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According to Schmandt-Besserat 1981, these clay containers contained tokens, the total of which were the count of objects being transferred. The containers thus served as something of a bill of lading or an accounts book. In order to avoid breaking open the containers, first, clay impressions of the tokens were placed on the outside of the containers, for the count; the shapes of the impressions were abstracted into stylized marks; finally, the abstract marks were systematically used as numerals; these numerals were finally formalized as numbers. Eventually (Schmandt-Besserat estimates it took 5000 years.[5]) the marks on the outside of the containers were all that were needed to convey the count, and the clay containers evolved into clay tablets with marks for the count. Schmandt-Besserat, Denise (1981), "Decipherment of the earliest tablets", Science, 211 (4479): 283–285, Bibcode:1981Sci...211..283S, doi:10.1126/science.211.4479.283, PMID17748027
V. M. Wolontis (18 August 1955) "A Complete Floating-Decimal Interpretive System for the I.B.M. 650 Magnetic Drum Calculator—Case 20878" Bell Telephone Laboratories Technical Memorandum MM-114-37, Reported in IBM Technical Newsletter No. 11, March 1956, as referenced in "Wolontis-Bell Interpreter". Annals of the History of Computing. 8 (1). IEEE: 74–76. January–March 1986. Bibcode:1986IAHC....8a..74.. doi:10.1109/MAHC.1986.10008. S2CID36692260.
Juskalian, Russ (22 February 2017). "Practical Quantum Computers". MIT Technology Review. Archived from the original on 2021-06-23. Retrieved 2020-12-02.
According to Schmandt-Besserat 1981, these clay containers contained tokens, the total of which were the count of objects being transferred. The containers thus served as something of a bill of lading or an accounts book. In order to avoid breaking open the containers, first, clay impressions of the tokens were placed on the outside of the containers, for the count; the shapes of the impressions were abstracted into stylized marks; finally, the abstract marks were systematically used as numerals; these numerals were finally formalized as numbers. Eventually (Schmandt-Besserat estimates it took 5000 years.[5]) the marks on the outside of the containers were all that were needed to convey the count, and the clay containers evolved into clay tablets with marks for the count. Schmandt-Besserat, Denise (1981), "Decipherment of the earliest tablets", Science, 211 (4479): 283–285, Bibcode:1981Sci...211..283S, doi:10.1126/science.211.4479.283, PMID17748027
Guarnieri, M. (2012). "The Age of Vacuum Tubes: Merging with Digital Computing [Historical]". IEEE Industrial Electronics Magazine. 6 (3): 52–55. doi:10.1109/MIE.2012.2207830. S2CID41800914.
V. M. Wolontis (18 August 1955) "A Complete Floating-Decimal Interpretive System for the I.B.M. 650 Magnetic Drum Calculator—Case 20878" Bell Telephone Laboratories Technical Memorandum MM-114-37, Reported in IBM Technical Newsletter No. 11, March 1956, as referenced in "Wolontis-Bell Interpreter". Annals of the History of Computing. 8 (1). IEEE: 74–76. January–March 1986. Bibcode:1986IAHC....8a..74.. doi:10.1109/MAHC.1986.10008. S2CID36692260.
Wells, Benjamin (18 November 2010). "Unwinding performance and power on Colossus, an unconventional computer". Natural Computing. 10 (4). Springer Science and Business Media LLC: 1383–1405. doi:10.1007/s11047-010-9225-x. ISSN1567-7818. S2CID7492074.
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Hill, Donald Routledge (May 1991). "Mechanical Engineering in the Medieval Near East". Scientific American. pp. 64–69. (cf. Hill, Donald Routledge. "IX. Mechanical Engineering". History of Sciences in the Islamic World. Archived from the original on 2007-12-25.)
"The Modern History of Computing". Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. 2017. Archived from the original on 2010-07-12. Retrieved 2014-01-07.
Small, Albert W. (December 1944), The Special Fish Report, College Campus Washington: The American National Archive (NARA), archived from the original on 2011-05-15, retrieved 2019-01-11
EDSAC 99: 15–16 April 1999(PDF), University of Cambridge Computer Laboratory, 6 May 1999, pp. 68–69, archived(PDF) from the original on 2020-09-26, retrieved 2013-06-29
Campbell-Kelly, Martin (July 2001). "Tutorial Guide to the EDSAC Simulator"(PDF). Department of Computer Science, University of Warwick. Archived from the original(PDF) on 2015-12-22. Retrieved 2016-11-18. • "Tutorial Guide to the EDSAC Simulator"(PDF). The EDSAC Replica Project, The National Museum of Computing. March 2018. Archived(PDF) from the original on 2015-12-22. Retrieved 2020-12-02.
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Shankland, Stephen (30 May 2008). "Google spotlights data center inner workings". CNET. Archived from the original on 2014-08-18. Retrieved 2008-05-31. "If you're running 10,000 machines, something is going to die every day." —Jeff Dean of Google.
Juskalian, Russ (22 February 2017). "Practical Quantum Computers". MIT Technology Review. Archived from the original on 2021-06-23. Retrieved 2020-12-02.
Report of the Commissioner of Labor In Charge of The Eleventh Census to the Secretary of the Interior for the Fiscal Year Ending June 30, 1895. Washington, DC: United States Government Publishing Office. 29 July 1895. p. 9. hdl:2027/osu.32435067619882. OCLC867910652. "You may confidently look for the rapid reduction of the force of this office after the 1st of October, and the entire cessation of clerical work during the present calendar year. ... The condition of the work of the Census Division and the condition of the final reports show clearly that the work of the Eleventh Census will be completed at least two years earlier than was the work of the Tenth Census." — Carroll D. Wright, Commissioner of Labor in Charge
Eckert 1940, pp. 101–114. Eckert, Wallace (1940), "XII: "The Computation of Planetary Perturbations"", Punched Card Methods in Scientific Computation, Thomas J. Watson Astronomical Computing Bureau, Columbia University, pp. 101–114, hdl:2027/uc1.b3621946, OCLC2275308
Wells, Benjamin (18 November 2010). "Unwinding performance and power on Colossus, an unconventional computer". Natural Computing. 10 (4). Springer Science and Business Media LLC: 1383–1405. doi:10.1007/s11047-010-9225-x. ISSN1567-7818. S2CID7492074.
