Observed with RXTE: Evidence for Black Hole Event Horizons, Astrophysical Journal, 2006, 646: 407–419, doi:10.1086/504862, arXiv:astro-ph/0509758 Narayan, Ramesh, Black holes in astrophysics, New Journal of Physics, 2006, 7: 199, doi:10.1088/1367-2630/7/1/199, arXiv:gr-qc/0506078 Falcke, Heino; Melia, Fulvio; Agol, Eric, Viewing the Shadow of the Black Hole at the Galactic Center, Astrophysical Journal, 2000, 528: L13–L16, doi:10.1086/312423, arXiv:astro-ph/9912263
参见Dalal et al. 2006。 Dalal, Neal; Holz, Daniel E.; Hughes, Scott A.; Jain, Bhuvnesh, Short GRB and binary black hole standard sirens as a probe of dark energy, Phys.Rev., 2006, D74: 063006, doi:10.1103/PhysRevD.74.063006, arXiv:astro-ph/0601275
例如参见Barack & Cutler 2004。 Barack, Leor; Cutler, Curt, LISA Capture Sources: Approximate Waveforms, Signal-to-Noise Ratios, and Parameter Estimation Accuracy, Phys. Rev., 2004, D69: 082005, doi:10.1103/PhysRevD.69.082005, arXiv:gr-qc/031012
例如参考来自WMAP的数据，参见Spergel et al. 2003。 Spergel, D. N.; Verde, L.; Peiris, H. V.; Komatsu, E., First Year Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe (WMAP) Observations: Determination of Cosmological Parameters, Astrophys. J. Suppl., 2003, 148: 175–194, doi:10.1086/377226, arXiv:astro-ph/0302209
这些检验来自于彼此独立的观测，例如参见Bridle et al. 2003中图2。 Bridle, Sarah L.; Lahav, Ofer; Ostriker, Jeremiah P.; Steinhardt, Paul J., Precision Cosmology? Not Just Yet, Science, 2003, 299: 1532–1533, PMID 12624255, doi:10.1126/science.1082158, arXiv:astro-ph/0303180
参见Peebles 1966；对这些预言的解释参见Coc et al. 2004；以及Weiss 2006；对这些观测的比较参见Olive & Skillman 2004， Bania, Rood & Balser 2002，O'Meara et al. 2001以及Charbonnel & Primas 2005。 Peebles, P. J. E., Primordial Helium abundance and primordial fireball II, Astrophysical Journal, 1966, 146: 542–552 [2008-09-04], doi:10.1086/148918, （原始内容存档于2011-08-09） Coc, A.; Vangioni-Flam, E.; Descouvemont, P.; Adahchour, A.; Angulo, C., Updated Big Bang Nucleosynthesis confronted to WMAP observations and to the Abundance of Light Elements, Astrophysical Journal, 2004, 600: 544–552, doi:10.1086/380121, arXiv:astro-ph/0309480 Weiss, Achim, Elements of the past: Big Bang Nucleosynthesis and observation, Einstein Online (Max Planck Institute for Gravitational Physics), 2006 [2007-02-24], （原始内容存档于2007-02-08） Olive, K. A.; Skillman, E. A., A Realistic Determination of the Error on the Primordial Helium Abundance, Astrophysical Journal, 2004, 617: 29–49, doi:10.1086/425170, arXiv:astro-ph/0405588 Bania, T. M.; Rood, R. T.; Balser, D. S., The cosmological density of baryons from observations of 3He+ in the Milky Way, Nature, 2002, 415: 54–57, doi:10.1038/415054a O'Meara, John M.; Tytler, David; Kirkman, David; Suzuki, Nao, The Deuterium to Hydrogen Abundance Ratio Towards a Fourth QSO: HS0105+1619, Astrophysical Journal, 2001, 552: 718–730, doi:10.1086/320579, arXiv:astro-ph/0011179 Charbonnel, C.; Primas, F., The Lithium Content of the Galactic Halo Stars, Astronomy & Astrophysics, 2005, 442: 961–992, doi:10.1051/0004-6361:20042491, arXiv:astro-ph/0505247
参见Alpher & Herman 1948，教学性的介绍参见Bergström & Goobar 2003，ch. 11；最早对微波背景辐射的观测在Penzias & Wilson 1965，通过人造卫星所作的精确测量在Mather et al. 1994 (COBE)和Bennett et al. 2003 (WMAP)。未来的观测还有可能揭示极早期宇宙诞生时就存在的引力波的一些证据；这些附加的信息包含在微波背景辐射的偏振中，参见Kamionkowski, Kosowsky & Stebbins 1997和Seljak & Zaldarriaga 1997。 Alpher, R. A.; Herman, R. C., Evolution of the universe, Nature, 1948, 162: 774–775, doi:10.1038/162774b0 Bergström, Lars; Goobar, Ariel, Cosmology and Particle Astrophysics 2nd, Wiley & Sons, 2003, ISBN 3-540-43128-4 Penzias, A. A.; Wilson, R. W., A measurement of excess antenna temperature at 4080 Mc/s, Astrophysical Journal, 1965, 142: 419–421 [2008-09-04], doi:10.1086/148307, （原始内容存档于2011-08-09） Mather, J. C.; Cheng, E. S.; Cottingham, D. A.; Eplee, R. E., Measurement of the cosmic microwave spectrum by the COBE FIRAS instrument, Astrophysical Journal, 1994, 420: 439–444 [2008-09-04], doi:10.1086/173574, （原始内容存档于2017-11-09） Bennett, C. L.; Halpern, M.; Hinshaw, G.; Jarosik, N., First Year Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe (WMAP) Observations: Preliminary Maps and Basic Results, Astrophys. J. Suppl., 2003, 148: 1–27, doi:10.1086/377253, arXiv:astro-ph/0302207 Kamionkowski, Marc; Kosowsky, Arthur; Stebbins, Albert, Statistics of Cosmic Microwave Background Polarization, Phys. Rev., 1997, D55: 7368–7388, doi:10.1103/PhysRevD.55.7368, arXiv:astro-ph/9611125 Seljak, Uros̆; Zaldarriaga, Matias, Signature of Gravity Waves in the Polarization of the Microwave Background, Phys. Rev. Lett., 1997, 78: 2054–2057, doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.78.2054, arXiv:astro-ph/9609169
参见Peacock 1999，ch. 12和Peskin 2007；特别地，观测显示除了少到可以忽略的一部分之外这些物质基本上不是由通常状态下的基本粒子组成的（即它们并非强子组成的物质），参见Peacock 1999，ch. 12。 Peacock, John A., Cosmological Physics, Cambridge University Press, 1999, ISBN 0-521-41072-X Peskin, Michael E., Dark Matter and Particle Physics, 2007, arXiv:0707.1536 Peacock, John A., Cosmological Physics, Cambridge University Press, 1999, ISBN 0-521-41072-X
也就是说，有些物理学家开始怀疑暗物质存在的证据是否其实是爱因斯坦理论（当然也包括牛顿理论）对引力的描述存在偏差的证明，关于这一猜测的概述参见Mannheim 2006，sec. 9。 Mannheim, Philip D., Alternatives to Dark Matter and Dark Energy, Prog. Part. Nucl. Phys., 2006, 56: 340–445, doi:10.1016/j.ppnp.2005.08.001, arXiv:astro-ph/0505266v2
参见Carroll 2001；概述可见于Caldwell 2004。对于暗能量，有些科学家也认为暗能量并非是一种新的能量形式，而是我们的宇宙学模型需要修正，参见Mannheim 2006，sec. 10；不过这不一定意味着要对广义相对论进行修正，而可以是我们对宇宙各向异性的处理方法需要修正，参见Buchert 2007。 Carroll, Sean M., The Cosmological Constant, Living Rev. Relativity, 2001, 4 [2007-07-21], （原始内容存档于2004-06-20） Caldwell, Robert R., Dark Energy, Physics World, 2004, 17(5): 37–42 [2008-09-04], doi:10.1038/nature02139, （原始内容存档于2007-07-13） Mannheim, Philip D., Alternatives to Dark Matter and Dark Energy, Prog. Part. Nucl. Phys., 2006, 56: 340–445, doi:10.1016/j.ppnp.2005.08.001, arXiv:astro-ph/0505266v2 Buchert, Thomas, Dark Energy from Structure—A Status Report, General Relativity and Gravitation, 2007, 40: 467–527, doi:10.1007/s10714-007-0554-8, arXiv:0707.2153
关于暴胀模型有一篇很好的介绍：Linde 1990；以及一篇更近的回顾评论：Linde 2005。 Linde, Andrei, Particle Physics and Inflationary Cosmology, Harwood, 1990, ISBN 3718604892, arXiv:hep-th/0503203 Linde, Andrei, Towards inflation in string theory, J. Phys. Conf. Ser., 2005, 24: 151–160, doi:10.1088/1742-6596/24/1/018, arXiv:hep-th/0503195
参见Spergel et al. 2007，sec. 5 & 6。 Spergel, D. N.; Bean, R.; Doré, O.; Nolta, M. R., Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe (WMAP) Three Year Results: Implications for Cosmology, Astrophysical Journal Supplement, 2007, 170: 377–408, doi:10.1086/513700, arXiv:astro-ph/0603449
参见Brandenberger 2007，sec. 2。 Brandenberger, Robert H., Conceptual Problems of Inflationary Cosmology and a New Approach to Cosmological Structure Formation, 2007, arXiv:hep-th/0701111
初步知识参见Israel 1971；相关推导参见Hawking & Ellis 1973，sec. 9.3或Heusler 1996，ch. 9 and 10；最近的研究成果回顾参见Heusler 1998和Beig & Chruściel 2006。 Israel, Werner, Event Horizons and Gravitational Collapse, General Relativity and Gravitation, 1971, 2: 53–59, doi:10.1007/BF02450518 Hawking, Stephen W.; Ellis, George F. R., The large scale structure of spacetime, Cambridge University Press, 1973, ISBN 0-521-09906-4 Heusler, Markus, Black Hole Uniqueness Theorems, Cambridge University Press, 1996, ISBN 0-521-56735-1 Heusler, Markus, Stationary Black Holes: Uniqueness and Beyond, Living Rev. Relativity, 1998, 1 [2007-08-04] Beig, Robert; Chruściel, Piotr T., Stationary black holes, Francoise, J.-P.; Naber, G.; Tsou, T.S. (编), Encyclopedia of Mathematical Physics, Volume 2, Elsevier, 2006, ISBN 0-12-512660-3, arXiv:gr-qc/0502041
参见Townsend 1997，chapter 2；这一精确解的延伸处理参见Chandrasekhar 1983，chapter 3。 Townsend, Paul K., Black Holes (Lecture notes), 1997, arXiv:gr-qc/9707012 Chandrasekhar, Subrahmanyan, The Mathematical Theory of Black Holes, Oxford University Press, 1983, ISBN 0-19-850370-9
参见Townsend 1997，chapter 4；这一精确解的延伸处理参见Chandrasekhar 1983，chapter 6。 Townsend, Paul K., Black Holes (Lecture notes), 1997, arXiv:gr-qc/9707012 Chandrasekhar, Subrahmanyan, The Mathematical Theory of Black Holes, Oxford University Press, 1983, ISBN 0-19-850370-9
参见Ellis & van Elst 1999；关于奇点本身的探讨参见Börner 1993，sec. 1.2。 Ellis, George F R; van Elst, Henk, Cosmological models (Cargèse lectures 1998), Lachièze-Rey, Marc (编), Theoretical and Observational Cosmology, Kluwer: 1–116, 1999, arXiv:gr-qc/9812046 Börner, Gerhard, The Early Universe. Facts and Fiction, Springer, 1993, ISBN 0-387-56729-1
参见Gourgoulhon 2007；并参见数值相对论的基础回顾Lehner 2001，其中还包含从爱因斯坦方程特性引发的问题。 Gourgoulhon, Eric, 3+1 Formalism and Bases of Numerical Relativity, 2007, arXiv:gr-qc/0703035 Lehner, Luis, Numerical Relativity: A review, Class. Quant. Grav., 2001, 18: R25–R86, doi:10.1088/0264-9381/18/17/202, arXiv:gr-qc/0106072
例如参见Townsend 1997，ch. 5。 Townsend, Paul K., Black Holes (Lecture notes), 1997, arXiv:gr-qc/9707012
Rovelli 2000 Rovelli, Carlo, Notes for a brief history of quantum gravity, 2000, arXiv:gr-qc/0006061
霍金辐射参见Hawking 1975，Wald 1975黑洞蒸发的更基础解释参见Traschen 2000。 Hawking, S. W., Particle Creation by Black Holes, Communications in Mathematical Physics, 1975, 43: 199–220, doi:10.1007/BF02345020 Wald, Robert M., On Particle Creation by Black Holes, Commun. Math. Phys., 1975, 45: 9–34, doi:10.1007/BF02345020 Traschen, Jenny, An Introduction to Black Hole Evaporation, Bytsenko, A.; Williams, F. (编), Mathematical Methods of Physics (Proceedings of the 1999 Londrina Winter School), World Scientific, 2000, arXiv:gr-qc/0010055
简单说来，物质是时空曲率的源，由于物质是量子化的，所以我们也期待时空也具有相应的量子性质，参见Carlip 2001第二节。 Carlip, Steven, Quantum Gravity: a Progress Report, Rept. Prog. Phys., 2001, 64: 885–942, doi:10.1088/0034-4885/64/8/301, arXiv:gr-qc/0108040
有关时间表和概述可见于Rovelli 2000。 Rovelli, Carlo, Notes for a brief history of quantum gravity, 2000, arXiv:gr-qc/0006061
参见Donoghue 1995。 Donoghue, John F., Introduction to the Effective Field Theory Description of Gravity, Cornet, Fernando (编), Effective Theories: Proceedings of the Advanced School, Almunecar, Spain, 26 June–1 July 1995, 1995, ISBN 9810229089, arXiv:gr-qc/9512024
在当前的实验所能达到的能量下，弦和点状粒子仍然是无法区分的；但关键一点在于，同一种类的基本弦在不同的振动模式下所表现出来的粒子携带有不一样的电荷，例如参见Ibanez 2000。这一理论的成功之处是有一种振动模式总是能与引力的媒介子即引力子对应，例如参见Green, Schwarz & Witten 1987，sec. 2.3 and 5.3。 Ibanez, L. E., The second string (phenomenology) revolution, Class. Quant. Grav., 2000, 17: 1117–1128, doi:10.1088/0264-9381/17/5/321, arXiv:hep-th/9911499 Green, M. B.; Schwarz, J. H.; Witten, E., Superstring theory. Volume 1: Introduction, Cambridge University Press, 1987, ISBN 0-521-35752-7
例如参见Townsend 1996，Duff 1996。 Townsend, Paul K., Four Lectures on M-Theory, 1996, arXiv:hep-th/9612121 Duff, Michael, M-Theory (the Theory Formerly Known as Strings), Int. J. Mod. Phys., 1996, A11: 5623–5641, doi:10.1142/S0217751X96002583, arXiv:hep-th/9608117
回顾评论参见Thiemann 2006；更详细的解释参见Rovelli 1998，Ashtekar & Lewandowski 2004以及讲义Thiemann 2003。 Thiemann, Thomas, Loop Quantum Gravity: An Inside View, 2006, arXiv:hep-th/0608210 Rovelli, Carlo, Loop Quantum Gravity, Living Rev. Relativity, 1998, 1 [2008-03-13], （原始内容存档于2020-01-22） Ashtekar, Abhay; Lewandowski, Jerzy, Background Independent Quantum Gravity: A Status Report, Class. Quant. Grav., 2004, 21: R53–R152, doi:10.1088/0264-9381/21/15/R01, arXiv:gr-qc/0404018 Thiemann, Thomas, Lectures on Loop Quantum Gravity, Lect. Notes Phys., 2003, 631: 41–135
例如参见系统性的说明Isham 1994和Sorkin 1997。 Isham, Christopher J., Prima facie questions in quantum gravity, Ehlers, Jürgen; Friedrich, Helmut (编), Canonical Gravity: From Classical to Quantum, Springer, 1994, ISBN 3-540-58339-4 Sorkin, Rafael D., Forks in the Road, on the Way to Quantum Gravity, Int. J. Theor. Phys., 1997, 36: 2759–2781, doi:10.1007/BF02435709, arXiv:gr-qc/9706002
参见Sorkin 2005。 Sorkin, Rafael D., Causal Sets: Discrete Gravity, Gomberoff, Andres; Marolf, Donald (编), Lectures on Quantum Gravity, Springer, 2005, ISBN 0-387-23995-2, arXiv:gr-qc/0309009
例如参见Ashtekar 2007，Schwarz 2007。 Ashtekar, Abhay, Loop Quantum Gravity: Four Recent Advances and a Dozen Frequently Asked Questions, 2007, arXiv:0705.2222 Schwarz, John H., String Theory: Progress and Problems, 2007, arXiv:hep-th/0702219
参见Friedrich 2005。 Friedrich, Helmut, Is general relativity `essentially understood'?, Annalen Phys., 2005, 15: 84–108 [2008-09-04], doi:10.1002/andp.200510173, （原始内容存档于2015-02-10）
关于数值模拟的诸多问题，以及由此发展的解决技术的回顾评论参见Lehner 2002。 Lehner, Luis, Numerical Relativity: Status and Prospects, 2002, arXiv:gr-qc/0202055
致密双星旋近的引力波偏振的相关论文参见Blanchet et al. 2008和Arun et al. 2007；致密双星的研究回顾评论参见Blanchet 2006 和Futamase & Itoh 2006；广义相对论的实验验证概述参见Will 2006。 Blanchet, L.; Faye, G.; Iyer, B. R.; Sinha, S., The third post-Newtonian gravitational wave polarisations and associated spherical harmonic modes for inspiralling compact binaries in quasi-circular orbits, 2008, arXiv:0802.1249 Arun, K.G.; Blanchet, L.; Iyer, B. R.; Qusailah, M. S. S., Inspiralling compact binaries in quasi-elliptical orbits: The complete 3PN energy flux, 2007, arXiv:0711.0302 Blanchet, Luc, Gravitational Radiation from Post-Newtonian Sources and Inspiralling Compact Binaries, Living Rev. Relativity, 2006, 9 [2007-08-07], （原始内容存档于2019-09-15） Futamase, T.; Itoh, Y., The Post-Newtonian Approximation for Relativistic Compact Binaries, Living Rev. Relativity, 2006, 10 [2008-02-29], （原始内容存档于2019-09-15） Will, Clifford M., The Confrontation between General Relativity and Experiment, Living Rev. Relativity, 2006 [2007-06-12], （原始内容存档于2019-12-10）

caltech.edu

ligo.caltech.edu

Gravitational Waves Detected 100 Years After Einstein's Prediction. LIGO, Caltech. [2016-02-11]. （原始内容存档于2019-05-27）（英语）.
参见Bartusiak 2000了解到2000年为止的引力波探测，更新的结果可见于各大引力波探测计划主页，例如GEO 600 （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）和LIGO （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）。 Bartusiak, Marcia, Einstein's Unfinished Symphony: Listening to the Sounds of Space-Time, Berkley, 2000, ISBN 978-0-425-18620-6

srl.caltech.edu

参见Danzmann & Rüdiger 2003。 Danzmann, Karsten; Rüdiger, Albrecht, LISA Technology—Concepts, Status, Prospects (PDF), Class. Quant. Grav., 2003, 20: S1–S9 [2008-09-04], doi:10.1088/0264-9381/20/10/301, （原始内容 (PDF)存档于2007-09-26）

cfa-harvard.edu

所有这些已知的引力透镜的照片都可以在CASTLES计划中找到：Kochanek et al. 2007。 Kochanek, C.S.; Falco, E.E.; Impey, C.; Lehar, J., CASTLES Survey Website, Harvard-Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics, 2007 [2007-08-21], （原始内容存档于2001-06-04）

digitallibrary.nl

参见Schwarzschild 1916a，Schwarzschild 1916b和Reissner 1916（其后在Nordström 1918有补充）。 Schwarzschild, Karl, Über das Gravitationsfeld eines Massenpunktes nach der Einsteinschen Theorie, Sitzungsber. Preuss. Akad. D. Wiss., 1916a: 189–196 Schwarzschild, Karl, Über das Gravitationsfeld eines Kugel aus inkompressibler Flüssigkeit nach der Einsteinschen Theorie, Sitzungsber. Preuss. Akad. D. Wiss., 1916b: 424–434 Reissner, H., Über die Eigengravitation des elektrischen Feldes nach der Einsteinschen Theorie, Annalen der Physik, 1916, 355: 106–120, doi:10.1002/andp.19163550905 Nordström, Gunnar, On the Energy of the Gravitational Field in Einstein's Theory, Verhandl. Koninkl. Ned. Akad. Wetenschap., 1918, 26: 1238–1245 [2008-09-04], （原始内容存档于2009-01-26）

doi.org

这段研究发展历程请参见Pais 1982和Janssen 2005的第九章至第十五章；涵盖当前最新研究并包含有最初版本的多个重印版都收集在Renn 2007中；在Renn 2005，p. 110ff.有相关概述。在Einstein 1907还提供了一篇早期的重要文章，并参见Pais 1982，ch. 9。以场方程为主要特色内容发表的文章是Einstein 1915，并参见Pais 1982，ch. 11–15。 Pais, Abraham, 'Subtle is the Lord...' The Science and life of Albert Einstein, Oxford University Press, 1982, ISBN 0-19-853907-X Janssen, Michel, Of pots and holes: Einstein’s bumpy road to general relativity (PDF), Ann. Phys. (Leipzig), 2005, 14: 58–85 [2008-09-04], doi:10.1002/andp.200410130, （原始内容 (PDF)存档于2008-09-11） Renn, Jürgen (编), The Genesis of General Relativity (4 Volumes), Dordrecht: Springer, 2007, ISBN 1-4020-3999-9 Renn, Jürgen (编), Albert Einstein—Chief Engineer of the Universe: Einstein's Life and Work in Context, Berlin: Wiley-VCH, 2005, ISBN 3-527-40571-2 Einstein, Albert, Über das Relativitätsprinzip und die aus demselben gezogene Folgerungen (PDF), Jahrbuch der Radioaktivitaet und Elektronik, 1907, 4: 411 [2008-05-05], （原始内容存档 (PDF)于2021-01-19） Pais, Abraham, 'Subtle is the Lord...' The Science and life of Albert Einstein, Oxford University Press, 1982, ISBN 0-19-853907-X Einstein, Albert, Die Feldgleichungen der Gravitation, Sitzungsberichte der Preussischen Akademie der Wissenschaften zu Berlin, 1915: 844–847 [2006-09-12], （原始内容存档于2016-10-27） Pais, Abraham, 'Subtle is the Lord...' The Science and life of Albert Einstein, Oxford University Press, 1982, ISBN 0-19-853907-X
参见Schwarzschild 1916a，Schwarzschild 1916b和Reissner 1916（其后在Nordström 1918有补充）。 Schwarzschild, Karl, Über das Gravitationsfeld eines Massenpunktes nach der Einsteinschen Theorie, Sitzungsber. Preuss. Akad. D. Wiss., 1916a: 189–196 Schwarzschild, Karl, Über das Gravitationsfeld eines Kugel aus inkompressibler Flüssigkeit nach der Einsteinschen Theorie, Sitzungsber. Preuss. Akad. D. Wiss., 1916b: 424–434 Reissner, H., Über die Eigengravitation des elektrischen Feldes nach der Einsteinschen Theorie, Annalen der Physik, 1916, 355: 106–120, doi:10.1002/andp.19163550905 Nordström, Gunnar, On the Energy of the Gravitational Field in Einstein's Theory, Verhandl. Koninkl. Ned. Akad. Wetenschap., 1918, 26: 1238–1245 [2008-09-04], （原始内容存档于2009-01-26）
哈勃的原文是Hubble 1929；相关概述请见Singh 2004，ch. 2–4。 Hubble, Edwin, A Relation between Distance and Radial Velocity among Extra-Galactic Nebulae (PDF), Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci., 1929, 15: 168–173 [2008-09-04], doi:10.1073/pnas.15.3.168, （原始内容存档 (PDF)于2008-06-26） Singh, Simon, Big Bang: The Origin of the Universe, Fourth Estate, 2004, ISBN 0007152515
关于更多的替代理论参见Brans & Dicke 1961，Weinberg 1972的第七章第三节， Goenner 2004，sec. 7.2以及Trautman 2006。 Brans, C. H.; Dicke, R. H., Mach's Principle and a Relativistic Theory of Gravitation, Physical Review, 1961, 124 (3): 925–935, doi:10.1103/PhysRev.124.925 Weinberg, Steven, Gravitation and Cosmology, John Wiley, 1972, ISBN 0-471-92567-5 Goenner, Hubert F. M., On the History of Unified Field Theories, Living Rev. Relativity, 2004, 7 [2008-02-28], （原始内容存档于2020-01-22） Trautman, Andrzej, Einstein-Cartan theory, Francoise, J.-P.; Naber, G. L.; Tsou, S. T. (编), Encyclopedia of Mathematical Physics, Vol. 2, Elsevier: 189–195, 2006, arXiv:gr-qc/0606062
庞德-雷布卡实验，参见Pound & Rebka 1959，Pound & Rebka 1960；Pound & Snider 1964；更多的实验列表在Ohanian & Ruffini 1994，table 4.1 on p. 186。 Pound, R. V.; Rebka, G. A., Gravitational Red-Shift in Nuclear Resonance, Physical Review Letters, 1959, 3: 439–441, doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.3.439 Pound, R. V.; Rebka, G. A., Apparent weight of photons, Phys. Rev. Lett., 1960, 4: 337–341, doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.4.337 Pound, R. V.; Snider, J. L., Effect of Gravity on Nuclear Resonance, Phys. Rev. Lett., 1964, 13: 539–540, doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.13.539 Ohanian, Hans C.; Ruffini, Remo; Ruffini, Gravitation and Spacetime, W. W. Norton & Company, 1994, ISBN 0-393-96501-5
例如参见Greenstein, Oke & Shipman 1971；最新也是最精确的对于天狼星B的观测成果发表在Barstow, Bond & Holberg 2005。 Greenstein, J. L.; Oke, J. B.; Shipman, H. L., Effective Temperature, Radius, and Gravitational Redshift of Sirius B, Astrophysical Journal, 1971, 169: 563 [2008-09-04], doi:10.1086/151174, （原始内容存档于2011-10-14） Barstow, M.; Bond, Howard E.; Holberg, J.B., Hubble Space Telescope Spectroscopy of the Balmer lines in Sirius B, Mon. Not. Roy. Astron. Soc., 2005, 362: 1134–1142, doi:10.1111/j.1365-2966.2005.09359.x, arXiv:astro-ph/0506600
这类测量以Hafele-Keating实验为起始，参见Hafele & Keating 1972a和Hafele & Keating 1972b，在引力探测器A的探测中达到顶峰；对这类实验的概述参见Ohanian & Ruffini 1994，table 4.1 on p. 186。 Hafele, J.; Keating, R., Around the world atomic clocks:predicted relativistic time gains, Science, 1972a, 177: 166–168, PMID 17779917, doi:10.1126/science.177.4044.166 Hafele, J.; Keating, R., Around the world atomic clocks: observed relativistic time gains, Science, 1972b, 177: 168–170, PMID 17779918, doi:10.1126/science.177.4044.168 Ohanian, Hans C.; Ruffini, Remo; Ruffini, Gravitation and Spacetime, W. W. Norton & Company, 1994, ISBN 0-393-96501-5
通过比较地面上的原子钟和轨道卫星上的原子钟来检测GPS的工作一直在持续进行中；关于相应的相对论效应参见Ashby 2002和Ashby 2003。 Ashby, Neil, Relativity and the Global Positioning System (PDF), Physics Today, 2002, 55(5): 41–47 [2008-09-04], doi:10.1063/1.1485583, （原始内容 (PDF)存档于2007-09-25） Ashby, Neil, Relativity in the Global Positioning System, Living Reviews in Relativity, 2003, 6 [2007-07-06], （原始内容存档于2007-07-04）
参见Kennefick 2005 以了解爱丁顿爵士的早期经典测量；关于现代更多更新的同类测量概述参见Ohanian & Ruffini 1994，chapter 4.3。现在所能达到的最精确测量方法是通过脉冲星，参见Shapiro et al. 2004。 Kennefick, Daniel, Astronomers Test General Relativity: Light-bending and the Solar Redshift, Renn, Jürgen (编), One hundred authors for Einstein, Wiley-VCH: 178–181, 2005, ISBN 3-527-40574-7 Ohanian, Hans C.; Ruffini, Remo; Ruffini, Gravitation and Spacetime, W. W. Norton & Company, 1994, ISBN 0-393-96501-5 Shapiro, S. S.; Davis, J. L.; Lebach, D. E.; Gregory, J. S., Measurement of the solar gravitational deflection of radio waves using geodetic very-long-baseline interferometry data, 1979–1999, Phys. Rev. Lett., 2004, 92: 121101, doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.92.121101
或对光子应用自由落体定律，参见Rindler 2001，section 1.16；其他历史实例可见于Israel 1987，p. 202–204.；事实上爱因斯坦在Einstein 1907这篇文献中已经发表过这种推导，其中的计算默认了时空是欧几里德性的。参见Ehlers & Rindler 1997。 Rindler, Wolfgang, Relativity. Special, General and Cosmological, Oxford University Press, 2001, ISBN 0-19-850836-0 Israel, Werner, Dark stars: the evolution of an idea, Hawking, Stephen W.; Israel, Werner (编), 300 Years of Gravitation, Cambridge University Press: 199–276, 1987, ISBN 0-521-37976-8 Einstein, Albert, Über das Relativitätsprinzip und die aus demselben gezogene Folgerungen (PDF), Jahrbuch der Radioaktivitaet und Elektronik, 1907, 4: 411 [2008-05-05], （原始内容存档 (PDF)于2021-01-19） Ehlers, Jürgen; Rindler, Wolfgang, Local and Global Light Bending in Einstein's and other Gravitational Theories, General Relativity and Gravitation, 1997, 29: 519–529, doi:10.1023/A:1018843001842
关于在太阳引力场中雷达信号到达金星或水星等行星后返回的延迟，参见Shapiro 1964，其教学性的介绍可见于Weinberg 1972，ch. 8, sec. 7；关于从空间探测器返回的信号延迟（收发机测量），参见Bertotti, Iess & Tortora 2003；概述可见于Ohanian & Ruffini 1994，table 4.4 on p. 200；关于更新的对接收到的脉冲双星信号的测量，其中一颗脉冲星的信号在另一颗脉冲星的引力场中被延迟，参见Stairs 2003，section 4.4。 Shapiro, Irwin I., Fourth test of general relativity, Phys. Rev. Lett., 1964, 13: 789–791, doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.13.789 Weinberg, Steven, Gravitation and Cosmology, John Wiley, 1972, ISBN 0-471-92567-5 Bertotti, Bruno; Iess, L.; Tortora, P., A test of general relativity using radio links with the Cassini spacecraft, Nature, 2003, 425: 374–376, doi:10.1038/nature01997 Ohanian, Hans C.; Ruffini, Remo; Ruffini, Gravitation and Spacetime, W. W. Norton & Company, 1994, ISBN 0-393-96501-5 Stairs, Ingrid H., Testing General Relativity with Pulsar Timing, Living Rev. Relativity, 2003, 6 [2007-07-21]
参见 Gowdy 1971，Gowdy 1974。 Gowdy, Robert H., Gravitational Waves in Closed Universes, Phys. Rev. Lett., 1971, 27: 826–829, doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.27.826 Gowdy, Robert H., Vacuum spacetimes with two-parameter spacelike isometry groups and compact invariant hypersurfaces: Topologies and boundary conditions, Ann. Phys. (N.Y.), 1974, 83: 203–241, doi:10.1016/0003-4916(74)90384-4
参见Kramer et al. 2006。 Kramer, M.; Stairs, I. H.; Manchester, R. N.; McLaughlin, M. A., Tests of general relativity from timing the double pulsar, Science, 2006, 314: 97–102, PMID 16973838, doi:10.1126/science.1132305, arXiv:astro-ph/0609417
关于这段研究的概述在Weisberg & Taylor 2003；脉冲双星本身的发现可见于Hulse & Taylor 1975；关于引力波存在的最早证据在Taylor 1994。 Weisberg, Joel M.; Taylor, Joseph H., The Relativistic Binary Pulsar B1913+16", Bailes, M.; Nice, D. J.; Thorsett, S. E. (编), Proceedings of "Radio Pulsars," Chania, Crete, August, 2002, ASP Conference Series, 2003 Hulse, Russell A.; Taylor, Joseph H., Discovery of a pulsar in a binary system, Astrophys. J., 1975, 195: L51–L55 [2008-09-04], doi:10.1086/181708, （原始内容存档于2011-08-09） Taylor, Joseph H., Binary pulsars and relativistic gravity, Rev. Mod. Phys., 1994, 66: 711–719, doi:10.1103/RevModPhys.66.711
参见Bertotti, Ciufolini & Bender 1987和更新的评论Nordtvedt 2003。 Bertotti, Bruno; Ciufolini, Ignazio; Bender, Peter L., New test of general relativity: Measurement of de Sitter geodetic precession rate for lunar perigee, Physical Review Letters, 1987, 58: 1062–1065, doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.58.1062 Nordtvedt, Kenneth, Lunar Laser Ranging—a comprehensive probe of post-Newtonian gravity, 2003, arXiv:gr-qc/0301024
例如参见Ohanian & Ruffini 1994，sec. 4.7和Weinberg 1972，sec. 9.7；更新的评论在Schäfer 2004。 Ohanian, Hans C.; Ruffini, Remo; Ruffini, Gravitation and Spacetime, W. W. Norton & Company, 1994, ISBN 0-393-96501-5 Weinberg, Steven, Gravitation and Cosmology, John Wiley, 1972, ISBN 0-471-92567-5 Schäfer, Gerhard, Gravitomagnetic Effects, General Relativity and Gravitation, 2004, 36: 2223–2235, doi:10.1023/B:GERG.0000046180.97877.32, arXiv:gr-qc/0407116
例如参见Ciufolini & Pavlis 2004和Ciufolini, Pavlis & Peron 2006；参见参考系拖拽了解相关的争论。 Ciufolini, Ignazio; Pavlis, Erricos C., A confirmation of the general relativistic prediction of the Lense-Thirring effect, Nature, 2004, 431: 958–960, doi:10.1038/nature03007 Ciufolini, Ignazio; Pavlis, Erricos C.; Peron, R., Determination of frame-dragging using Earth gravity models from CHAMP and GRACE, New Astron., 2006, 11: 527–550, doi:10.1016/j.newast.2006.02.001
Iorio L., COMMENTS, REPLIES AND NOTES: A note on the evidence of the gravitomagnetic field of Mars, Classical Quantum Gravity, August 2006, 23 (17): 5451–5454, Bibcode:2006CQGra..23.5451I, arXiv:gr-qc/0606092 , doi:10.1088/0264-9381/23/17/N01
Iorio L., On the Lense-Thirring test with the Mars Global Surveyor in the gravitational field of Mars, Central European Journal of Physics, June 2010, 8 (3): 509–513, Bibcode:2010CEJPh...8..509I, arXiv:gr-qc/0701146 , doi:10.2478/s11534-009-0117-6
参见Walsh, Carswell & Weymann 1979。 Walsh, D.; Carswell, R. F.; Weymann, R. J., 0957 + 561 A, B: twin quasistellar objects or gravitational lens?, Nature, 1979, 279: 381, doi:10.1038/279381a0
相关概述参见Roulet & Mollerach 1997。 Roulet, E.; Mollerach, S., Microlensing, Physics Reports, 1997, 279: 67–118, doi:10.1016/S0370-1573(96)00020-8
参见Danzmann & Rüdiger 2003。 Danzmann, Karsten; Rüdiger, Albrecht, LISA Technology—Concepts, Status, Prospects (PDF), Class. Quant. Grav., 2003, 20: S1–S9 [2008-09-04], doi:10.1088/0264-9381/20/10/301, （原始内容 (PDF)存档于2007-09-26）
Castelvecchi, Davide; Witze, Witze. Einstein's gravitational waves found at last. Nature News. 2016-02-11 [2016-02-11]. doi:10.1038/nature.2016.19361. （原始内容存档于2019-09-09）.
例如参见Celotti, Miller & Sciama 1999，sec. 3。 Celotti, Annalisa; Miller, John C.; Sciama, Dennis W., Astrophysical evidence for the existence of black holes, Class. Quant. Grav., 1999, 16: A3–A21, doi:10.1088/0264-9381/16/12A/301, arXiv:astro-ph/9912186v1
参见Springel et al. 2005 and the accompanying summary Gnedin 2005。 Springel, Volker; White, Simon D. M.; Jenkins, Adrian; Frenk, Carlos S., Simulations of the formation, evolution and clustering of galaxies and quasars, Nature, 2005, 435: 629–636, doi:10.1038/nature03597 Gnedin, Nickolay Y., Digitizing the Universe, Nature, 2005, 435: 572–573, doi:10.1038/435572a
有关相对论性喷流的介绍参见Begelman, Blandford & Rees 1984。有趣的是，对于一个距离遥远的观测者而言，某些相对论性喷流的速度看上去甚至超过了光速；但这其实是一种光学上的幻象而并不违反相对论，参见Rees 1966。 Begelman, Mitchell C.; Blandford, Roger D.; Rees, Martin J., Theory of extragalactic radio sources, Rev. Mod. Phys., 1984, 56: 255–351, doi:10.1103/RevModPhys.56.255 Rees, Martin, Appearance of Relativistically Expanding Radio Sources, Nature, 1966, 211: 468–470, doi:10.1038/211468a0
关于恒星演化的最终阶段参见Oppenheimer & Snyder 1939，以及Font 2003，sec. 4.1包含了更多更新的数值计算成果；对于超新星爆发的过程仍有一些主要问题没有被解决，参见Buras et al. 2003；关于吸积和喷流形成的数值模拟，参见Font 2003，sec. 4.2。而引力透镜效应则被认为在接收来自X射线脉冲星的信号中起到了一定作用，参见Kraus 1998。 Oppenheimer, J. Robert; Snyder, H., On continued gravitational contraction, Physical Review, 1939, 56: 455–459, doi:10.1103/PhysRev.56.455 Font, José A., Numerical Hydrodynamics in General Relativity, Living Rev. Relativity, 2003, 6 [2007-08-19], （原始内容存档于2016-05-15） Buras, R.; Rampp, M.; Janka, H.-Th.; Kifonidis, K., Improved Models of Stellar Core Collapse and Still no Explosions: What is Missing?, Phys. Rev. Lett., 2003, 90: 241101, doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.90.241101, arXiv:astro-ph/0303171 Font, José A., Numerical Hydrodynamics in General Relativity, Living Rev. Relativity, 2003, 6 [2007-08-19], （原始内容存档于2016-05-15） Kraus, Ute, Light Deflection Near Neutron Stars, Relativistic Astrophysics, Vieweg: 66–81, 1998, ISBN 352-806909-0
这些证据包括通过对吸积驱动效应的观测得到的星体致密度的极限（“爱丁顿光度”），参见Celotti, Miller & Sciama 1999；对我们的银河系中心附近的恒星动力学观测，参见Schödel et al. 2003；对某些X射线暴（其中心星体往往是一颗中子星或黑洞）的研究表明宇宙中至少有某些致密星体并没有固态的表面，参见Remillard et al. 2006及Narayan 2006，sec. 5；以及对银河系中心的超大质量黑洞的事件视界的“阴暗”部分的搜索观测正在积极进行中，参见Falcke, Melia & Agol 2000. Celotti, Annalisa; Miller, John C.; Sciama, Dennis W., Astrophysical evidence for the existence of black holes, Class. Quant. Grav., 1999, 16: A3–A21, doi:10.1088/0264-9381/16/12A/301, arXiv:astro-ph/9912186v1 Schödel, R.; Ott, T.; Genzel, R.; Eckart, A., Stellar Dynamics in the Central Arcsecond of Our Galaxy, Astrophysical Journal, 2003, 596: 1015–1034, doi:10.1086/378122, arXiv:astro-ph/0306214 Remillard, Ronald A.; Lin, Dacheng; Cooper, Randall L.; Narayan, Ramesh, The Rates of Type I X-Ray Bursts from Transients Observed with RXTE: Evidence for Black Hole Event Horizons, Astrophysical Journal, 2006, 646: 407–419, doi:10.1086/504862, arXiv:astro-ph/0509758 Narayan, Ramesh, Black holes in astrophysics, New Journal of Physics, 2006, 7: 199, doi:10.1088/1367-2630/7/1/199, arXiv:gr-qc/0506078 Falcke, Heino; Melia, Fulvio; Agol, Eric, Viewing the Shadow of the Black Hole at the Galactic Center, Astrophysical Journal, 2000, 528: L13–L16, doi:10.1086/312423, arXiv:astro-ph/9912263
参见Dalal et al. 2006。 Dalal, Neal; Holz, Daniel E.; Hughes, Scott A.; Jain, Bhuvnesh, Short GRB and binary black hole standard sirens as a probe of dark energy, Phys.Rev., 2006, D74: 063006, doi:10.1103/PhysRevD.74.063006, arXiv:astro-ph/0601275
例如参见Barack & Cutler 2004。 Barack, Leor; Cutler, Curt, LISA Capture Sources: Approximate Waveforms, Signal-to-Noise Ratios, and Parameter Estimation Accuracy, Phys. Rev., 2004, D69: 082005, doi:10.1103/PhysRevD.69.082005, arXiv:gr-qc/031012
参见Bergström & Goobar 2003，ch. 9–11；这些宇宙模型之所以能够被认可，是由于观测到的宇宙在大尺度（一亿光年以上）上是均匀且各向同性的，参见Peebles et al. 1991。 Bergström, Lars; Goobar, Ariel, Cosmology and Particle Astrophysics 2nd, Wiley & Sons, 2003, ISBN 3-540-43128-4 Peebles, P.J.E.; Schramm, D.N.; Turner, E.L.; Kron, R.G., The case for the relativistic hot Big Bang cosmology, Nature, 1991, 352: 769–776, doi:10.1038/352769a0
例如参考来自WMAP的数据，参见Spergel et al. 2003。 Spergel, D. N.; Verde, L.; Peiris, H. V.; Komatsu, E., First Year Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe (WMAP) Observations: Determination of Cosmological Parameters, Astrophys. J. Suppl., 2003, 148: 175–194, doi:10.1086/377226, arXiv:astro-ph/0302209
这些检验来自于彼此独立的观测，例如参见Bridle et al. 2003中图2。 Bridle, Sarah L.; Lahav, Ofer; Ostriker, Jeremiah P.; Steinhardt, Paul J., Precision Cosmology? Not Just Yet, Science, 2003, 299: 1532–1533, PMID 12624255, doi:10.1126/science.1082158, arXiv:astro-ph/0303180
参见Peebles 1966；对这些预言的解释参见Coc et al. 2004；以及Weiss 2006；对这些观测的比较参见Olive & Skillman 2004， Bania, Rood & Balser 2002，O'Meara et al. 2001以及Charbonnel & Primas 2005。 Peebles, P. J. E., Primordial Helium abundance and primordial fireball II, Astrophysical Journal, 1966, 146: 542–552 [2008-09-04], doi:10.1086/148918, （原始内容存档于2011-08-09） Coc, A.; Vangioni-Flam, E.; Descouvemont, P.; Adahchour, A.; Angulo, C., Updated Big Bang Nucleosynthesis confronted to WMAP observations and to the Abundance of Light Elements, Astrophysical Journal, 2004, 600: 544–552, doi:10.1086/380121, arXiv:astro-ph/0309480 Weiss, Achim, Elements of the past: Big Bang Nucleosynthesis and observation, Einstein Online (Max Planck Institute for Gravitational Physics), 2006 [2007-02-24], （原始内容存档于2007-02-08） Olive, K. A.; Skillman, E. A., A Realistic Determination of the Error on the Primordial Helium Abundance, Astrophysical Journal, 2004, 617: 29–49, doi:10.1086/425170, arXiv:astro-ph/0405588 Bania, T. M.; Rood, R. T.; Balser, D. S., The cosmological density of baryons from observations of 3He+ in the Milky Way, Nature, 2002, 415: 54–57, doi:10.1038/415054a O'Meara, John M.; Tytler, David; Kirkman, David; Suzuki, Nao, The Deuterium to Hydrogen Abundance Ratio Towards a Fourth QSO: HS0105+1619, Astrophysical Journal, 2001, 552: 718–730, doi:10.1086/320579, arXiv:astro-ph/0011179 Charbonnel, C.; Primas, F., The Lithium Content of the Galactic Halo Stars, Astronomy & Astrophysics, 2005, 442: 961–992, doi:10.1051/0004-6361:20042491, arXiv:astro-ph/0505247
回顾评论可见于Lahav & Suto 2004和Bertschinger 1998；更新的研究成果在Springel et al. 2005。 Lahav, Ofer; Suto, Yasushi, Measuring our Universe from Galaxy Redshift Surveys, Living Rev. Relativity, 2004, 7 [2007-08-19], （原始内容存档于2020-01-22） Bertschinger, Edmund, Simulations of structure formation in the universe, Annu. Rev. Astron. Astrophys., 1998, 36: 599–654, doi:10.1146/annurev.astro.36.1.599 Springel, Volker; White, Simon D. M.; Jenkins, Adrian; Frenk, Carlos S., Simulations of the formation, evolution and clustering of galaxies and quasars, Nature, 2005, 435: 629–636, doi:10.1038/nature03597
参见Alpher & Herman 1948，教学性的介绍参见Bergström & Goobar 2003，ch. 11；最早对微波背景辐射的观测在Penzias & Wilson 1965，通过人造卫星所作的精确测量在Mather et al. 1994 (COBE)和Bennett et al. 2003 (WMAP)。未来的观测还有可能揭示极早期宇宙诞生时就存在的引力波的一些证据；这些附加的信息包含在微波背景辐射的偏振中，参见Kamionkowski, Kosowsky & Stebbins 1997和Seljak & Zaldarriaga 1997。 Alpher, R. A.; Herman, R. C., Evolution of the universe, Nature, 1948, 162: 774–775, doi:10.1038/162774b0 Bergström, Lars; Goobar, Ariel, Cosmology and Particle Astrophysics 2nd, Wiley & Sons, 2003, ISBN 3-540-43128-4 Penzias, A. A.; Wilson, R. W., A measurement of excess antenna temperature at 4080 Mc/s, Astrophysical Journal, 1965, 142: 419–421 [2008-09-04], doi:10.1086/148307, （原始内容存档于2011-08-09） Mather, J. C.; Cheng, E. S.; Cottingham, D. A.; Eplee, R. E., Measurement of the cosmic microwave spectrum by the COBE FIRAS instrument, Astrophysical Journal, 1994, 420: 439–444 [2008-09-04], doi:10.1086/173574, （原始内容存档于2017-11-09） Bennett, C. L.; Halpern, M.; Hinshaw, G.; Jarosik, N., First Year Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe (WMAP) Observations: Preliminary Maps and Basic Results, Astrophys. J. Suppl., 2003, 148: 1–27, doi:10.1086/377253, arXiv:astro-ph/0302207 Kamionkowski, Marc; Kosowsky, Arthur; Stebbins, Albert, Statistics of Cosmic Microwave Background Polarization, Phys. Rev., 1997, D55: 7368–7388, doi:10.1103/PhysRevD.55.7368, arXiv:astro-ph/9611125 Seljak, Uros̆; Zaldarriaga, Matias, Signature of Gravity Waves in the Polarization of the Microwave Background, Phys. Rev. Lett., 1997, 78: 2054–2057, doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.78.2054, arXiv:astro-ph/9609169
暗物质存在的证据：一部分来自于对宇宙学参数的确定以及对星系和星系团的一些观测，参见Peebles 1993的第十八章；一部分来自于引力透镜，参见Peacock 1999，sec. 4.6；一部分来自对大尺度结构形成的模拟，参见Springel et al. 2005。 Peebles, P. J. E., Principles of physical cosmology, Princeton University Press, 1993, ISBN 0-691-01933-9 Peacock, John A., Cosmological Physics, Cambridge University Press, 1999, ISBN 0-521-41072-X Springel, Volker; White, Simon D. M.; Jenkins, Adrian; Frenk, Carlos S., Simulations of the formation, evolution and clustering of galaxies and quasars, Nature, 2005, 435: 629–636, doi:10.1038/nature03597
也就是说，有些物理学家开始怀疑暗物质存在的证据是否其实是爱因斯坦理论（当然也包括牛顿理论）对引力的描述存在偏差的证明，关于这一猜测的概述参见Mannheim 2006，sec. 9。 Mannheim, Philip D., Alternatives to Dark Matter and Dark Energy, Prog. Part. Nucl. Phys., 2006, 56: 340–445, doi:10.1016/j.ppnp.2005.08.001, arXiv:astro-ph/0505266v2
参见Carroll 2001；概述可见于Caldwell 2004。对于暗能量，有些科学家也认为暗能量并非是一种新的能量形式，而是我们的宇宙学模型需要修正，参见Mannheim 2006，sec. 10；不过这不一定意味着要对广义相对论进行修正，而可以是我们对宇宙各向异性的处理方法需要修正，参见Buchert 2007。 Carroll, Sean M., The Cosmological Constant, Living Rev. Relativity, 2001, 4 [2007-07-21], （原始内容存档于2004-06-20） Caldwell, Robert R., Dark Energy, Physics World, 2004, 17(5): 37–42 [2008-09-04], doi:10.1038/nature02139, （原始内容存档于2007-07-13） Mannheim, Philip D., Alternatives to Dark Matter and Dark Energy, Prog. Part. Nucl. Phys., 2006, 56: 340–445, doi:10.1016/j.ppnp.2005.08.001, arXiv:astro-ph/0505266v2 Buchert, Thomas, Dark Energy from Structure—A Status Report, General Relativity and Gravitation, 2007, 40: 467–527, doi:10.1007/s10714-007-0554-8, arXiv:0707.2153
关于暴胀模型有一篇很好的介绍：Linde 1990；以及一篇更近的回顾评论：Linde 2005。 Linde, Andrei, Particle Physics and Inflationary Cosmology, Harwood, 1990, ISBN 3718604892, arXiv:hep-th/0503203 Linde, Andrei, Towards inflation in string theory, J. Phys. Conf. Ser., 2005, 24: 151–160, doi:10.1088/1742-6596/24/1/018, arXiv:hep-th/0503195
参见Spergel et al. 2007，sec. 5 & 6。 Spergel, D. N.; Bean, R.; Doré, O.; Nolta, M. R., Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe (WMAP) Three Year Results: Implications for Cosmology, Astrophysical Journal Supplement, 2007, 170: 377–408, doi:10.1086/513700, arXiv:astro-ph/0603449
初步知识参见Israel 1971；相关推导参见Hawking & Ellis 1973，sec. 9.3或Heusler 1996，ch. 9 and 10；最近的研究成果回顾参见Heusler 1998和Beig & Chruściel 2006。 Israel, Werner, Event Horizons and Gravitational Collapse, General Relativity and Gravitation, 1971, 2: 53–59, doi:10.1007/BF02450518 Hawking, Stephen W.; Ellis, George F. R., The large scale structure of spacetime, Cambridge University Press, 1973, ISBN 0-521-09906-4 Heusler, Markus, Black Hole Uniqueness Theorems, Cambridge University Press, 1996, ISBN 0-521-56735-1 Heusler, Markus, Stationary Black Holes: Uniqueness and Beyond, Living Rev. Relativity, 1998, 1 [2007-08-04] Beig, Robert; Chruściel, Piotr T., Stationary black holes, Francoise, J.-P.; Naber, G.; Tsou, T.S. (编), Encyclopedia of Mathematical Physics, Volume 2, Elsevier, 2006, ISBN 0-12-512660-3, arXiv:gr-qc/0502041
黑洞力学定律首先是在Bardeen, Carter & Hawking 1973中描述的；一个具有教学性的演示发言可见于Carter 1979；更新的回顾评论参见Wald 2001的第二章。涵盖了所需要数学的较为全面详细的介绍参见Poisson 2004。关于彭罗斯过程参见Penrose 1969。 Bardeen, J. M.; Carter, B.; Hawking, S. W., The Four Laws of Black Hole Mechanics, Comm. Math. Phys., 1973, 31: 161–170 [2008-09-04], doi:10.1007/BF01645742, （原始内容存档于2014-07-14） Carter, Brandon, The general theory of the mechanical, electromagnetic and thermodynamic properties of black holes, Hawking, S. W.; Israel, W. (编), General Relativity, an Einstein Centenary Survey, Cambridge University Press: 294–369 and 860–863, 1979, ISBN 0-521-29928-4 Wald, Robert M., The Thermodynamics of Black Holes, Living Rev. Relativity, 2001, 4 [2007-08-08], （原始内容存档于2020-01-22） Poisson, Eric, A Relativist's Toolkit. The Mathematics of Black-Hole Mechanics, Cambridge University Press, 2004, ISBN 0-521-83091-5 Penrose, Roger, Gravitational collapse: the role of general relativity, Rivista del Nuovo Cimento, 1969, 1: 252–276
参见Bekenstein 1973和Bekenstein 1974。 Bekenstein, Jacob D., Black Holes and Entropy, Phys. Rev., 1973, D7: 2333–2346, doi:10.1103/PhysRevD.7.2333 Bekenstein, Jacob D., Generalized Second Law of Thermodynamics in Black-Hole Physics, Phys. Rev., 1974, D9: 3292–3300, doi:10.1103/PhysRevD.9.3292
黑洞存在量子辐射的事实最早是在Hawking 1975中推导出的；一个更全面的推导可见于Wald 1975；相关回顾评论参见Wald 2001第三章。 Hawking, S. W., Particle Creation by Black Holes, Communications in Mathematical Physics, 1975, 43: 199–220, doi:10.1007/BF02345020 Wald, Robert M., On Particle Creation by Black Holes, Commun. Math. Phys., 1975, 45: 9–34, doi:10.1007/BF02345020 Wald, Robert M., The Thermodynamics of Black Holes, Living Rev. Relativity, 2001, 4 [2007-08-08], （原始内容存档于2020-01-22）
关于视界参见Rindler 2001，sec. 12.4；关于盎鲁效应参见Unruh 1976, cf. Wald 2001，chapter 3。 Rindler, Wolfgang, Relativity. Special, General and Cosmological, Oxford University Press, 2001, ISBN 0-19-850836-0 Unruh, W. G., Notes on Black Hole Evaporation, Phys. Rev. D, 1976, 14: 870–892, doi:10.1103/PhysRevD.14.870 Wald, Robert M., The Thermodynamics of Black Holes, Living Rev. Relativity, 2001, 4 [2007-08-08], （原始内容存档于2020-01-22）
这是指束缚的零性表面（trapped null surface），参见Penrose 1965。 Penrose, Roger, Gravitational collapse and spacetime singularities, Physical Review Letters, 1965, 14: 57–59, doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.14.57
BKL假说是在Belinskii, Khalatnikov & Lifschitz 1971中建立的；更新的回顾评论参见 Berger 2002，以及Garfinkle 2007。 Belinskii, V. A.; Khalatnikov, I. M.; Lifschitz, E. M., Oscillatory approach to the singular point in relativistic cosmology, Advances in Physics, 1971, 19: 525–573, doi:10.1080/00018737000101171 ; original paper in Russian: Belinsky, V. A.; Khalatnikov, I. M.; Lifshitz, E. M., Колебательный Режим Приближения К Особой Точке В Релятивистской Космологии, Uspekhi Fizicheskikh Nauk (Успехи Физических Наук), 1970,, 102(3) (11): 463–500 Berger, Beverly K., Numerical Approaches to Spacetime Singularities, Living Rev. Relativity', 2002, 5 [2007-08-04], （原始内容存档于2020-01-22） Garfinkle, David, Of singularities and breadmaking, Einstein Online, 2007 [2007-08-03], （原始内容存档于2007-08-10）
Fourès-Bruhat 1952 and Bruhat 1962；教学性介绍参见Wald 1984，ch. 10；在线的回顾评论参见Reula 1998。 Fourès-Bruhat, Yvonne, Théoréme d'existence pour certains systémes d'équations aux derivées partielles non linéaires, Acta Mathematica, 1952, 88: 141–225, doi:10.1007/BF02392131 Bruhat, Yvonne, The Cauchy Problem, Witten, Louis (编), Gravitation: An Introduction to Current Research, Wiley: 130, 1962, ISBN 9781114291669 Wald, Robert M., General Relativity, University of Chicago Press, 1984, ISBN 0-226-87033-2 Reula, Oscar A., Hyperbolic Methods for Einstein's Equations, Living Rev. Relativity, 1998, 1 [2007-08-29], （原始内容存档于2020-01-22）
参见Gourgoulhon 2007；并参见数值相对论的基础回顾Lehner 2001，其中还包含从爱因斯坦方程特性引发的问题。 Gourgoulhon, Eric, 3+1 Formalism and Bases of Numerical Relativity, 2007, arXiv:gr-qc/0703035 Lehner, Luis, Numerical Relativity: A review, Class. Quant. Grav., 2001, 18: R25–R86, doi:10.1088/0264-9381/18/17/202, arXiv:gr-qc/0106072
参见Komar 1959；教学性介绍参见Wald 1984，sec. 11.2；尽管定义方法差别很大，对于定态时空而言可以证明它和ADM质量等价，参见Ashtekar & Magnon-Ashtekar 1979。 Komar, Arthur, Covariant Conservation Laws in General Relativity, Phys. Rev., 1959, 113: 934–936, doi:10.1103/PhysRev.113.934 Wald, Robert M., General Relativity, University of Chicago Press, 1984, ISBN 0-226-87033-2 Ashtekar, Abhay; Magnon-Ashtekar, Anne, On conserved quantities in general relativity, Journal of Mathematical Physics, 1979, 20: 793–800, doi:10.1063/1.524151
霍金辐射参见Hawking 1975，Wald 1975黑洞蒸发的更基础解释参见Traschen 2000。 Hawking, S. W., Particle Creation by Black Holes, Communications in Mathematical Physics, 1975, 43: 199–220, doi:10.1007/BF02345020 Wald, Robert M., On Particle Creation by Black Holes, Commun. Math. Phys., 1975, 45: 9–34, doi:10.1007/BF02345020 Traschen, Jenny, An Introduction to Black Hole Evaporation, Bytsenko, A.; Williams, F. (编), Mathematical Methods of Physics (Proceedings of the 1999 Londrina Winter School), World Scientific, 2000, arXiv:gr-qc/0010055
简单说来，物质是时空曲率的源，由于物质是量子化的，所以我们也期待时空也具有相应的量子性质，参见Carlip 2001第二节。 Carlip, Steven, Quantum Gravity: a Progress Report, Rept. Prog. Phys., 2001, 64: 885–942, doi:10.1088/0034-4885/64/8/301, arXiv:gr-qc/0108040
有关重整化参见Weinberg 1996的第十七和十八章；关于重整化对引力场在高能范围内失效参见 Goroff & Sagnotti 1985。 Weinberg, Steven, The Quantum Theory of Fields II: Modern Applications, Cambridge University Press, 1996, ISBN 0-521-55002-5 Goroff, Marc H.; Sagnotti, Augusto, Quantum gravity at two loops, Phys. Lett., 1985, 160B: 81–86, doi:10.1016/0370-2693(85)91470-4
在当前的实验所能达到的能量下，弦和点状粒子仍然是无法区分的；但关键一点在于，同一种类的基本弦在不同的振动模式下所表现出来的粒子携带有不一样的电荷，例如参见Ibanez 2000。这一理论的成功之处是有一种振动模式总是能与引力的媒介子即引力子对应，例如参见Green, Schwarz & Witten 1987，sec. 2.3 and 5.3。 Ibanez, L. E., The second string (phenomenology) revolution, Class. Quant. Grav., 2000, 17: 1117–1128, doi:10.1088/0264-9381/17/5/321, arXiv:hep-th/9911499 Green, M. B.; Schwarz, J. H.; Witten, E., Superstring theory. Volume 1: Introduction, Cambridge University Press, 1987, ISBN 0-521-35752-7
例如参见Townsend 1996，Duff 1996。 Townsend, Paul K., Four Lectures on M-Theory, 1996, arXiv:hep-th/9612121 Duff, Michael, M-Theory (the Theory Formerly Known as Strings), Int. J. Mod. Phys., 1996, A11: 5623–5641, doi:10.1142/S0217751X96002583, arXiv:hep-th/9608117
这种变量用电场和磁场在数学上的类比来表示几何引力，参见Ashtekar 1986，Ashtekar 1987。 Ashtekar, Abhay, New variables for classical and quantum gravity, Phys. Rev. Lett., 1986, 57: 2244–2247, doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.57.2244 Ashtekar, Abhay, New Hamiltonian formulation of general relativity, Phys. Rev., 1987, D36: 1587–1602, doi:10.1103/PhysRevD.36.1587
回顾评论参见Thiemann 2006；更详细的解释参见Rovelli 1998，Ashtekar & Lewandowski 2004以及讲义Thiemann 2003。 Thiemann, Thomas, Loop Quantum Gravity: An Inside View, 2006, arXiv:hep-th/0608210 Rovelli, Carlo, Loop Quantum Gravity, Living Rev. Relativity, 1998, 1 [2008-03-13], （原始内容存档于2020-01-22） Ashtekar, Abhay; Lewandowski, Jerzy, Background Independent Quantum Gravity: A Status Report, Class. Quant. Grav., 2004, 21: R53–R152, doi:10.1088/0264-9381/21/15/R01, arXiv:gr-qc/0404018 Thiemann, Thomas, Lectures on Loop Quantum Gravity, Lect. Notes Phys., 2003, 631: 41–135
例如参见系统性的说明Isham 1994和Sorkin 1997。 Isham, Christopher J., Prima facie questions in quantum gravity, Ehlers, Jürgen; Friedrich, Helmut (编), Canonical Gravity: From Classical to Quantum, Springer, 1994, ISBN 3-540-58339-4 Sorkin, Rafael D., Forks in the Road, on the Way to Quantum Gravity, Int. J. Theor. Phys., 1997, 36: 2759–2781, doi:10.1007/BF02435709, arXiv:gr-qc/9706002
参见Friedrich 2005。 Friedrich, Helmut, Is general relativity `essentially understood'?, Annalen Phys., 2005, 15: 84–108 [2008-09-04], doi:10.1002/andp.200510173, （原始内容存档于2015-02-10）

einstein-online.info

参见Peebles 1966；对这些预言的解释参见Coc et al. 2004；以及Weiss 2006；对这些观测的比较参见Olive & Skillman 2004， Bania, Rood & Balser 2002，O'Meara et al. 2001以及Charbonnel & Primas 2005。 Peebles, P. J. E., Primordial Helium abundance and primordial fireball II, Astrophysical Journal, 1966, 146: 542–552 [2008-09-04], doi:10.1086/148918, （原始内容存档于2011-08-09） Coc, A.; Vangioni-Flam, E.; Descouvemont, P.; Adahchour, A.; Angulo, C., Updated Big Bang Nucleosynthesis confronted to WMAP observations and to the Abundance of Light Elements, Astrophysical Journal, 2004, 600: 544–552, doi:10.1086/380121, arXiv:astro-ph/0309480 Weiss, Achim, Elements of the past: Big Bang Nucleosynthesis and observation, Einstein Online (Max Planck Institute for Gravitational Physics), 2006 [2007-02-24], （原始内容存档于2007-02-08） Olive, K. A.; Skillman, E. A., A Realistic Determination of the Error on the Primordial Helium Abundance, Astrophysical Journal, 2004, 617: 29–49, doi:10.1086/425170, arXiv:astro-ph/0405588 Bania, T. M.; Rood, R. T.; Balser, D. S., The cosmological density of baryons from observations of 3He+ in the Milky Way, Nature, 2002, 415: 54–57, doi:10.1038/415054a O'Meara, John M.; Tytler, David; Kirkman, David; Suzuki, Nao, The Deuterium to Hydrogen Abundance Ratio Towards a Fourth QSO: HS0105+1619, Astrophysical Journal, 2001, 552: 718–730, doi:10.1086/320579, arXiv:astro-ph/0011179 Charbonnel, C.; Primas, F., The Lithium Content of the Galactic Halo Stars, Astronomy & Astrophysics, 2005, 442: 961–992, doi:10.1051/0004-6361:20042491, arXiv:astro-ph/0505247
BKL假说是在Belinskii, Khalatnikov & Lifschitz 1971中建立的；更新的回顾评论参见 Berger 2002，以及Garfinkle 2007。 Belinskii, V. A.; Khalatnikov, I. M.; Lifschitz, E. M., Oscillatory approach to the singular point in relativistic cosmology, Advances in Physics, 1971, 19: 525–573, doi:10.1080/00018737000101171 ; original paper in Russian: Belinsky, V. A.; Khalatnikov, I. M.; Lifshitz, E. M., Колебательный Режим Приближения К Особой Точке В Релятивистской Космологии, Uspekhi Fizicheskikh Nauk (Успехи Физических Наук), 1970,, 102(3) (11): 463–500 Berger, Beverly K., Numerical Approaches to Spacetime Singularities, Living Rev. Relativity', 2002, 5 [2007-08-04], （原始内容存档于2020-01-22） Garfinkle, David, Of singularities and breadmaking, Einstein Online, 2007 [2007-08-03], （原始内容存档于2007-08-10）

esa.int

LISA pathfinder overview. ESA. [2012-04-23]. （原始内容存档于2012-10-31）.

eso.org

esoads.eso.org

例如参见Greenstein, Oke & Shipman 1971；最新也是最精确的对于天狼星B的观测成果发表在Barstow, Bond & Holberg 2005。 Greenstein, J. L.; Oke, J. B.; Shipman, H. L., Effective Temperature, Radius, and Gravitational Redshift of Sirius B, Astrophysical Journal, 1971, 169: 563 [2008-09-04], doi:10.1086/151174, （原始内容存档于2011-10-14） Barstow, M.; Bond, Howard E.; Holberg, J.B., Hubble Space Telescope Spectroscopy of the Balmer lines in Sirius B, Mon. Not. Roy. Astron. Soc., 2005, 362: 1134–1142, doi:10.1111/j.1365-2966.2005.09359.x, arXiv:astro-ph/0506600
关于这段研究的概述在Weisberg & Taylor 2003；脉冲双星本身的发现可见于Hulse & Taylor 1975；关于引力波存在的最早证据在Taylor 1994。 Weisberg, Joel M.; Taylor, Joseph H., The Relativistic Binary Pulsar B1913+16", Bailes, M.; Nice, D. J.; Thorsett, S. E. (编), Proceedings of "Radio Pulsars," Chania, Crete, August, 2002, ASP Conference Series, 2003 Hulse, Russell A.; Taylor, Joseph H., Discovery of a pulsar in a binary system, Astrophys. J., 1975, 195: L51–L55 [2008-09-04], doi:10.1086/181708, （原始内容存档于2011-08-09） Taylor, Joseph H., Binary pulsars and relativistic gravity, Rev. Mod. Phys., 1994, 66: 711–719, doi:10.1103/RevModPhys.66.711
参见Peebles 1966；对这些预言的解释参见Coc et al. 2004；以及Weiss 2006；对这些观测的比较参见Olive & Skillman 2004， Bania, Rood & Balser 2002，O'Meara et al. 2001以及Charbonnel & Primas 2005。 Peebles, P. J. E., Primordial Helium abundance and primordial fireball II, Astrophysical Journal, 1966, 146: 542–552 [2008-09-04], doi:10.1086/148918, （原始内容存档于2011-08-09） Coc, A.; Vangioni-Flam, E.; Descouvemont, P.; Adahchour, A.; Angulo, C., Updated Big Bang Nucleosynthesis confronted to WMAP observations and to the Abundance of Light Elements, Astrophysical Journal, 2004, 600: 544–552, doi:10.1086/380121, arXiv:astro-ph/0309480 Weiss, Achim, Elements of the past: Big Bang Nucleosynthesis and observation, Einstein Online (Max Planck Institute for Gravitational Physics), 2006 [2007-02-24], （原始内容存档于2007-02-08） Olive, K. A.; Skillman, E. A., A Realistic Determination of the Error on the Primordial Helium Abundance, Astrophysical Journal, 2004, 617: 29–49, doi:10.1086/425170, arXiv:astro-ph/0405588 Bania, T. M.; Rood, R. T.; Balser, D. S., The cosmological density of baryons from observations of 3He+ in the Milky Way, Nature, 2002, 415: 54–57, doi:10.1038/415054a O'Meara, John M.; Tytler, David; Kirkman, David; Suzuki, Nao, The Deuterium to Hydrogen Abundance Ratio Towards a Fourth QSO: HS0105+1619, Astrophysical Journal, 2001, 552: 718–730, doi:10.1086/320579, arXiv:astro-ph/0011179 Charbonnel, C.; Primas, F., The Lithium Content of the Galactic Halo Stars, Astronomy & Astrophysics, 2005, 442: 961–992, doi:10.1051/0004-6361:20042491, arXiv:astro-ph/0505247
参见Alpher & Herman 1948，教学性的介绍参见Bergström & Goobar 2003，ch. 11；最早对微波背景辐射的观测在Penzias & Wilson 1965，通过人造卫星所作的精确测量在Mather et al. 1994 (COBE)和Bennett et al. 2003 (WMAP)。未来的观测还有可能揭示极早期宇宙诞生时就存在的引力波的一些证据；这些附加的信息包含在微波背景辐射的偏振中，参见Kamionkowski, Kosowsky & Stebbins 1997和Seljak & Zaldarriaga 1997。 Alpher, R. A.; Herman, R. C., Evolution of the universe, Nature, 1948, 162: 774–775, doi:10.1038/162774b0 Bergström, Lars; Goobar, Ariel, Cosmology and Particle Astrophysics 2nd, Wiley & Sons, 2003, ISBN 3-540-43128-4 Penzias, A. A.; Wilson, R. W., A measurement of excess antenna temperature at 4080 Mc/s, Astrophysical Journal, 1965, 142: 419–421 [2008-09-04], doi:10.1086/148307, （原始内容存档于2011-08-09） Mather, J. C.; Cheng, E. S.; Cottingham, D. A.; Eplee, R. E., Measurement of the cosmic microwave spectrum by the COBE FIRAS instrument, Astrophysical Journal, 1994, 420: 439–444 [2008-09-04], doi:10.1086/173574, （原始内容存档于2017-11-09） Bennett, C. L.; Halpern, M.; Hinshaw, G.; Jarosik, N., First Year Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe (WMAP) Observations: Preliminary Maps and Basic Results, Astrophys. J. Suppl., 2003, 148: 1–27, doi:10.1086/377253, arXiv:astro-ph/0302207 Kamionkowski, Marc; Kosowsky, Arthur; Stebbins, Albert, Statistics of Cosmic Microwave Background Polarization, Phys. Rev., 1997, D55: 7368–7388, doi:10.1103/PhysRevD.55.7368, arXiv:astro-ph/9611125 Seljak, Uros̆; Zaldarriaga, Matias, Signature of Gravity Waves in the Polarization of the Microwave Background, Phys. Rev. Lett., 1997, 78: 2054–2057, doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.78.2054, arXiv:astro-ph/9609169

google.co.jp

books.google.co.jp

中華民國重力學會. 相對論百年故事. 大塊文化出版股份有限公司. 2015年9月1日: 11–13 [2017-02-22]. ISBN 9789862136270. （原始内容存档于2021-01-19）（中文）.

harvard.edu

ui.adsabs.harvard.edu

Iorio L., COMMENTS, REPLIES AND NOTES: A note on the evidence of the gravitomagnetic field of Mars, Classical Quantum Gravity, August 2006, 23 (17): 5451–5454, Bibcode:2006CQGra..23.5451I, arXiv:gr-qc/0606092 , doi:10.1088/0264-9381/23/17/N01
Iorio L., On the Lense-Thirring test with the Mars Global Surveyor in the gravitational field of Mars, Central European Journal of Physics, June 2010, 8 (3): 509–513, Bibcode:2010CEJPh...8..509I, arXiv:gr-qc/0701146 , doi:10.2478/s11534-009-0117-6

adsabs.harvard.edu

参见Alpher & Herman 1948，教学性的介绍参见Bergström & Goobar 2003，ch. 11；最早对微波背景辐射的观测在Penzias & Wilson 1965，通过人造卫星所作的精确测量在Mather et al. 1994 (COBE)和Bennett et al. 2003 (WMAP)。未来的观测还有可能揭示极早期宇宙诞生时就存在的引力波的一些证据；这些附加的信息包含在微波背景辐射的偏振中，参见Kamionkowski, Kosowsky & Stebbins 1997和Seljak & Zaldarriaga 1997。 Alpher, R. A.; Herman, R. C., Evolution of the universe, Nature, 1948, 162: 774–775, doi:10.1038/162774b0 Bergström, Lars; Goobar, Ariel, Cosmology and Particle Astrophysics 2nd, Wiley & Sons, 2003, ISBN 3-540-43128-4 Penzias, A. A.; Wilson, R. W., A measurement of excess antenna temperature at 4080 Mc/s, Astrophysical Journal, 1965, 142: 419–421 [2008-09-04], doi:10.1086/148307, （原始内容存档于2011-08-09） Mather, J. C.; Cheng, E. S.; Cottingham, D. A.; Eplee, R. E., Measurement of the cosmic microwave spectrum by the COBE FIRAS instrument, Astrophysical Journal, 1994, 420: 439–444 [2008-09-04], doi:10.1086/173574, （原始内容存档于2017-11-09） Bennett, C. L.; Halpern, M.; Hinshaw, G.; Jarosik, N., First Year Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe (WMAP) Observations: Preliminary Maps and Basic Results, Astrophys. J. Suppl., 2003, 148: 1–27, doi:10.1086/377253, arXiv:astro-ph/0302207 Kamionkowski, Marc; Kosowsky, Arthur; Stebbins, Albert, Statistics of Cosmic Microwave Background Polarization, Phys. Rev., 1997, D55: 7368–7388, doi:10.1103/PhysRevD.55.7368, arXiv:astro-ph/9611125 Seljak, Uros̆; Zaldarriaga, Matias, Signature of Gravity Waves in the Polarization of the Microwave Background, Phys. Rev. Lett., 1997, 78: 2054–2057, doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.78.2054, arXiv:astro-ph/9609169

jstor.org

links.jstor.org

参见Hawking 1966。 Hawking, Stephen W., The occurrence of singularities in cosmology, Proceedings of the Royal Society of London, 1966, A294 (1439): 511–521

jussieu.fr

ipgp.jussieu.fr

通过比较地面上的原子钟和轨道卫星上的原子钟来检测GPS的工作一直在持续进行中；关于相应的相对论效应参见Ashby 2002和Ashby 2003。 Ashby, Neil, Relativity and the Global Positioning System (PDF), Physics Today, 2002, 55(5): 41–47 [2008-09-04], doi:10.1063/1.1485583, （原始内容 (PDF)存档于2007-09-25） Ashby, Neil, Relativity in the Global Positioning System, Living Reviews in Relativity, 2003, 6 [2007-07-06], （原始内容存档于2007-07-04）

livingreviews.org

参见Will 1993，section 2.4或Will 2006，section 2。 Will, Clifford M., Theory and experiment in gravitational physics, Cambridge University Press, 1993, ISBN 0-521-43973-6 Will, Clifford M., The Confrontation between General Relativity and Experiment, Living Rev. Relativity, 2006 [2007-06-12], （原始内容存档于2019-12-10）
关于更多的替代理论参见Brans & Dicke 1961，Weinberg 1972的第七章第三节， Goenner 2004，sec. 7.2以及Trautman 2006。 Brans, C. H.; Dicke, R. H., Mach's Principle and a Relativistic Theory of Gravitation, Physical Review, 1961, 124 (3): 925–935, doi:10.1103/PhysRev.124.925 Weinberg, Steven, Gravitation and Cosmology, John Wiley, 1972, ISBN 0-471-92567-5 Goenner, Hubert F. M., On the History of Unified Field Theories, Living Rev. Relativity, 2004, 7 [2008-02-28], （原始内容存档于2020-01-22） Trautman, Andrzej, Einstein-Cartan theory, Francoise, J.-P.; Naber, G. L.; Tsou, S. T. (编), Encyclopedia of Mathematical Physics, Vol. 2, Elsevier: 189–195, 2006, arXiv:gr-qc/0606062
参见Will 2006的第3.2节以及Will 1993，ch. 4。 Will, Clifford M., The Confrontation between General Relativity and Experiment, Living Rev. Relativity, 2006 [2007-06-12], （原始内容存档于2019-12-10） Will, Clifford M., Theory and experiment in gravitational physics, Cambridge University Press, 1993, ISBN 0-521-43973-6
在Stairs 2003和Kramer 2004中有回顾评论。 Stairs, Ingrid H., Testing General Relativity with Pulsar Timing, Living Rev. Relativity, 2003, 6 [2007-07-21] Kramer, Michael, Millisecond Pulsars as Tools of Fundamental Physics, Karshenboim, S. G.; Peik, E. (编), Astrophysics, Clocks and Fundamental Constants (Lecture Notes in Physics Vol. 648), Springer: 33–54, 2004, arXiv:astro-ph/0405178
对这一方面的一个简明摘要可见于Blanchet 2006，section 1.3。 Blanchet, Luc, Gravitational Radiation from Post-Newtonian Sources and Inspiralling Compact Binaries, Living Rev. Relativity, 2006, 9 [2007-08-07], （原始内容存档于2019-09-15）
关于在太阳引力场中雷达信号到达金星或水星等行星后返回的延迟，参见Shapiro 1964，其教学性的介绍可见于Weinberg 1972，ch. 8, sec. 7；关于从空间探测器返回的信号延迟（收发机测量），参见Bertotti, Iess & Tortora 2003；概述可见于Ohanian & Ruffini 1994，table 4.4 on p. 200；关于更新的对接收到的脉冲双星信号的测量，其中一颗脉冲星的信号在另一颗脉冲星的引力场中被延迟，参见Stairs 2003，section 4.4。 Shapiro, Irwin I., Fourth test of general relativity, Phys. Rev. Lett., 1964, 13: 789–791, doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.13.789 Weinberg, Steven, Gravitation and Cosmology, John Wiley, 1972, ISBN 0-471-92567-5 Bertotti, Bruno; Iess, L.; Tortora, P., A test of general relativity using radio links with the Cassini spacecraft, Nature, 2003, 425: 374–376, doi:10.1038/nature01997 Ohanian, Hans C.; Ruffini, Remo; Ruffini, Gravitation and Spacetime, W. W. Norton & Company, 1994, ISBN 0-393-96501-5 Stairs, Ingrid H., Testing General Relativity with Pulsar Timing, Living Rev. Relativity, 2003, 6 [2007-07-21]
例如参见Jaranowski & Królak 2005。 Jaranowski, Piotr; Królak, Andrzej, Gravitational-Wave Data Analysis. Formalism and Sample Applications: The Gaussian Case, Living Rev. Relativity, 2005, 8 [2007-07-30], （原始内容存档于2020-01-22）
参见Stairs 2003和Schutz 2003，pp. 317–321；以及Bartusiak 2000，pp. 70–86。 Stairs, Ingrid H., Testing General Relativity with Pulsar Timing, Living Rev. Relativity, 2003, 6 [2007-07-21] Schutz, Bernard F., Gravity from the ground up, Cambridge University Press, 2003, ISBN 0-521-45506-5 Bartusiak, Marcia, Einstein's Unfinished Symphony: Listening to the Sounds of Space-Time, Berkley, 2000, ISBN 978-0-425-18620-6
在参数化后牛顿形式中，对这种效应的测量决定了两个参数 $\beta$ 和 $\gamma$ 的线性组合，参见Will 2006，sec. 3.5和Will 1993，sec. 7.3。 Will, Clifford M., The Confrontation between General Relativity and Experiment, Living Rev. Relativity, 2006 [2007-06-12], （原始内容存档于2019-12-10） Will, Clifford M., Theory and experiment in gravitational physics, Cambridge University Press, 1993, ISBN 0-521-43973-6
在太阳系行星上做出的最精确测量是VLBI测量，参见Will 1993，chapter 5，Will 2006，section 3.5，Anderson et al. 1992；概述见于Ohanian & Ruffini 1994，pp. 406–407。 Will, Clifford M., Theory and experiment in gravitational physics, Cambridge University Press, 1993, ISBN 0-521-43973-6 Will, Clifford M., The Confrontation between General Relativity and Experiment, Living Rev. Relativity, 2006 [2007-06-12], （原始内容存档于2019-12-10） Anderson, J. D.; Campbell, J. K.; Jurgens, R. F.; Lau, E. L., Recent developments in solar-system tests of general relativity, Sato, H.; Nakamura, T. (编), Proceedings of the Sixth Marcel Großmann Meeting on General Relativity, World Scientific: 353–355, 1992, ISBN 981-020-950-9 Ohanian, Hans C.; Ruffini, Remo; Ruffini, Gravitation and Spacetime, W. W. Norton & Company, 1994, ISBN 0-393-96501-5
关于引力透镜及其应用的概述参见Ehlers, Falco & Schneider 1992和Wambsganss 1998。 Ehlers, Jürgen; Falco, Emilio E.; Schneider, Peter, Gravitational lenses, Springer, 1992, ISBN 3-540-66506-4 Wambsganss, Joachim, Gravitational Lensing in Astronomy, Living Rev. Relativity, 1998, 1 [2007-07-20], （原始内容存档于2020-01-22）
引力波探测器概述可见于Hough & Rowan 2000。 Hough, Jim; Rowan, Sheila, Gravitational Wave Detection by Interferometry (Ground and Space), Living Rev. Relativity, 2000, 3 [2007-07-21]
关于恒星演化的最终阶段参见Oppenheimer & Snyder 1939，以及Font 2003，sec. 4.1包含了更多更新的数值计算成果；对于超新星爆发的过程仍有一些主要问题没有被解决，参见Buras et al. 2003；关于吸积和喷流形成的数值模拟，参见Font 2003，sec. 4.2。而引力透镜效应则被认为在接收来自X射线脉冲星的信号中起到了一定作用，参见Kraus 1998。 Oppenheimer, J. Robert; Snyder, H., On continued gravitational contraction, Physical Review, 1939, 56: 455–459, doi:10.1103/PhysRev.56.455 Font, José A., Numerical Hydrodynamics in General Relativity, Living Rev. Relativity, 2003, 6 [2007-08-19], （原始内容存档于2016-05-15） Buras, R.; Rampp, M.; Janka, H.-Th.; Kifonidis, K., Improved Models of Stellar Core Collapse and Still no Explosions: What is Missing?, Phys. Rev. Lett., 2003, 90: 241101, doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.90.241101, arXiv:astro-ph/0303171 Font, José A., Numerical Hydrodynamics in General Relativity, Living Rev. Relativity, 2003, 6 [2007-08-19], （原始内容存档于2016-05-15） Kraus, Ute, Light Deflection Near Neutron Stars, Relativistic Astrophysics, Vieweg: 66–81, 1998, ISBN 352-806909-0
参见Carroll 2001，ch. 2。 Carroll, Sean M., The Cosmological Constant, Living Rev. Relativity, 2001, 4 [2007-07-21], （原始内容存档于2004-06-20）
回顾评论可见于Lahav & Suto 2004和Bertschinger 1998；更新的研究成果在Springel et al. 2005。 Lahav, Ofer; Suto, Yasushi, Measuring our Universe from Galaxy Redshift Surveys, Living Rev. Relativity, 2004, 7 [2007-08-19], （原始内容存档于2020-01-22） Bertschinger, Edmund, Simulations of structure formation in the universe, Annu. Rev. Astron. Astrophys., 1998, 36: 599–654, doi:10.1146/annurev.astro.36.1.599 Springel, Volker; White, Simon D. M.; Jenkins, Adrian; Frenk, Carlos S., Simulations of the formation, evolution and clustering of galaxies and quasars, Nature, 2005, 435: 629–636, doi:10.1038/nature03597
参见Carroll 2001；概述可见于Caldwell 2004。对于暗能量，有些科学家也认为暗能量并非是一种新的能量形式，而是我们的宇宙学模型需要修正，参见Mannheim 2006，sec. 10；不过这不一定意味着要对广义相对论进行修正，而可以是我们对宇宙各向异性的处理方法需要修正，参见Buchert 2007。 Carroll, Sean M., The Cosmological Constant, Living Rev. Relativity, 2001, 4 [2007-07-21], （原始内容存档于2004-06-20） Caldwell, Robert R., Dark Energy, Physics World, 2004, 17(5): 37–42 [2008-09-04], doi:10.1038/nature02139, （原始内容存档于2007-07-13） Mannheim, Philip D., Alternatives to Dark Matter and Dark Energy, Prog. Part. Nucl. Phys., 2006, 56: 340–445, doi:10.1016/j.ppnp.2005.08.001, arXiv:astro-ph/0505266v2 Buchert, Thomas, Dark Energy from Structure—A Status Report, General Relativity and Gravitation, 2007, 40: 467–527, doi:10.1007/s10714-007-0554-8, arXiv:0707.2153
参见Frauendiener 2004，Wald 1984，section 11.1，以及Hawking & Ellis 1973，section 6.8 & 6.9。 Frauendiener, Jörg, Conformal Infinity, Living Rev. Relativity, 2004, 7 [2007-07-21], （原始内容存档于2020-01-22） Wald, Robert M., General Relativity, University of Chicago Press, 1984, ISBN 0-226-87033-2 Hawking, Stephen W.; Ellis, George F. R., The large scale structure of spacetime, Cambridge University Press, 1973, ISBN 0-521-09906-4
参见Thorne 1972；对更新的数值计算结果的解释可见于Berger 2002，sec. 2.1。 Thorne, Kip S., Nonspherical Gravitational Collapse—A Short Review, Klauder, J. (编), Magic without Magic, W. H. Freeman: 231–258, 1972 Berger, Beverly K., Numerical Approaches to Spacetime Singularities, Living Rev. Relativity', 2002, 5 [2007-08-04], （原始内容存档于2020-01-22）
有关这一概念的演化介绍，参见Israel 1987。用更精确的数学描述来区别不同种类的视界，著名的包括事件视界和表面视界，可见于Hawking & Ellis 1973，pp. 312–320或Wald 1984，sec. 12.2；对于不需要在无限远处时空性质的孤立系统，还存在直觉的定义，参见Ashtekar & Krishnan 2004。 Israel, Werner, Dark stars: the evolution of an idea, Hawking, Stephen W.; Israel, Werner (编), 300 Years of Gravitation, Cambridge University Press: 199–276, 1987, ISBN 0-521-37976-8 Hawking, Stephen W.; Ellis, George F. R., The large scale structure of spacetime, Cambridge University Press, 1973, ISBN 0-521-09906-4 Wald, Robert M., General Relativity, University of Chicago Press, 1984, ISBN 0-226-87033-2 Ashtekar, Abhay; Krishnan, Badri, Isolated and Dynamical Horizons and Their Applications, Living Rev. Relativity, 2004, 7 [2007-08-28]
初步知识参见Israel 1971；相关推导参见Hawking & Ellis 1973，sec. 9.3或Heusler 1996，ch. 9 and 10；最近的研究成果回顾参见Heusler 1998和Beig & Chruściel 2006。 Israel, Werner, Event Horizons and Gravitational Collapse, General Relativity and Gravitation, 1971, 2: 53–59, doi:10.1007/BF02450518 Hawking, Stephen W.; Ellis, George F. R., The large scale structure of spacetime, Cambridge University Press, 1973, ISBN 0-521-09906-4 Heusler, Markus, Black Hole Uniqueness Theorems, Cambridge University Press, 1996, ISBN 0-521-56735-1 Heusler, Markus, Stationary Black Holes: Uniqueness and Beyond, Living Rev. Relativity, 1998, 1 [2007-08-04] Beig, Robert; Chruściel, Piotr T., Stationary black holes, Francoise, J.-P.; Naber, G.; Tsou, T.S. (编), Encyclopedia of Mathematical Physics, Volume 2, Elsevier, 2006, ISBN 0-12-512660-3, arXiv:gr-qc/0502041
黑洞力学定律首先是在Bardeen, Carter & Hawking 1973中描述的；一个具有教学性的演示发言可见于Carter 1979；更新的回顾评论参见Wald 2001的第二章。涵盖了所需要数学的较为全面详细的介绍参见Poisson 2004。关于彭罗斯过程参见Penrose 1969。 Bardeen, J. M.; Carter, B.; Hawking, S. W., The Four Laws of Black Hole Mechanics, Comm. Math. Phys., 1973, 31: 161–170 [2008-09-04], doi:10.1007/BF01645742, （原始内容存档于2014-07-14） Carter, Brandon, The general theory of the mechanical, electromagnetic and thermodynamic properties of black holes, Hawking, S. W.; Israel, W. (编), General Relativity, an Einstein Centenary Survey, Cambridge University Press: 294–369 and 860–863, 1979, ISBN 0-521-29928-4 Wald, Robert M., The Thermodynamics of Black Holes, Living Rev. Relativity, 2001, 4 [2007-08-08], （原始内容存档于2020-01-22） Poisson, Eric, A Relativist's Toolkit. The Mathematics of Black-Hole Mechanics, Cambridge University Press, 2004, ISBN 0-521-83091-5 Penrose, Roger, Gravitational collapse: the role of general relativity, Rivista del Nuovo Cimento, 1969, 1: 252–276
黑洞存在量子辐射的事实最早是在Hawking 1975中推导出的；一个更全面的推导可见于Wald 1975；相关回顾评论参见Wald 2001第三章。 Hawking, S. W., Particle Creation by Black Holes, Communications in Mathematical Physics, 1975, 43: 199–220, doi:10.1007/BF02345020 Wald, Robert M., On Particle Creation by Black Holes, Commun. Math. Phys., 1975, 45: 9–34, doi:10.1007/BF02345020 Wald, Robert M., The Thermodynamics of Black Holes, Living Rev. Relativity, 2001, 4 [2007-08-08], （原始内容存档于2020-01-22）
关于视界参见Rindler 2001，sec. 12.4；关于盎鲁效应参见Unruh 1976, cf. Wald 2001，chapter 3。 Rindler, Wolfgang, Relativity. Special, General and Cosmological, Oxford University Press, 2001, ISBN 0-19-850836-0 Unruh, W. G., Notes on Black Hole Evaporation, Phys. Rev. D, 1976, 14: 870–892, doi:10.1103/PhysRevD.14.870 Wald, Robert M., The Thermodynamics of Black Holes, Living Rev. Relativity, 2001, 4 [2007-08-08], （原始内容存档于2020-01-22）
BKL假说是在Belinskii, Khalatnikov & Lifschitz 1971中建立的；更新的回顾评论参见 Berger 2002，以及Garfinkle 2007。 Belinskii, V. A.; Khalatnikov, I. M.; Lifschitz, E. M., Oscillatory approach to the singular point in relativistic cosmology, Advances in Physics, 1971, 19: 525–573, doi:10.1080/00018737000101171 ; original paper in Russian: Belinsky, V. A.; Khalatnikov, I. M.; Lifshitz, E. M., Колебательный Режим Приближения К Особой Точке В Релятивистской Космологии, Uspekhi Fizicheskikh Nauk (Успехи Физических Наук), 1970,, 102(3) (11): 463–500 Berger, Beverly K., Numerical Approaches to Spacetime Singularities, Living Rev. Relativity', 2002, 5 [2007-08-04], （原始内容存档于2020-01-22） Garfinkle, David, Of singularities and breadmaking, Einstein Online, 2007 [2007-08-03], （原始内容存档于2007-08-10）
对未来奇点的约束条件自然地排除了像大爆炸奇点这样的初始奇点的存在可能，而这些奇点原则上在经过一定宇宙学上的时间尺度后，是可以被观测者看到的。宇宙监督假说首先见于Penrose 1969；教科书水平的解释见于Wald 1984，pp. 302–305。更多的数值模拟结果参见评论Berger 2002，sec. 2.1。 Penrose, Roger, Gravitational collapse: the role of general relativity, Rivista del Nuovo Cimento, 1969, 1: 252–276 Wald, Robert M., General Relativity, University of Chicago Press, 1984, ISBN 0-226-87033-2 Berger, Beverly K., Numerical Approaches to Spacetime Singularities, Living Rev. Relativity', 2002, 5 [2007-08-04], （原始内容存档于2020-01-22）
Fourès-Bruhat 1952 and Bruhat 1962；教学性介绍参见Wald 1984，ch. 10；在线的回顾评论参见Reula 1998。 Fourès-Bruhat, Yvonne, Théoréme d'existence pour certains systémes d'équations aux derivées partielles non linéaires, Acta Mathematica, 1952, 88: 141–225, doi:10.1007/BF02392131 Bruhat, Yvonne, The Cauchy Problem, Witten, Louis (编), Gravitation: An Introduction to Current Research, Wiley: 130, 1962, ISBN 9781114291669 Wald, Robert M., General Relativity, University of Chicago Press, 1984, ISBN 0-226-87033-2 Reula, Oscar A., Hyperbolic Methods for Einstein's Equations, Living Rev. Relativity, 1998, 1 [2007-08-29], （原始内容存档于2020-01-22）
这样的准局域的质量-能量定义包括霍金能量、Geroch能量，以及彭罗斯通过扭量方法定义的准局域能量-动量，参考评论Szabados 2004。 Szabados, László B., Quasi-Local Energy-Momentum and Angular Momentum in GR, Living Rev. Relativity, 2004, 7 [2007-08-23], （原始内容存档于2020-01-22）
参见Wald 2001第三章。 Wald, Robert M., The Thermodynamics of Black Holes, Living Rev. Relativity, 2001, 4 [2007-08-08], （原始内容存档于2020-01-22）
回顾评论参见Thiemann 2006；更详细的解释参见Rovelli 1998，Ashtekar & Lewandowski 2004以及讲义Thiemann 2003。 Thiemann, Thomas, Loop Quantum Gravity: An Inside View, 2006, arXiv:hep-th/0608210 Rovelli, Carlo, Loop Quantum Gravity, Living Rev. Relativity, 1998, 1 [2008-03-13], （原始内容存档于2020-01-22） Ashtekar, Abhay; Lewandowski, Jerzy, Background Independent Quantum Gravity: A Status Report, Class. Quant. Grav., 2004, 21: R53–R152, doi:10.1088/0264-9381/21/15/R01, arXiv:gr-qc/0404018 Thiemann, Thomas, Lectures on Loop Quantum Gravity, Lect. Notes Phys., 2003, 631: 41–135
参见Loll 1998。 Loll, Renate, Discrete Approaches to Quantum Gravity in Four Dimensions, Living Rev. Relativity, 1998, 1 [2008-03-09], （原始内容存档于2020-01-22）
致密双星旋近的引力波偏振的相关论文参见Blanchet et al. 2008和Arun et al. 2007；致密双星的研究回顾评论参见Blanchet 2006 和Futamase & Itoh 2006；广义相对论的实验验证概述参见Will 2006。 Blanchet, L.; Faye, G.; Iyer, B. R.; Sinha, S., The third post-Newtonian gravitational wave polarisations and associated spherical harmonic modes for inspiralling compact binaries in quasi-circular orbits, 2008, arXiv:0802.1249 Arun, K.G.; Blanchet, L.; Iyer, B. R.; Qusailah, M. S. S., Inspiralling compact binaries in quasi-elliptical orbits: The complete 3PN energy flux, 2007, arXiv:0711.0302 Blanchet, Luc, Gravitational Radiation from Post-Newtonian Sources and Inspiralling Compact Binaries, Living Rev. Relativity, 2006, 9 [2007-08-07], （原始内容存档于2019-09-15） Futamase, T.; Itoh, Y., The Post-Newtonian Approximation for Relativistic Compact Binaries, Living Rev. Relativity, 2006, 10 [2008-02-29], （原始内容存档于2019-09-15） Will, Clifford M., The Confrontation between General Relativity and Experiment, Living Rev. Relativity, 2006 [2007-06-12], （原始内容存档于2019-12-10）

relativity.livingreviews.org

通过比较地面上的原子钟和轨道卫星上的原子钟来检测GPS的工作一直在持续进行中；关于相应的相对论效应参见Ashby 2002和Ashby 2003。 Ashby, Neil, Relativity and the Global Positioning System (PDF), Physics Today, 2002, 55(5): 41–47 [2008-09-04], doi:10.1063/1.1485583, （原始内容 (PDF)存档于2007-09-25） Ashby, Neil, Relativity in the Global Positioning System, Living Reviews in Relativity, 2003, 6 [2007-07-06], （原始内容存档于2007-07-04）
例如，請參閱網路評論期刊Living Reviews in Relativity （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）

mpg.de

nausikaa2.mpiwg-berlin.mpg.de

这段研究发展历程请参见Pais 1982和Janssen 2005的第九章至第十五章；涵盖当前最新研究并包含有最初版本的多个重印版都收集在Renn 2007中；在Renn 2005，p. 110ff.有相关概述。在Einstein 1907还提供了一篇早期的重要文章，并参见Pais 1982，ch. 9。以场方程为主要特色内容发表的文章是Einstein 1915，并参见Pais 1982，ch. 11–15。 Pais, Abraham, 'Subtle is the Lord...' The Science and life of Albert Einstein, Oxford University Press, 1982, ISBN 0-19-853907-X Janssen, Michel, Of pots and holes: Einstein’s bumpy road to general relativity (PDF), Ann. Phys. (Leipzig), 2005, 14: 58–85 [2008-09-04], doi:10.1002/andp.200410130, （原始内容 (PDF)存档于2008-09-11） Renn, Jürgen (编), The Genesis of General Relativity (4 Volumes), Dordrecht: Springer, 2007, ISBN 1-4020-3999-9 Renn, Jürgen (编), Albert Einstein—Chief Engineer of the Universe: Einstein's Life and Work in Context, Berlin: Wiley-VCH, 2005, ISBN 3-527-40571-2 Einstein, Albert, Über das Relativitätsprinzip und die aus demselben gezogene Folgerungen (PDF), Jahrbuch der Radioaktivitaet und Elektronik, 1907, 4: 411 [2008-05-05], （原始内容存档 (PDF)于2021-01-19） Pais, Abraham, 'Subtle is the Lord...' The Science and life of Albert Einstein, Oxford University Press, 1982, ISBN 0-19-853907-X Einstein, Albert, Die Feldgleichungen der Gravitation, Sitzungsberichte der Preussischen Akademie der Wissenschaften zu Berlin, 1915: 844–847 [2006-09-12], （原始内容存档于2016-10-27） Pais, Abraham, 'Subtle is the Lord...' The Science and life of Albert Einstein, Oxford University Press, 1982, ISBN 0-19-853907-X

geo600.aei.mpg.de

参见Bartusiak 2000了解到2000年为止的引力波探测，更新的结果可见于各大引力波探测计划主页，例如GEO 600 （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）和LIGO （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）。 Bartusiak, Marcia, Einstein's Unfinished Symphony: Listening to the Sounds of Space-Time, Berkley, 2000, ISBN 978-0-425-18620-6

nature.com

Castelvecchi, Davide; Witze, Witze. Einstein's gravitational waves found at last. Nature News. 2016-02-11 [2016-02-11]. doi:10.1038/nature.2016.19361. （原始内容存档于2019-09-09）.

nih.gov

ncbi.nlm.nih.gov

这类测量以Hafele-Keating实验为起始，参见Hafele & Keating 1972a和Hafele & Keating 1972b，在引力探测器A的探测中达到顶峰；对这类实验的概述参见Ohanian & Ruffini 1994，table 4.1 on p. 186。 Hafele, J.; Keating, R., Around the world atomic clocks:predicted relativistic time gains, Science, 1972a, 177: 166–168, PMID 17779917, doi:10.1126/science.177.4044.166 Hafele, J.; Keating, R., Around the world atomic clocks: observed relativistic time gains, Science, 1972b, 177: 168–170, PMID 17779918, doi:10.1126/science.177.4044.168 Ohanian, Hans C.; Ruffini, Remo; Ruffini, Gravitation and Spacetime, W. W. Norton & Company, 1994, ISBN 0-393-96501-5
参见Kramer et al. 2006。 Kramer, M.; Stairs, I. H.; Manchester, R. N.; McLaughlin, M. A., Tests of general relativity from timing the double pulsar, Science, 2006, 314: 97–102, PMID 16973838, doi:10.1126/science.1132305, arXiv:astro-ph/0609417
这些检验来自于彼此独立的观测，例如参见Bridle et al. 2003中图2。 Bridle, Sarah L.; Lahav, Ofer; Ostriker, Jeremiah P.; Steinhardt, Paul J., Precision Cosmology? Not Just Yet, Science, 2003, 299: 1532–1533, PMID 12624255, doi:10.1126/science.1082158, arXiv:astro-ph/0303180

physicsweb.org

参见Carroll 2001；概述可见于Caldwell 2004。对于暗能量，有些科学家也认为暗能量并非是一种新的能量形式，而是我们的宇宙学模型需要修正，参见Mannheim 2006，sec. 10；不过这不一定意味着要对广义相对论进行修正，而可以是我们对宇宙各向异性的处理方法需要修正，参见Buchert 2007。 Carroll, Sean M., The Cosmological Constant, Living Rev. Relativity, 2001, 4 [2007-07-21], （原始内容存档于2004-06-20） Caldwell, Robert R., Dark Energy, Physics World, 2004, 17(5): 37–42 [2008-09-04], doi:10.1038/nature02139, （原始内容存档于2007-07-13） Mannheim, Philip D., Alternatives to Dark Matter and Dark Energy, Prog. Part. Nucl. Phys., 2006, 56: 340–445, doi:10.1016/j.ppnp.2005.08.001, arXiv:astro-ph/0505266v2 Buchert, Thomas, Dark Energy from Structure—A Status Report, General Relativity and Gravitation, 2007, 40: 467–527, doi:10.1007/s10714-007-0554-8, arXiv:0707.2153

pnas.org

哈勃的原文是Hubble 1929；相关概述请见Singh 2004，ch. 2–4。 Hubble, Edwin, A Relation between Distance and Radial Velocity among Extra-Galactic Nebulae (PDF), Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci., 1929, 15: 168–173 [2008-09-04], doi:10.1073/pnas.15.3.168, （原始内容存档 (PDF)于2008-06-26） Singh, Simon, Big Bang: The Origin of the Universe, Fourth Estate, 2004, ISBN 0007152515

projecteuclid.org

黑洞力学定律首先是在Bardeen, Carter & Hawking 1973中描述的；一个具有教学性的演示发言可见于Carter 1979；更新的回顾评论参见Wald 2001的第二章。涵盖了所需要数学的较为全面详细的介绍参见Poisson 2004。关于彭罗斯过程参见Penrose 1969。 Bardeen, J. M.; Carter, B.; Hawking, S. W., The Four Laws of Black Hole Mechanics, Comm. Math. Phys., 1973, 31: 161–170 [2008-09-04], doi:10.1007/BF01645742, （原始内容存档于2014-07-14） Carter, Brandon, The general theory of the mechanical, electromagnetic and thermodynamic properties of black holes, Hawking, S. W.; Israel, W. (编), General Relativity, an Einstein Centenary Survey, Cambridge University Press: 294–369 and 860–863, 1979, ISBN 0-521-29928-4 Wald, Robert M., The Thermodynamics of Black Holes, Living Rev. Relativity, 2001, 4 [2007-08-08], （原始内容存档于2020-01-22） Poisson, Eric, A Relativist's Toolkit. The Mathematics of Black-Hole Mechanics, Cambridge University Press, 2004, ISBN 0-521-83091-5 Penrose, Roger, Gravitational collapse: the role of general relativity, Rivista del Nuovo Cimento, 1969, 1: 252–276

soso.ch

这段研究发展历程请参见Pais 1982和Janssen 2005的第九章至第十五章；涵盖当前最新研究并包含有最初版本的多个重印版都收集在Renn 2007中；在Renn 2005，p. 110ff.有相关概述。在Einstein 1907还提供了一篇早期的重要文章，并参见Pais 1982，ch. 9。以场方程为主要特色内容发表的文章是Einstein 1915，并参见Pais 1982，ch. 11–15。 Pais, Abraham, 'Subtle is the Lord...' The Science and life of Albert Einstein, Oxford University Press, 1982, ISBN 0-19-853907-X Janssen, Michel, Of pots and holes: Einstein’s bumpy road to general relativity (PDF), Ann. Phys. (Leipzig), 2005, 14: 58–85 [2008-09-04], doi:10.1002/andp.200410130, （原始内容 (PDF)存档于2008-09-11） Renn, Jürgen (编), The Genesis of General Relativity (4 Volumes), Dordrecht: Springer, 2007, ISBN 1-4020-3999-9 Renn, Jürgen (编), Albert Einstein—Chief Engineer of the Universe: Einstein's Life and Work in Context, Berlin: Wiley-VCH, 2005, ISBN 3-527-40571-2 Einstein, Albert, Über das Relativitätsprinzip und die aus demselben gezogene Folgerungen (PDF), Jahrbuch der Radioaktivitaet und Elektronik, 1907, 4: 411 [2008-05-05], （原始内容存档 (PDF)于2021-01-19） Pais, Abraham, 'Subtle is the Lord...' The Science and life of Albert Einstein, Oxford University Press, 1982, ISBN 0-19-853907-X Einstein, Albert, Die Feldgleichungen der Gravitation, Sitzungsberichte der Preussischen Akademie der Wissenschaften zu Berlin, 1915: 844–847 [2006-09-12], （原始内容存档于2016-10-27） Pais, Abraham, 'Subtle is the Lord...' The Science and life of Albert Einstein, Oxford University Press, 1982, ISBN 0-19-853907-X
参见Rindler 2001，pp. 24–26 vs. pp. 236–237和Ohanian & Ruffini 1994，pp. 164–172。事实上，爱因斯坦早在1907年就通过（爱因斯坦）等效原理（EEP）推导出了这些效应，参见 Einstein 1907和Pais 1982，pp. 196–198中的描述。 Rindler, Wolfgang, Relativity. Special, General and Cosmological, Oxford University Press, 2001, ISBN 0-19-850836-0 Ohanian, Hans C.; Ruffini, Remo; Ruffini, Gravitation and Spacetime, W. W. Norton & Company, 1994, ISBN 0-393-96501-5 Einstein, Albert, Über das Relativitätsprinzip und die aus demselben gezogene Folgerungen (PDF), Jahrbuch der Radioaktivitaet und Elektronik, 1907, 4: 411 [2008-05-05], （原始内容存档 (PDF)于2021-01-19） Pais, Abraham, 'Subtle is the Lord...' The Science and life of Albert Einstein, Oxford University Press, 1982, ISBN 0-19-853907-X
或对光子应用自由落体定律，参见Rindler 2001，section 1.16；其他历史实例可见于Israel 1987，p. 202–204.；事实上爱因斯坦在Einstein 1907这篇文献中已经发表过这种推导，其中的计算默认了时空是欧几里德性的。参见Ehlers & Rindler 1997。 Rindler, Wolfgang, Relativity. Special, General and Cosmological, Oxford University Press, 2001, ISBN 0-19-850836-0 Israel, Werner, Dark stars: the evolution of an idea, Hawking, Stephen W.; Israel, Werner (编), 300 Years of Gravitation, Cambridge University Press: 199–276, 1987, ISBN 0-521-37976-8 Einstein, Albert, Über das Relativitätsprinzip und die aus demselben gezogene Folgerungen (PDF), Jahrbuch der Radioaktivitaet und Elektronik, 1907, 4: 411 [2008-05-05], （原始内容存档 (PDF)于2021-01-19） Ehlers, Jürgen; Rindler, Wolfgang, Local and Global Light Bending in Einstein's and other Gravitational Theories, General Relativity and Gravitation, 1997, 29: 519–529, doi:10.1023/A:1018843001842

stanford.edu

einstein.stanford.edu

参见Kahn 2007 Kahn, Bob, Was Einstein right? Scientists provide first public peek at Gravity Probe B results (Stanford University Press Release) (PDF), Stanford University News Service, 2007-04-14 [2008-09-04], （原始内容存档 (PDF)于2019-12-01）
任务的介绍可见于Everitt et al. 2001；飞行后的首次评估可见于Everitt et al. 2007；更多更新即将见于此项任务的网站Kahn 2012。 Everitt, C. W. F.; Buchman, S.; DeBra, D. B.; Keiser, G. M., Gravity Probe B: Countdown to launch, Lämmerzahl,, C.; Everitt, and, C. W. F.; Hehl, F. W. (编), Gyros, Clocks, and Interferometers: Testing Relativistic Gravity in Space (Lecture Notes in Physics 562), Springer: 52–82, 2001, ISBN 3-540-41236-0 Everitt, C. W. F.; Parkinson, Bradford; Kahn, Bob, The Gravity Probe B experiment. Post Flight Analysis—Final Report (Preface and Executive Summary) (PDF), Project Report: NASA, Stanford University and Lockheed Martin, 2007 [2007-08-05], （原始内容 (PDF)存档于2007-09-26）

umd.edu

astro.umd.edu

参见Miller 2002，lectures 19 and 21。 Miller, Cole, Stellar Structure and Evolution (Lecture notes for Astronomy 606), University of Maryland, 2002 [2007-07-25], （原始内容存档于2011-12-16）

umn.edu

tc.umn.edu

这段研究发展历程请参见Pais 1982和Janssen 2005的第九章至第十五章；涵盖当前最新研究并包含有最初版本的多个重印版都收集在Renn 2007中；在Renn 2005，p. 110ff.有相关概述。在Einstein 1907还提供了一篇早期的重要文章，并参见Pais 1982，ch. 9。以场方程为主要特色内容发表的文章是Einstein 1915，并参见Pais 1982，ch. 11–15。 Pais, Abraham, 'Subtle is the Lord...' The Science and life of Albert Einstein, Oxford University Press, 1982, ISBN 0-19-853907-X Janssen, Michel, Of pots and holes: Einstein’s bumpy road to general relativity (PDF), Ann. Phys. (Leipzig), 2005, 14: 58–85 [2008-09-04], doi:10.1002/andp.200410130, （原始内容 (PDF)存档于2008-09-11） Renn, Jürgen (编), The Genesis of General Relativity (4 Volumes), Dordrecht: Springer, 2007, ISBN 1-4020-3999-9 Renn, Jürgen (编), Albert Einstein—Chief Engineer of the Universe: Einstein's Life and Work in Context, Berlin: Wiley-VCH, 2005, ISBN 3-527-40571-2 Einstein, Albert, Über das Relativitätsprinzip und die aus demselben gezogene Folgerungen (PDF), Jahrbuch der Radioaktivitaet und Elektronik, 1907, 4: 411 [2008-05-05], （原始内容存档 (PDF)于2021-01-19） Pais, Abraham, 'Subtle is the Lord...' The Science and life of Albert Einstein, Oxford University Press, 1982, ISBN 0-19-853907-X Einstein, Albert, Die Feldgleichungen der Gravitation, Sitzungsberichte der Preussischen Akademie der Wissenschaften zu Berlin, 1915: 844–847 [2006-09-12], （原始内容存档于2016-10-27） Pais, Abraham, 'Subtle is the Lord...' The Science and life of Albert Einstein, Oxford University Press, 1982, ISBN 0-19-853907-X

web.archive.org

这段研究发展历程请参见Pais 1982和Janssen 2005的第九章至第十五章；涵盖当前最新研究并包含有最初版本的多个重印版都收集在Renn 2007中；在Renn 2005，p. 110ff.有相关概述。在Einstein 1907还提供了一篇早期的重要文章，并参见Pais 1982，ch. 9。以场方程为主要特色内容发表的文章是Einstein 1915，并参见Pais 1982，ch. 11–15。 Pais, Abraham, 'Subtle is the Lord...' The Science and life of Albert Einstein, Oxford University Press, 1982, ISBN 0-19-853907-X Janssen, Michel, Of pots and holes: Einstein’s bumpy road to general relativity (PDF), Ann. Phys. (Leipzig), 2005, 14: 58–85 [2008-09-04], doi:10.1002/andp.200410130, （原始内容 (PDF)存档于2008-09-11） Renn, Jürgen (编), The Genesis of General Relativity (4 Volumes), Dordrecht: Springer, 2007, ISBN 1-4020-3999-9 Renn, Jürgen (编), Albert Einstein—Chief Engineer of the Universe: Einstein's Life and Work in Context, Berlin: Wiley-VCH, 2005, ISBN 3-527-40571-2 Einstein, Albert, Über das Relativitätsprinzip und die aus demselben gezogene Folgerungen (PDF), Jahrbuch der Radioaktivitaet und Elektronik, 1907, 4: 411 [2008-05-05], （原始内容存档 (PDF)于2021-01-19） Pais, Abraham, 'Subtle is the Lord...' The Science and life of Albert Einstein, Oxford University Press, 1982, ISBN 0-19-853907-X Einstein, Albert, Die Feldgleichungen der Gravitation, Sitzungsberichte der Preussischen Akademie der Wissenschaften zu Berlin, 1915: 844–847 [2006-09-12], （原始内容存档于2016-10-27） Pais, Abraham, 'Subtle is the Lord...' The Science and life of Albert Einstein, Oxford University Press, 1982, ISBN 0-19-853907-X
参见Schwarzschild 1916a，Schwarzschild 1916b和Reissner 1916（其后在Nordström 1918有补充）。 Schwarzschild, Karl, Über das Gravitationsfeld eines Massenpunktes nach der Einsteinschen Theorie, Sitzungsber. Preuss. Akad. D. Wiss., 1916a: 189–196 Schwarzschild, Karl, Über das Gravitationsfeld eines Kugel aus inkompressibler Flüssigkeit nach der Einsteinschen Theorie, Sitzungsber. Preuss. Akad. D. Wiss., 1916b: 424–434 Reissner, H., Über die Eigengravitation des elektrischen Feldes nach der Einsteinschen Theorie, Annalen der Physik, 1916, 355: 106–120, doi:10.1002/andp.19163550905 Nordström, Gunnar, On the Energy of the Gravitational Field in Einstein's Theory, Verhandl. Koninkl. Ned. Akad. Wetenschap., 1918, 26: 1238–1245 [2008-09-04], （原始内容存档于2009-01-26）
哈勃的原文是Hubble 1929；相关概述请见Singh 2004，ch. 2–4。 Hubble, Edwin, A Relation between Distance and Radial Velocity among Extra-Galactic Nebulae (PDF), Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci., 1929, 15: 168–173 [2008-09-04], doi:10.1073/pnas.15.3.168, （原始内容存档 (PDF)于2008-06-26） Singh, Simon, Big Bang: The Origin of the Universe, Fourth Estate, 2004, ISBN 0007152515
参见Will 1993，section 2.4或Will 2006，section 2。 Will, Clifford M., Theory and experiment in gravitational physics, Cambridge University Press, 1993, ISBN 0-521-43973-6 Will, Clifford M., The Confrontation between General Relativity and Experiment, Living Rev. Relativity, 2006 [2007-06-12], （原始内容存档于2019-12-10）
关于更多的替代理论参见Brans & Dicke 1961，Weinberg 1972的第七章第三节， Goenner 2004，sec. 7.2以及Trautman 2006。 Brans, C. H.; Dicke, R. H., Mach's Principle and a Relativistic Theory of Gravitation, Physical Review, 1961, 124 (3): 925–935, doi:10.1103/PhysRev.124.925 Weinberg, Steven, Gravitation and Cosmology, John Wiley, 1972, ISBN 0-471-92567-5 Goenner, Hubert F. M., On the History of Unified Field Theories, Living Rev. Relativity, 2004, 7 [2008-02-28], （原始内容存档于2020-01-22） Trautman, Andrzej, Einstein-Cartan theory, Francoise, J.-P.; Naber, G. L.; Tsou, S. T. (编), Encyclopedia of Mathematical Physics, Vol. 2, Elsevier: 189–195, 2006, arXiv:gr-qc/0606062
参见Will 2006的第3.2节以及Will 1993，ch. 4。 Will, Clifford M., The Confrontation between General Relativity and Experiment, Living Rev. Relativity, 2006 [2007-06-12], （原始内容存档于2019-12-10） Will, Clifford M., Theory and experiment in gravitational physics, Cambridge University Press, 1993, ISBN 0-521-43973-6
中華民國重力學會. 相對論百年故事. 大塊文化出版股份有限公司. 2015年9月1日: 11–13 [2017-02-22]. ISBN 9789862136270. （原始内容存档于2021-01-19）（中文）.
参见Rindler 2001，pp. 24–26 vs. pp. 236–237和Ohanian & Ruffini 1994，pp. 164–172。事实上，爱因斯坦早在1907年就通过（爱因斯坦）等效原理（EEP）推导出了这些效应，参见 Einstein 1907和Pais 1982，pp. 196–198中的描述。 Rindler, Wolfgang, Relativity. Special, General and Cosmological, Oxford University Press, 2001, ISBN 0-19-850836-0 Ohanian, Hans C.; Ruffini, Remo; Ruffini, Gravitation and Spacetime, W. W. Norton & Company, 1994, ISBN 0-393-96501-5 Einstein, Albert, Über das Relativitätsprinzip und die aus demselben gezogene Folgerungen (PDF), Jahrbuch der Radioaktivitaet und Elektronik, 1907, 4: 411 [2008-05-05], （原始内容存档 (PDF)于2021-01-19） Pais, Abraham, 'Subtle is the Lord...' The Science and life of Albert Einstein, Oxford University Press, 1982, ISBN 0-19-853907-X
例如参见Greenstein, Oke & Shipman 1971；最新也是最精确的对于天狼星B的观测成果发表在Barstow, Bond & Holberg 2005。 Greenstein, J. L.; Oke, J. B.; Shipman, H. L., Effective Temperature, Radius, and Gravitational Redshift of Sirius B, Astrophysical Journal, 1971, 169: 563 [2008-09-04], doi:10.1086/151174, （原始内容存档于2011-10-14） Barstow, M.; Bond, Howard E.; Holberg, J.B., Hubble Space Telescope Spectroscopy of the Balmer lines in Sirius B, Mon. Not. Roy. Astron. Soc., 2005, 362: 1134–1142, doi:10.1111/j.1365-2966.2005.09359.x, arXiv:astro-ph/0506600
通过比较地面上的原子钟和轨道卫星上的原子钟来检测GPS的工作一直在持续进行中；关于相应的相对论效应参见Ashby 2002和Ashby 2003。 Ashby, Neil, Relativity and the Global Positioning System (PDF), Physics Today, 2002, 55(5): 41–47 [2008-09-04], doi:10.1063/1.1485583, （原始内容 (PDF)存档于2007-09-25） Ashby, Neil, Relativity in the Global Positioning System, Living Reviews in Relativity, 2003, 6 [2007-07-06], （原始内容存档于2007-07-04）
对这一方面的一个简明摘要可见于Blanchet 2006，section 1.3。 Blanchet, Luc, Gravitational Radiation from Post-Newtonian Sources and Inspiralling Compact Binaries, Living Rev. Relativity, 2006, 9 [2007-08-07], （原始内容存档于2019-09-15）
或对光子应用自由落体定律，参见Rindler 2001，section 1.16；其他历史实例可见于Israel 1987，p. 202–204.；事实上爱因斯坦在Einstein 1907这篇文献中已经发表过这种推导，其中的计算默认了时空是欧几里德性的。参见Ehlers & Rindler 1997。 Rindler, Wolfgang, Relativity. Special, General and Cosmological, Oxford University Press, 2001, ISBN 0-19-850836-0 Israel, Werner, Dark stars: the evolution of an idea, Hawking, Stephen W.; Israel, Werner (编), 300 Years of Gravitation, Cambridge University Press: 199–276, 1987, ISBN 0-521-37976-8 Einstein, Albert, Über das Relativitätsprinzip und die aus demselben gezogene Folgerungen (PDF), Jahrbuch der Radioaktivitaet und Elektronik, 1907, 4: 411 [2008-05-05], （原始内容存档 (PDF)于2021-01-19） Ehlers, Jürgen; Rindler, Wolfgang, Local and Global Light Bending in Einstein's and other Gravitational Theories, General Relativity and Gravitation, 1997, 29: 519–529, doi:10.1023/A:1018843001842
例如参见Jaranowski & Królak 2005。 Jaranowski, Piotr; Królak, Andrzej, Gravitational-Wave Data Analysis. Formalism and Sample Applications: The Gaussian Case, Living Rev. Relativity, 2005, 8 [2007-07-30], （原始内容存档于2020-01-22）
在参数化后牛顿形式中，对这种效应的测量决定了两个参数 $\beta$ 和 $\gamma$ 的线性组合，参见Will 2006，sec. 3.5和Will 1993，sec. 7.3。 Will, Clifford M., The Confrontation between General Relativity and Experiment, Living Rev. Relativity, 2006 [2007-06-12], （原始内容存档于2019-12-10） Will, Clifford M., Theory and experiment in gravitational physics, Cambridge University Press, 1993, ISBN 0-521-43973-6
在太阳系行星上做出的最精确测量是VLBI测量，参见Will 1993，chapter 5，Will 2006，section 3.5，Anderson et al. 1992；概述见于Ohanian & Ruffini 1994，pp. 406–407。 Will, Clifford M., Theory and experiment in gravitational physics, Cambridge University Press, 1993, ISBN 0-521-43973-6 Will, Clifford M., The Confrontation between General Relativity and Experiment, Living Rev. Relativity, 2006 [2007-06-12], （原始内容存档于2019-12-10） Anderson, J. D.; Campbell, J. K.; Jurgens, R. F.; Lau, E. L., Recent developments in solar-system tests of general relativity, Sato, H.; Nakamura, T. (编), Proceedings of the Sixth Marcel Großmann Meeting on General Relativity, World Scientific: 353–355, 1992, ISBN 981-020-950-9 Ohanian, Hans C.; Ruffini, Remo; Ruffini, Gravitation and Spacetime, W. W. Norton & Company, 1994, ISBN 0-393-96501-5
关于这段研究的概述在Weisberg & Taylor 2003；脉冲双星本身的发现可见于Hulse & Taylor 1975；关于引力波存在的最早证据在Taylor 1994。 Weisberg, Joel M.; Taylor, Joseph H., The Relativistic Binary Pulsar B1913+16", Bailes, M.; Nice, D. J.; Thorsett, S. E. (编), Proceedings of "Radio Pulsars," Chania, Crete, August, 2002, ASP Conference Series, 2003 Hulse, Russell A.; Taylor, Joseph H., Discovery of a pulsar in a binary system, Astrophys. J., 1975, 195: L51–L55 [2008-09-04], doi:10.1086/181708, （原始内容存档于2011-08-09） Taylor, Joseph H., Binary pulsars and relativistic gravity, Rev. Mod. Phys., 1994, 66: 711–719, doi:10.1103/RevModPhys.66.711
参见Kahn 2007 Kahn, Bob, Was Einstein right? Scientists provide first public peek at Gravity Probe B results (Stanford University Press Release) (PDF), Stanford University News Service, 2007-04-14 [2008-09-04], （原始内容存档 (PDF)于2019-12-01）
任务的介绍可见于Everitt et al. 2001；飞行后的首次评估可见于Everitt et al. 2007；更多更新即将见于此项任务的网站Kahn 2012。 Everitt, C. W. F.; Buchman, S.; DeBra, D. B.; Keiser, G. M., Gravity Probe B: Countdown to launch, Lämmerzahl,, C.; Everitt, and, C. W. F.; Hehl, F. W. (编), Gyros, Clocks, and Interferometers: Testing Relativistic Gravity in Space (Lecture Notes in Physics 562), Springer: 52–82, 2001, ISBN 3-540-41236-0 Everitt, C. W. F.; Parkinson, Bradford; Kahn, Bob, The Gravity Probe B experiment. Post Flight Analysis—Final Report (Preface and Executive Summary) (PDF), Project Report: NASA, Stanford University and Lockheed Martin, 2007 [2007-08-05], （原始内容 (PDF)存档于2007-09-26）
关于引力透镜及其应用的概述参见Ehlers, Falco & Schneider 1992和Wambsganss 1998。 Ehlers, Jürgen; Falco, Emilio E.; Schneider, Peter, Gravitational lenses, Springer, 1992, ISBN 3-540-66506-4 Wambsganss, Joachim, Gravitational Lensing in Astronomy, Living Rev. Relativity, 1998, 1 [2007-07-20], （原始内容存档于2020-01-22）
所有这些已知的引力透镜的照片都可以在CASTLES计划中找到：Kochanek et al. 2007。 Kochanek, C.S.; Falco, E.E.; Impey, C.; Lehar, J., CASTLES Survey Website, Harvard-Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics, 2007 [2007-08-21], （原始内容存档于2001-06-04）
参见Danzmann & Rüdiger 2003。 Danzmann, Karsten; Rüdiger, Albrecht, LISA Technology—Concepts, Status, Prospects (PDF), Class. Quant. Grav., 2003, 20: S1–S9 [2008-09-04], doi:10.1088/0264-9381/20/10/301, （原始内容 (PDF)存档于2007-09-26）
LISA pathfinder overview. ESA. [2012-04-23]. （原始内容存档于2012-10-31）.
Gravitational Waves Detected 100 Years After Einstein's Prediction. LIGO, Caltech. [2016-02-11]. （原始内容存档于2019-05-27）（英语）.
Castelvecchi, Davide; Witze, Witze. Einstein's gravitational waves found at last. Nature News. 2016-02-11 [2016-02-11]. doi:10.1038/nature.2016.19361. （原始内容存档于2019-09-09）.
参见Miller 2002，lectures 19 and 21。 Miller, Cole, Stellar Structure and Evolution (Lecture notes for Astronomy 606), University of Maryland, 2002 [2007-07-25], （原始内容存档于2011-12-16）
参见Carroll 2001，ch. 2。 Carroll, Sean M., The Cosmological Constant, Living Rev. Relativity, 2001, 4 [2007-07-21], （原始内容存档于2004-06-20）
参见Peebles 1966；对这些预言的解释参见Coc et al. 2004；以及Weiss 2006；对这些观测的比较参见Olive & Skillman 2004， Bania, Rood & Balser 2002，O'Meara et al. 2001以及Charbonnel & Primas 2005。 Peebles, P. J. E., Primordial Helium abundance and primordial fireball II, Astrophysical Journal, 1966, 146: 542–552 [2008-09-04], doi:10.1086/148918, （原始内容存档于2011-08-09） Coc, A.; Vangioni-Flam, E.; Descouvemont, P.; Adahchour, A.; Angulo, C., Updated Big Bang Nucleosynthesis confronted to WMAP observations and to the Abundance of Light Elements, Astrophysical Journal, 2004, 600: 544–552, doi:10.1086/380121, arXiv:astro-ph/0309480 Weiss, Achim, Elements of the past: Big Bang Nucleosynthesis and observation, Einstein Online (Max Planck Institute for Gravitational Physics), 2006 [2007-02-24], （原始内容存档于2007-02-08） Olive, K. A.; Skillman, E. A., A Realistic Determination of the Error on the Primordial Helium Abundance, Astrophysical Journal, 2004, 617: 29–49, doi:10.1086/425170, arXiv:astro-ph/0405588 Bania, T. M.; Rood, R. T.; Balser, D. S., The cosmological density of baryons from observations of 3He+ in the Milky Way, Nature, 2002, 415: 54–57, doi:10.1038/415054a O'Meara, John M.; Tytler, David; Kirkman, David; Suzuki, Nao, The Deuterium to Hydrogen Abundance Ratio Towards a Fourth QSO: HS0105+1619, Astrophysical Journal, 2001, 552: 718–730, doi:10.1086/320579, arXiv:astro-ph/0011179 Charbonnel, C.; Primas, F., The Lithium Content of the Galactic Halo Stars, Astronomy & Astrophysics, 2005, 442: 961–992, doi:10.1051/0004-6361:20042491, arXiv:astro-ph/0505247
回顾评论可见于Lahav & Suto 2004和Bertschinger 1998；更新的研究成果在Springel et al. 2005。 Lahav, Ofer; Suto, Yasushi, Measuring our Universe from Galaxy Redshift Surveys, Living Rev. Relativity, 2004, 7 [2007-08-19], （原始内容存档于2020-01-22） Bertschinger, Edmund, Simulations of structure formation in the universe, Annu. Rev. Astron. Astrophys., 1998, 36: 599–654, doi:10.1146/annurev.astro.36.1.599 Springel, Volker; White, Simon D. M.; Jenkins, Adrian; Frenk, Carlos S., Simulations of the formation, evolution and clustering of galaxies and quasars, Nature, 2005, 435: 629–636, doi:10.1038/nature03597
参见Alpher & Herman 1948，教学性的介绍参见Bergström & Goobar 2003，ch. 11；最早对微波背景辐射的观测在Penzias & Wilson 1965，通过人造卫星所作的精确测量在Mather et al. 1994 (COBE)和Bennett et al. 2003 (WMAP)。未来的观测还有可能揭示极早期宇宙诞生时就存在的引力波的一些证据；这些附加的信息包含在微波背景辐射的偏振中，参见Kamionkowski, Kosowsky & Stebbins 1997和Seljak & Zaldarriaga 1997。 Alpher, R. A.; Herman, R. C., Evolution of the universe, Nature, 1948, 162: 774–775, doi:10.1038/162774b0 Bergström, Lars; Goobar, Ariel, Cosmology and Particle Astrophysics 2nd, Wiley & Sons, 2003, ISBN 3-540-43128-4 Penzias, A. A.; Wilson, R. W., A measurement of excess antenna temperature at 4080 Mc/s, Astrophysical Journal, 1965, 142: 419–421 [2008-09-04], doi:10.1086/148307, （原始内容存档于2011-08-09） Mather, J. C.; Cheng, E. S.; Cottingham, D. A.; Eplee, R. E., Measurement of the cosmic microwave spectrum by the COBE FIRAS instrument, Astrophysical Journal, 1994, 420: 439–444 [2008-09-04], doi:10.1086/173574, （原始内容存档于2017-11-09） Bennett, C. L.; Halpern, M.; Hinshaw, G.; Jarosik, N., First Year Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe (WMAP) Observations: Preliminary Maps and Basic Results, Astrophys. J. Suppl., 2003, 148: 1–27, doi:10.1086/377253, arXiv:astro-ph/0302207 Kamionkowski, Marc; Kosowsky, Arthur; Stebbins, Albert, Statistics of Cosmic Microwave Background Polarization, Phys. Rev., 1997, D55: 7368–7388, doi:10.1103/PhysRevD.55.7368, arXiv:astro-ph/9611125 Seljak, Uros̆; Zaldarriaga, Matias, Signature of Gravity Waves in the Polarization of the Microwave Background, Phys. Rev. Lett., 1997, 78: 2054–2057, doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.78.2054, arXiv:astro-ph/9609169
参见Carroll 2001；概述可见于Caldwell 2004。对于暗能量，有些科学家也认为暗能量并非是一种新的能量形式，而是我们的宇宙学模型需要修正，参见Mannheim 2006，sec. 10；不过这不一定意味着要对广义相对论进行修正，而可以是我们对宇宙各向异性的处理方法需要修正，参见Buchert 2007。 Carroll, Sean M., The Cosmological Constant, Living Rev. Relativity, 2001, 4 [2007-07-21], （原始内容存档于2004-06-20） Caldwell, Robert R., Dark Energy, Physics World, 2004, 17(5): 37–42 [2008-09-04], doi:10.1038/nature02139, （原始内容存档于2007-07-13） Mannheim, Philip D., Alternatives to Dark Matter and Dark Energy, Prog. Part. Nucl. Phys., 2006, 56: 340–445, doi:10.1016/j.ppnp.2005.08.001, arXiv:astro-ph/0505266v2 Buchert, Thomas, Dark Energy from Structure—A Status Report, General Relativity and Gravitation, 2007, 40: 467–527, doi:10.1007/s10714-007-0554-8, arXiv:0707.2153
参见Frauendiener 2004，Wald 1984，section 11.1，以及Hawking & Ellis 1973，section 6.8 & 6.9。 Frauendiener, Jörg, Conformal Infinity, Living Rev. Relativity, 2004, 7 [2007-07-21], （原始内容存档于2020-01-22） Wald, Robert M., General Relativity, University of Chicago Press, 1984, ISBN 0-226-87033-2 Hawking, Stephen W.; Ellis, George F. R., The large scale structure of spacetime, Cambridge University Press, 1973, ISBN 0-521-09906-4
参见Thorne 1972；对更新的数值计算结果的解释可见于Berger 2002，sec. 2.1。 Thorne, Kip S., Nonspherical Gravitational Collapse—A Short Review, Klauder, J. (编), Magic without Magic, W. H. Freeman: 231–258, 1972 Berger, Beverly K., Numerical Approaches to Spacetime Singularities, Living Rev. Relativity', 2002, 5 [2007-08-04], （原始内容存档于2020-01-22）
黑洞力学定律首先是在Bardeen, Carter & Hawking 1973中描述的；一个具有教学性的演示发言可见于Carter 1979；更新的回顾评论参见Wald 2001的第二章。涵盖了所需要数学的较为全面详细的介绍参见Poisson 2004。关于彭罗斯过程参见Penrose 1969。 Bardeen, J. M.; Carter, B.; Hawking, S. W., The Four Laws of Black Hole Mechanics, Comm. Math. Phys., 1973, 31: 161–170 [2008-09-04], doi:10.1007/BF01645742, （原始内容存档于2014-07-14） Carter, Brandon, The general theory of the mechanical, electromagnetic and thermodynamic properties of black holes, Hawking, S. W.; Israel, W. (编), General Relativity, an Einstein Centenary Survey, Cambridge University Press: 294–369 and 860–863, 1979, ISBN 0-521-29928-4 Wald, Robert M., The Thermodynamics of Black Holes, Living Rev. Relativity, 2001, 4 [2007-08-08], （原始内容存档于2020-01-22） Poisson, Eric, A Relativist's Toolkit. The Mathematics of Black-Hole Mechanics, Cambridge University Press, 2004, ISBN 0-521-83091-5 Penrose, Roger, Gravitational collapse: the role of general relativity, Rivista del Nuovo Cimento, 1969, 1: 252–276
黑洞存在量子辐射的事实最早是在Hawking 1975中推导出的；一个更全面的推导可见于Wald 1975；相关回顾评论参见Wald 2001第三章。 Hawking, S. W., Particle Creation by Black Holes, Communications in Mathematical Physics, 1975, 43: 199–220, doi:10.1007/BF02345020 Wald, Robert M., On Particle Creation by Black Holes, Commun. Math. Phys., 1975, 45: 9–34, doi:10.1007/BF02345020 Wald, Robert M., The Thermodynamics of Black Holes, Living Rev. Relativity, 2001, 4 [2007-08-08], （原始内容存档于2020-01-22）
关于视界参见Rindler 2001，sec. 12.4；关于盎鲁效应参见Unruh 1976, cf. Wald 2001，chapter 3。 Rindler, Wolfgang, Relativity. Special, General and Cosmological, Oxford University Press, 2001, ISBN 0-19-850836-0 Unruh, W. G., Notes on Black Hole Evaporation, Phys. Rev. D, 1976, 14: 870–892, doi:10.1103/PhysRevD.14.870 Wald, Robert M., The Thermodynamics of Black Holes, Living Rev. Relativity, 2001, 4 [2007-08-08], （原始内容存档于2020-01-22）
BKL假说是在Belinskii, Khalatnikov & Lifschitz 1971中建立的；更新的回顾评论参见 Berger 2002，以及Garfinkle 2007。 Belinskii, V. A.; Khalatnikov, I. M.; Lifschitz, E. M., Oscillatory approach to the singular point in relativistic cosmology, Advances in Physics, 1971, 19: 525–573, doi:10.1080/00018737000101171 ; original paper in Russian: Belinsky, V. A.; Khalatnikov, I. M.; Lifshitz, E. M., Колебательный Режим Приближения К Особой Точке В Релятивистской Космологии, Uspekhi Fizicheskikh Nauk (Успехи Физических Наук), 1970,, 102(3) (11): 463–500 Berger, Beverly K., Numerical Approaches to Spacetime Singularities, Living Rev. Relativity', 2002, 5 [2007-08-04], （原始内容存档于2020-01-22） Garfinkle, David, Of singularities and breadmaking, Einstein Online, 2007 [2007-08-03], （原始内容存档于2007-08-10）
对未来奇点的约束条件自然地排除了像大爆炸奇点这样的初始奇点的存在可能，而这些奇点原则上在经过一定宇宙学上的时间尺度后，是可以被观测者看到的。宇宙监督假说首先见于Penrose 1969；教科书水平的解释见于Wald 1984，pp. 302–305。更多的数值模拟结果参见评论Berger 2002，sec. 2.1。 Penrose, Roger, Gravitational collapse: the role of general relativity, Rivista del Nuovo Cimento, 1969, 1: 252–276 Wald, Robert M., General Relativity, University of Chicago Press, 1984, ISBN 0-226-87033-2 Berger, Beverly K., Numerical Approaches to Spacetime Singularities, Living Rev. Relativity', 2002, 5 [2007-08-04], （原始内容存档于2020-01-22）
Fourès-Bruhat 1952 and Bruhat 1962；教学性介绍参见Wald 1984，ch. 10；在线的回顾评论参见Reula 1998。 Fourès-Bruhat, Yvonne, Théoréme d'existence pour certains systémes d'équations aux derivées partielles non linéaires, Acta Mathematica, 1952, 88: 141–225, doi:10.1007/BF02392131 Bruhat, Yvonne, The Cauchy Problem, Witten, Louis (编), Gravitation: An Introduction to Current Research, Wiley: 130, 1962, ISBN 9781114291669 Wald, Robert M., General Relativity, University of Chicago Press, 1984, ISBN 0-226-87033-2 Reula, Oscar A., Hyperbolic Methods for Einstein's Equations, Living Rev. Relativity, 1998, 1 [2007-08-29], （原始内容存档于2020-01-22）
这样的准局域的质量-能量定义包括霍金能量、Geroch能量，以及彭罗斯通过扭量方法定义的准局域能量-动量，参考评论Szabados 2004。 Szabados, László B., Quasi-Local Energy-Momentum and Angular Momentum in GR, Living Rev. Relativity, 2004, 7 [2007-08-23], （原始内容存档于2020-01-22）
参见Wald 2001第三章。 Wald, Robert M., The Thermodynamics of Black Holes, Living Rev. Relativity, 2001, 4 [2007-08-08], （原始内容存档于2020-01-22）
本科生水平的弦论介绍参见Zwiebach 2004；更全面的介绍参见Polchinski 1998a和Polchinski 1998b。 Zwiebach, Barton, A First Course in String Theory, Cambridge University Press, 2004, ISBN 0-521-83143-1 Polchinski, Joseph, String Theory Vol. I: An Introduction to the Bosonic String, Cambridge University Press, 1998a [2008-09-04], ISBN 0-521-63303-6, （原始内容存档于2021-01-25） Polchinski, Joseph, String Theory Vol. II: Superstring Theory and Beyond, Cambridge University Press, 1998b, ISBN 0-521-63304-4
回顾评论参见Thiemann 2006；更详细的解释参见Rovelli 1998，Ashtekar & Lewandowski 2004以及讲义Thiemann 2003。 Thiemann, Thomas, Loop Quantum Gravity: An Inside View, 2006, arXiv:hep-th/0608210 Rovelli, Carlo, Loop Quantum Gravity, Living Rev. Relativity, 1998, 1 [2008-03-13], （原始内容存档于2020-01-22） Ashtekar, Abhay; Lewandowski, Jerzy, Background Independent Quantum Gravity: A Status Report, Class. Quant. Grav., 2004, 21: R53–R152, doi:10.1088/0264-9381/21/15/R01, arXiv:gr-qc/0404018 Thiemann, Thomas, Lectures on Loop Quantum Gravity, Lect. Notes Phys., 2003, 631: 41–135
参见Loll 1998。 Loll, Renate, Discrete Approaches to Quantum Gravity in Four Dimensions, Living Rev. Relativity, 1998, 1 [2008-03-09], （原始内容存档于2020-01-22）
参见Friedrich 2005。 Friedrich, Helmut, Is general relativity `essentially understood'?, Annalen Phys., 2005, 15: 84–108 [2008-09-04], doi:10.1002/andp.200510173, （原始内容存档于2015-02-10）
参见Bartusiak 2000了解到2000年为止的引力波探测，更新的结果可见于各大引力波探测计划主页，例如GEO 600 （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）和LIGO （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）。 Bartusiak, Marcia, Einstein's Unfinished Symphony: Listening to the Sounds of Space-Time, Berkley, 2000, ISBN 978-0-425-18620-6
致密双星旋近的引力波偏振的相关论文参见Blanchet et al. 2008和Arun et al. 2007；致密双星的研究回顾评论参见Blanchet 2006 和Futamase & Itoh 2006；广义相对论的实验验证概述参见Will 2006。 Blanchet, L.; Faye, G.; Iyer, B. R.; Sinha, S., The third post-Newtonian gravitational wave polarisations and associated spherical harmonic modes for inspiralling compact binaries in quasi-circular orbits, 2008, arXiv:0802.1249 Arun, K.G.; Blanchet, L.; Iyer, B. R.; Qusailah, M. S. S., Inspiralling compact binaries in quasi-elliptical orbits: The complete 3PN energy flux, 2007, arXiv:0711.0302 Blanchet, Luc, Gravitational Radiation from Post-Newtonian Sources and Inspiralling Compact Binaries, Living Rev. Relativity, 2006, 9 [2007-08-07], （原始内容存档于2019-09-15） Futamase, T.; Itoh, Y., The Post-Newtonian Approximation for Relativistic Compact Binaries, Living Rev. Relativity, 2006, 10 [2008-02-29], （原始内容存档于2019-09-15） Will, Clifford M., The Confrontation between General Relativity and Experiment, Living Rev. Relativity, 2006 [2007-06-12], （原始内容存档于2019-12-10）
例如，請參閱網路評論期刊Living Reviews in Relativity （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）

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本科生水平的弦论介绍参见Zwiebach 2004；更全面的介绍参见Polchinski 1998a和Polchinski 1998b。 Zwiebach, Barton, A First Course in String Theory, Cambridge University Press, 2004, ISBN 0-521-83143-1 Polchinski, Joseph, String Theory Vol. I: An Introduction to the Bosonic String, Cambridge University Press, 1998a [2008-09-04], ISBN 0-521-63303-6, （原始内容存档于2021-01-25） Polchinski, Joseph, String Theory Vol. II: Superstring Theory and Beyond, Cambridge University Press, 1998b, ISBN 0-521-63304-4