Hindus (English Wikipedia)

"The World Factbook – Central Intelligence Agency". cia.gov. 21 June 2022. Archived from the original on 8 November 2021. Retrieved 24 January 2021.

books.google.com

von Stietencron (2005, p. 229): For more than 100 years the word Hindu (plural) continued to denote the Indians in general. But when, from AD 712 onwards, Muslims began to settle permanently in the Indus valley and to make converts among low-caste Hindus, Persian authors distinguished between Hindus and Muslims in India: Hindus were Indians other than Muslim. We know that Persian scholars were able to distinguish a number of religions among the Hindus. But when Europeans started to use the term Hindoo, they applied it to the non-Muslim masses of India without those scholarly differentiations. von Stietencron, Heinrich (2005), "Hinduism: On the Proper Use of a Deceptive Term", Hindu Myth, Hindu History, Religion, Art, and Politics, Orient Blackswan, pp. 227–248, ISBN 978-81-7824-122-7
Lorenzen (2010), p. 29: "When it comes to early sources written in Indian languages (and also Persian and Arabic), the word 'Hindu' is used in a clearly religious sense in a great number of texts at least as early as the sixteenth century. (...) Although al-Biruni's original Arabic text only uses a term equivalent to the religion of the people of India, his description of Hindu religion is in fact remarkably similar to those of nineteenth-century European orientalists. For his part Vidyapati, in his Apabhransha text Kirtilata, makes use of the phrase 'Hindu and Turk dharmas' in a clearly religious sense and highlights the local conflicts between the two communities. In the early sixteenth century texts attributed to Kabir, the references to 'Hindus' and to 'Turks' or 'Muslims' (musalamans) in a clearly religious context are numerous and unambiguous." Lorenzen, David N. (2010), "Hindus and others", in Esther Bloch; Marianne Keppens; Rajaram Hegde (eds.), Rethinking Religion in India: The Colonial Construction of Hinduism, Routledge, pp. 25–40, ISBN 978-1-135-18279-3, archived from the original on 7 January 2021, retrieved 23 September 2020
Hatcher 2015, pp. 4–5, 69–71, 150–152. Hatcher, Brian A. (2015), Hinduism in the Modern World, Routledge, ISBN 978-1-135-04631-6
Moriz Winternitz (1996). A History of Indian Literature. Motilal Banarsidass. pp. xv–xvi. ISBN 978-81-208-0264-3. Archived from the original on 26 December 2023. Retrieved 16 June 2020.
Gyanshruti, Srividyananda (2007). Yajna, a Comprehensive Survey. Yoga Publications Trust. p. 338. ISBN 978-81-86336-47-2.
Lloyd Ridgeon (2003). Major World Religions: From Their Origins to the Present. Routledge. pp. 10–11. ISBN 978-1-134-42935-6., Quote: "It is often said that Hinduism is very ancient, and in a sense this is true (...). It was formed by adding the English suffix -ism, of Greek origin, to the word Hindu, of Persian origin; it was about the same time that the word Hindu, without the suffix -ism, came to be used mainly as a religious term. (...) The name Hindu was first a geographical name, not a religious one, and it originated in the languages of Iran, not of India. (...) They referred to the non-Muslim majority, together with their culture, as 'Hindu'. (...) Since the people called Hindu differed from Muslims most notably in religion, the word came to have religious implications, and to denote a group of people who were identifiable by their Hindu religion. (...) However, it is a religious term that the word Hindu is now used in English, and Hinduism is the name of a religion, although, as we have seen, we should beware of any false impression of uniformity that this might give us."
Pennington, Brian K. (2005), Was Hinduism Invented?: Britons, Indians, and the Colonial Construction of Religion, Oxford University Press, pp. 111–118, ISBN 978-0-19-803729-3, archived from the original on 31 March 2024, retrieved 31 July 2018
Lorenzen 2006, pp. xx, 2, 13–26. Lorenzen, David N. (2006), "Who invented Hinduism?", in Davaid N. Lorentzen (ed.), Who Invented Hinduism? Essays on Religion in History, Yoda Press, pp. 1–36, ISBN 81-902272-6-2, archived from the original on 14 April 2021, retrieved 23 September 2020
Mihir Bose (2006). The Magic of Indian Cricket: Cricket and Society in India. Routledge. pp. 1–3. ISBN 978-1-134-24924-4.
Hawley, John Stratton; Narayanan, Vasudha (2006), The Life of Hinduism, University of California Press, pp. 10–11, ISBN 978-0-520-24914-1
Lorenzen 2006, pp. 24–33 Lorenzen, David N. (2006), "Who invented Hinduism?", in Davaid N. Lorentzen (ed.), Who Invented Hinduism? Essays on Religion in History, Yoda Press, pp. 1–36, ISBN 81-902272-6-2, archived from the original on 14 April 2021, retrieved 23 September 2020
Lorenzen 2010, p. 29. Lorenzen, David N. (2010), "Hindus and others", in Esther Bloch; Marianne Keppens; Rajaram Hegde (eds.), Rethinking Religion in India: The Colonial Construction of Hinduism, Routledge, pp. 25–40, ISBN 978-1-135-18279-3, archived from the original on 7 January 2021, retrieved 23 September 2020
Lorenzen 2006, p. 15. Lorenzen, David N. (2006), "Who invented Hinduism?", in Davaid N. Lorentzen (ed.), Who Invented Hinduism? Essays on Religion in History, Yoda Press, pp. 1–36, ISBN 81-902272-6-2, archived from the original on 14 April 2021, retrieved 23 September 2020
Sharma 2008, pp. 25–26. Sharma, Arvind (2008), "The Hermeneutics of the word "Religion" and Its Implications for the World of Indian Religions", in Sherma, Rita; Sharma, Arvind (eds.), Hermeneutics and Hindu Thought: Toward a Fusion of Horizons, Springer Science & Business Media, pp. 19–32, ISBN 978-1-4020-8192-7
Sridharan 2000, pp. 13–14. Sridharan, Kripa (2000), "Grasping the Nettle: Indian Nationalism and Globalization", in Leo Suryadinata (ed.), Nationalism and globalization: east and west, Institute of Southeast Asian Studies, pp. 294–318, ISBN 978-981-230-078-2, ... The term Hindutva equates religious and national identity: an Indian is a Hindu ... 'the Indian Muslims are not aliens ethnically. They are flesh of our flesh and blood of our blood' ...
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Thapar 2003, p. 38. Thapar, Romula (2003), The Penguin History of Early India: From the Origins to AD 1300, Penguin Books India, ISBN 978-0-14-302989-2, archived from the original on 23 December 2023, retrieved 2 October 2020
Wilfred Cantwell Smith 1981, p. 62. Smith, Wilfred Cantwell (1981), On Understanding Islam: Selected Studies, Walter de Gruyter, ISBN 978-90-279-3448-2
Lorenzen 2006, p. 33. Lorenzen, David N. (2006), "Who invented Hinduism?", in Davaid N. Lorentzen (ed.), Who Invented Hinduism? Essays on Religion in History, Yoda Press, pp. 1–36, ISBN 81-902272-6-2, archived from the original on 14 April 2021, retrieved 23 September 2020
Lorenzen 2006, p. 31. Lorenzen, David N. (2006), "Who invented Hinduism?", in Davaid N. Lorentzen (ed.), Who Invented Hinduism? Essays on Religion in History, Yoda Press, pp. 1–36, ISBN 81-902272-6-2, archived from the original on 14 April 2021, retrieved 23 September 2020
Esther Bloch; Marianne Keppens; Rajaram Hegde, eds. (2009). Rethinking Religion in India: The Colonial Construction of Hinduism. Routledge. p. 29. ISBN 9781135182793. Archived from the original on 18 September 2023. Retrieved 9 July 2023. For his part, Vidyapati, in his Apabhransha text Kirtilata, makes use of the phrase 'Hindu and Turk dharmas' in a clearly religious sense and highlights the local conflicts between the two communities.
Rajat Kanta Ray (2003). The Felt Community. Oxford University Press. p. 189. ISBN 978-0-19-565863-7. Archived from the original on 18 September 2023. Retrieved 9 July 2023. The Kirtilata is said to have been composed in 1380.
Lorenzen 2006, pp. 32–33. Lorenzen, David N. (2006), "Who invented Hinduism?", in Davaid N. Lorentzen (ed.), Who Invented Hinduism? Essays on Religion in History, Yoda Press, pp. 1–36, ISBN 81-902272-6-2, archived from the original on 14 April 2021, retrieved 23 September 2020
Wheeler Thackston (1999). The Jahangirnama: Memoirs of Jahangir, Emperor of India. Oxford University Press. p. 59. ISBN 978-0-19-512718-8. Archived from the original on 31 March 2024. Retrieved 16 February 2022.
R. Fraser, M. Hammond (10 July 2008). Books Without Borders, Volume 2: Perspectives from South Asia. Springer. p. 21. ISBN 978-0230289130. Archived from the original on 18 September 2023. Retrieved 9 July 2023. The Sikhs arose initially as a militant sect of Hinduism in opposition and resistance to Muslim and especially Mughal rule and its discriminatory and oppressive policies and practices. It was only in the twentieth century that they legally and formally separated from Hinduism to constitute a distinct religion followed by about 1 per cent of the current population of India
Flood, Gavin (7 February 2003). The Blackwell Companion to Hinduism. Wiley. ISBN 978-0-631-21535-6. Archived from the original on 26 January 2021. Retrieved 2 October 2020 – via Google Books.
Tanweer Fazal (1 August 2014). "Nation-state" and Minority Rights in India: Comparative Perspectives on Muslim and Sikh Identities. Routledge. pp. 20, 112–114. ISBN 978-1-317-75179-3.
Kevin Boyle; Juliet Sheen (7 March 2013). Freedom of Religion and Belief: A World Report. Routledge. pp. 191–192. ISBN 978-1-134-72229-7.
Knut A. Jacobsen (2013). Pilgrimage in the Hindu Tradition: Salvific Space. Routledge. pp. 122–129. ISBN 978-0-415-59038-9.
André Padoux (2017). The Hindu Tantric World: An Overview. University of Chicago Press. pp. 136–149. ISBN 978-0-226-42412-5.
Linda Kay Davidson; David Martin Gitlitz (2002). Pilgrimage: From the Ganges to Graceland; an Encyclopedia. ABC-CLIO. pp. 239–244. ISBN 978-1-57607-004-8. Archived from the original on 4 July 2023. Retrieved 24 August 2017.
Diana L Eck (2012). India: A Sacred Geography. Harmony. pp. 34–40, 55–58, 88. ISBN 978-0-385-53191-7.
Surinder M. Bhardwaj (1983). Hindu Places of Pilgrimage in India: A Study in Cultural Geography. University of California Press. pp. 75–79. ISBN 978-0-520-04951-2. Archived from the original on 31 March 2024. Retrieved 24 August 2017.
Surinder M. Bhardwaj (1983). Hindu Places of Pilgrimage in India: A Study in Cultural Geography. University of California Press. pp. 58–79. ISBN 978-0-520-04951-2. Archived from the original on 31 March 2024. Retrieved 24 August 2017.
André Wink (2002). Al-Hind, the Making of the Indo-Islamic World: Early Medieval India and the Expansion of Islam 7Th-11th Centuries. BRILL Academic. pp. 154–161, 203–205. ISBN 978-0-391-04173-8.
André Wink (2002). Al-Hind, the Making of the Indo-Islamic World: Early Medieval India and the Expansion of Islam 7Th-11th Centuries. BRILL Academic. pp. 162–163, 184–186. ISBN 978-0-391-04173-8.
Victoria Schofield (2010). Afghan Frontier: At the Crossroads of Conflict. Tauris. p. 25. ISBN 978-1-84885-188-7.
Tapan Raychaudhuri; Irfan Habib (1982). Cambridge Economic History of India Vol-1. Cambridge University Press. p. 91. ISBN 978-81-250-2730-0., Quote: "When Timur invaded India in 1398–99, collection of slaves formed an important object for his army. 100,000 Hindu slaves had been seized by his soldiers and camp followers. Even a pious saint had gathered together fifteen slaves. Regrettably, all had to be slaughtered before the attack on Delhi for fear that they might rebel. But after the occupation of Delhi the inhabitants were brought out and distributed as slaves among Timur's nobles, the captives including several thousand artisans and professional people."
Farooqui Salma Ahmed (2011). A Comprehensive History of Medieval India: Twelfth to the Mid-Eighteenth Century. Pearson. p. 105. ISBN 978-81-317-3202-1.
Hermann Kulke; Dietmar Rothermund (2004). A History of India. Routledge. p. 180. ISBN 978-0-415-32919-4.
David N. Lorenzen (2006). Who Invented Hinduism: Essays on Religion in History. Yoda. p. 50. ISBN 978-81-902272-6-1.
Avari 2013, p. 115: citing a 2000 study, writes "Aurangzeb was perhaps no more culpable than most of the sultans before him; they desecrated the temples associated with Hindu power, not all temples. It is worth noting that, in contrast to the traditional claim of hundreds of Hindu temples having been destroyed by Aurangzeb, a recent study suggests a modest figure of just fifteen destructions."

In contrast to Avari, the historian Abraham Eraly estimates Aurangzeb era destruction to be significantly higher; "in 1670, all temples around Ujjain were destroyed"; and later, "300 temples were destroyed in and around Chitor, Udaipur and Jaipur" among other Hindu temples destroyed elsewhere in campaigns through 1705.^[173]

The persecution during the Islamic period targeted non-Hindus as well. Avari writes, "Aurangzeb's religious policy caused friction between him and the ninth Sikh guru, Tegh Bahadur. In both Punjab and Kashmir the Sikh leader was roused to action by Aurangzeb's excessively zealous Islamic policies. Seized and taken to Delhi, he was called upon by Aurangzeb to embrace Islam and, on refusal, was tortured for five days and then beheaded in November 1675. Two of the ten Sikh gurus thus died as martyrs at the hands of the Mughals. (Avari (2013), page 155) Avari, Burjor (2013). Islamic Civilization in South Asia: A History of Muslim Power and Presence in the Indian Subcontinent. Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-58061-8. Archived from the original on 28 March 2023. Retrieved 24 August 2017.
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Kate Brittlebank (1997). Tipu Sultan's Search for Legitimacy: Islam and Kingship in a Hindu Domain. Oxford University Press. pp. 12, 34–35. ISBN 978-0-19-563977-3.
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Paul A. Marshall (2000). Religious Freedom in the World. Rowman & Littlefield. pp. 88–89. ISBN 978-0-7425-6213-4.
Jawad Syed; Edwina Pio; Tahir Kamran; et al. (2016). Faith-Based Violence and Deobandi Militancy in Pakistan. Palgrave Macmillan. pp. 49–50. ISBN 978-1-349-94966-3. Archived from the original on 9 February 2024. Retrieved 11 July 2017.
Farahnaz Ispahani (2017). Purifying the Land of the Pure: A History of Pakistan's Religious Minorities. Oxford University Press. pp. 28–37. ISBN 978-0-19-062167-4.
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Sharmaa 2002, p. 2" An inscription of Darius I which is “considered to have been carved between c. 518 and 515 BC, adds Hidu [Hindu] to the list of subject countries” (Raychaud- huri 1996:584). Similarly, clay tablets from Persepolis, in Elamite, “datable to different years from the thirteenth to the twenty-eighth reg- nal year of Darius” mention Hi-in-tu (India) (ib. 585). These examples, establishing the primacy of the territorial meaning, are confirmed by Herodotus (Historiae III, 91, 94, 98–102) in his employment of the word as 'Indoi' in Greek, which, “lacking an alphabetic character of the sound of h, did not in this case preserve it” (Narayanan 1996:14)." Sharmaa, Arvind (2002), "On Hindu, Hindustān, Hinduism and Hindutva", Numen, 49 (1), Brill: 1–36, doi:10.1163/15685270252772759, JSTOR 3270470
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Sharmaa 2002, p. 3" The word Hindu derives, by common consent, from the word Sindhu. It is remarkable that the direction of transformation of Sindhu – Hindu – Ind is paralleled in the account of the Buddhist pilgrim Xanzuang (= Hiuen Tsang, 7th century), by the words Shin-tu-Hien-tau-Tien-chu, and even more surprising that it becomes In-tu, at which point its connotation overflows into the religious, at least in Xanzuang's interpretation of it (Beal 1969 [1884]:69)" Sharmaa, Arvind (2002), "On Hindu, Hindustān, Hinduism and Hindutva", Numen, 49 (1), Brill: 1–36, doi:10.1163/15685270252772759, JSTOR 3270470
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Sharmaa 2002, p. 2" An inscription of Darius I which is “considered to have been carved between c. 518 and 515 BC, adds Hidu [Hindu] to the list of subject countries” (Raychaud- huri 1996:584). Similarly, clay tablets from Persepolis, in Elamite, “datable to different years from the thirteenth to the twenty-eighth reg- nal year of Darius” mention Hi-in-tu (India) (ib. 585). These examples, establishing the primacy of the territorial meaning, are confirmed by Herodotus (Historiae III, 91, 94, 98–102) in his employment of the word as 'Indoi' in Greek, which, “lacking an alphabetic character of the sound of h, did not in this case preserve it” (Narayanan 1996:14)." Sharmaa, Arvind (2002), "On Hindu, Hindustān, Hinduism and Hindutva", Numen, 49 (1), Brill: 1–36, doi:10.1163/15685270252772759, JSTOR 3270470
Sharmaa 2002, p. 1-36. Sharmaa, Arvind (2002), "On Hindu, Hindustān, Hinduism and Hindutva", Numen, 49 (1), Brill: 1–36, doi:10.1163/15685270252772759, JSTOR 3270470
Sharmaa 2002, p. 3" The word Hindu derives, by common consent, from the word Sindhu. It is remarkable that the direction of transformation of Sindhu – Hindu – Ind is paralleled in the account of the Buddhist pilgrim Xanzuang (= Hiuen Tsang, 7th century), by the words Shin-tu-Hien-tau-Tien-chu, and even more surprising that it becomes In-tu, at which point its connotation overflows into the religious, at least in Xanzuang's interpretation of it (Beal 1969 [1884]:69)" Sharmaa, Arvind (2002), "On Hindu, Hindustān, Hinduism and Hindutva", Numen, 49 (1), Brill: 1–36, doi:10.1163/15685270252772759, JSTOR 3270470
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In contrast to Avari, the historian Abraham Eraly estimates Aurangzeb era destruction to be significantly higher; "in 1670, all temples around Ujjain were destroyed"; and later, "300 temples were destroyed in and around Chitor, Udaipur and Jaipur" among other Hindu temples destroyed elsewhere in campaigns through 1705.^[173]

The persecution during the Islamic period targeted non-Hindus as well. Avari writes, "Aurangzeb's religious policy caused friction between him and the ninth Sikh guru, Tegh Bahadur. In both Punjab and Kashmir the Sikh leader was roused to action by Aurangzeb's excessively zealous Islamic policies. Seized and taken to Delhi, he was called upon by Aurangzeb to embrace Islam and, on refusal, was tortured for five days and then beheaded in November 1675. Two of the ten Sikh gurus thus died as martyrs at the hands of the Mughals. (Avari (2013), page 155) Avari, Burjor (2013). Islamic Civilization in South Asia: A History of Muslim Power and Presence in the Indian Subcontinent. Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-58061-8. Archived from the original on 28 March 2023. Retrieved 24 August 2017.
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