Race and crime in the United States (English Wikipedia)

Analysis of information sources in references of the Wikipedia article "Race and crime in the United States" in English language version.

refsWebsite

Global rank English rank

52doi.org

2^nd place

29semanticscholar.org

11^th place

8^th place

23worldcat.org

5^th place

14nih.gov

4^th place

10fbi.gov

881^st place

611^th place

7harvard.edu

18^th place

17^th place

6jstor.org

26^th place

20^th place

5ojp.gov

8,153^rd place

4,786^th place

4web.archive.org

1^st place

4washingtonpost.com

34^th place

27^th place

4bjs.gov

low place

9,333^rd place

3books.google.com

3^rd place

3cdc.gov

218^th place

212^th place

3psu.edu

207^th place

136^th place

2sciencedirect.com

149^th place

178^th place

2umich.edu

459^th place

360^th place

1oup.com

485^th place

440^th place

1arxiv.org

69^th place

59^th place

1cnn.com

28^th place

26^th place

1cleveland.com

546^th place

326^th place

1aclu.org

5,482^nd place

3,140^th place

1ssrn.com

703^rd place

501^st place

1census.gov

45^th place

41^st place

1ojjdp.gov

low place

1murderdata.org

low place

1columbia.edu

488^th place

374^th place

1archive.org

6^th place

1hrw.org

729^th place

650^th place

1aa.com.tr

754^th place

1,313^th place

1tandfonline.com

507^th place

429^th place

1ucsc.edu

3,619^th place

2,621^st place

1ebscohost.com

1,786^th place

1,096^th place

1nber.org

2,969^th place

1,994^th place

1umd.edu

1,747^th place

1,277^th place

1critcrim.org

low place

1upenn.edu

702^nd place

520^th place

1researchgate.net

120^th place

125^th place

1nmcsap.org

low place

1hoplofobia.info

low place

1vox.com

484^th place

323^rd place

aa.com.tr

"Racial disparities in US prisons decline: study". www.aa.com.tr.

aclu.org

"The War on Marijuana Has a Latino Data Problem". American Civil Liberties Union. June 14, 2013. Retrieved December 6, 2015.

archive.org

Bennett, Wayne (2006). Criminal Investigation. Cengage Learning. p. 358. ISBN 978-0495093404.

arxiv.org

Pierson, Emma; Simoiu, Camelia; Overgoor, Jan; Corbett-Davies, Sam; Jenson, Daniel; Shoemaker, Amy; Ramachandran, Vignesh; Barghouty, Phoebe; Phillips, Cheryl; Shroff, Ravi; Goel, Sharad (May 4, 2020). "A large-scale analysis of racial disparities in police stops across the United States". Nature Human Behaviour. 4 (7): 736–745. arXiv:1706.05678. doi:10.1038/s41562-020-0858-1. ISSN 2397-3374. PMID 32367028.

bjs.gov

"Carjacking, 1993-2002" (PDF). p. 2.
https://www.bjs.gov/content/pub/pdf/p19.pdf ^{[bare URL PDF]}
https://www.bjs.gov/content/pub/pdf/p09.pdf ^{[bare URL PDF]}
https://www.bjs.gov/content/pub/pdf/ji18.pdf ^{[bare URL PDF]}

books.google.com

Engel, Robin S. (2014). Bucerius, Sandra (ed.). The Oxford Handbook of Ethnicity, Crime, and Immigration. Oxford University Press. p. 147. ISBN 9780199859016.
Barrett, Kimberly; George, William H. (2005). Race, culture, psychology, and law By Kimberly Barrett, William George pg. 396. ISBN 9780761926627. Retrieved October 8, 2014.
Covington (1995:182-183). The work referred to is The Subculture of Violence: Towards an Integrated Theory in Criminology by Wolfgang & Ferracuti (1967). See also Hawkins (1983:247-248), Gabbidon & Greene (2005a:75-78). For a general review, see Gabbidon (2007:91–100), Clevenger (2009:780-783).

cdc.gov

webappa.cdc.gov

"WISQARS Nonfatal Injury Reports". webappa.cdc.gov. December 2, 2021.
"WISQARS Fatal Injury Reports". webappa.cdc.gov. December 2, 2021.

ftp.cdc.gov

"Data Finder - Health, United States - Products". www.cdc.gov. March 31, 2020. Retrieved September 27, 2020.

census.gov

"Estimates and Projections by Age, Sex, Race/Ethnicity - The 2012 Statistical Abstract - U.S. Census Bureau". Census.gov. Retrieved August 15, 2013.

cleveland.com

Smith, Troy L. "Stop using 'Black-on-Black' crime to deflect away from police brutality". cleveland.com. Retrieved June 16, 2020.

cnn.com

Hanna, Jason; Park, Madison (January 13, 2017). "Chicago police use excessive force, DOJ finds". CNN. Retrieved January 13, 2017.

columbia.edu

academiccommons.columbia.edu

Flaherty, Brendan; Sethi, Rajiv (December 23, 2004). "Racial Stereotypes and Robbery". Columbia University: 2–3. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)

critcrim.org

"critcrim.org". critcrim.org. October 20, 2000. Retrieved August 15, 2013.

doi.org

Krivo, Lauren J.; Peterson, Ruth D. (2000). "The Structural Context of Homicide: Accounting for Racial Differences in Process". American Sociological Review. 65 (4): 547–559. doi:10.2307/2657382. ISSN 0003-1224. JSTOR 2657382.
Ulmer, Jeffery T.; Harris, Casey T.; Steffensmeier, Darrell (2012). "Racial and Ethnic Disparities in Structural Disadvantage and Crime: White, Black, and Hispanic Comparisons*". Social Science Quarterly. 93 (3): 799–819. doi:10.1111/j.1540-6237.2012.00868.x. ISSN 1540-6237. PMC 4097310. PMID 25035523.
Sampson, Robert J. (September 1987). "Urban Black Violence: The Effect of Male Joblessness and Family Disruption". American Journal of Sociology. 93 (2): 348–382. doi:10.1086/228748. JSTOR 2779588. S2CID 144729803.
Shihadeh, Edward S.; Shrum, Wesley (July 1, 2004). "Serious Crime in Urban Neighborhoods: Is There a Race Effect?". Sociological Spectrum. 24 (4): 507–533. doi:10.1080/02732170490459502. ISSN 0273-2173. S2CID 145654909.
Light, Michael T.; Ulmer, Jeffery T. (April 1, 2016). "Explaining the Gaps in White, Black, and Hispanic Violence since 1990: Accounting for Immigration, Incarceration, and Inequality". American Sociological Review. 81 (2): 290–315. doi:10.1177/0003122416635667. ISSN 0003-1224. S2CID 53346960.
Boutwell, Brian B.; Nelson, Erik J.; Emo, Brett; Vaughn, Michael G.; Schootman, Mario; Rosenfeld, Richard; Lewis, Roger (July 1, 2016). "The intersection of aggregate-level lead exposure and crime". Environmental Research. 148: 79–85. Bibcode:2016ER....148...79B. doi:10.1016/j.envres.2016.03.023. ISSN 0013-9351. PMID 27035924.
Feldmeyer, Ben (September 1, 2010). "The Effects of Racial/Ethnic Segregation on Latino and Black Homicide". The Sociological Quarterly. 51 (4): 600–623. doi:10.1111/j.1533-8525.2010.01185.x. ISSN 0038-0253. PMID 20939127. S2CID 19551967.
O’Flaherty, Brendan; Sethi, Rajiv (November 1, 2007). "Crime and segregation". Journal of Economic Behavior & Organization. 64 (3): 391–405. doi:10.1016/j.jebo.2006.07.005. ISSN 0167-2681.
Shihadeh, Edward S.; Flynn, Nicole (June 1, 1996). "Segregation and Crime: The Effect of Black Social Isolation on the Rates of Black Urban Violence". Social Forces. 74 (4): 1325–1352. doi:10.1093/sf/74.4.1325. ISSN 0037-7732.
Hinton, Elizabeth; Cook, DeAnza (2021). "The Mass Criminalization of Black Americans: A Historical Overview". Annual Review of Criminology. 4 (1): annurev–criminol–060520-033306. doi:10.1146/annurev-criminol-060520-033306. ISSN 2572-4568.
Drakulich, Kevin; Rodriguez-Whitney, Eric (June 22, 2018), "Intentional Inequalities and Compounding Effects", The Handbook of Race, Ethnicity, Crime, and Justice, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., pp. 17–38, doi:10.1002/9781119113799.ch1, ISBN 9781119113799, S2CID 158214425
Hinton, Elizabeth; Cook, DeAnza (June 29, 2020). "The Mass Criminalization of Black Americans: A Historical Overview". Annual Review of Criminology. 4: 261–286. doi:10.1146/annurev-criminol-060520-033306. ISSN 2572-4568.
Rehavi, M. Marit; Starr, Sonja B. (2014). "Racial Disparity in Federal Criminal Sentences". Journal of Political Economy. 122 (6): 1320–1354. doi:10.1086/677255. ISSN 0022-3808. S2CID 3348344.
Arnold, David; Dobbie, Will; Yang, Crystal S. (2018). "Racial Bias in Bail Decisions". The Quarterly Journal of Economics. 133 (4): 1885–1932. doi:10.1093/qje/qjy012. S2CID 13703268.
Pierson, Emma; Simoiu, Camelia; Overgoor, Jan; Corbett-Davies, Sam; Jenson, Daniel; Shoemaker, Amy; Ramachandran, Vignesh; Barghouty, Phoebe; Phillips, Cheryl; Shroff, Ravi; Goel, Sharad (May 4, 2020). "A large-scale analysis of racial disparities in police stops across the United States". Nature Human Behaviour. 4 (7): 736–745. arXiv:1706.05678. doi:10.1038/s41562-020-0858-1. ISSN 2397-3374. PMID 32367028.
Balto, Simon (2019). Occupied Territory: Policing Black Chicago from Red Summer to Black Power. University of North Carolina Press. doi:10.5149/northcarolina/9781469649597.001.0001. ISBN 9781469649597. S2CID 242994510.
Ralph, Laurence (2020). The Torture Letters. University of Chicago Press. doi:10.7208/chicago/9780226650128.001.0001. ISBN 978-0-226-65012-8. S2CID 166340526.
Felker-Kantor, Max (2018). Policing Los Angeles: Race, Resistance, and the Rise of the LAPD. University of North Carolina Press. doi:10.5149/northcarolina/9781469646831.001.0001. ISBN 9781469646831. S2CID 239813851.
Hindelang, Michael J. (February 1978). "Race and Involvement in Common Law Personal Crimes". American Sociological Review. 43 (1): 93–109. doi:10.2307/2094764. JSTOR 2094764.
Sampson, Robert J.; Lauritsen, Janet L. (1997). "Racial and Ethnic Disparities in Crime and Criminal Justice in the United States". Crime and Justice. 21: 311–374. doi:10.1086/449253. JSTOR 1147634. S2CID 215513875.
Quillian, Lillian; Pager, Devah (November 2001). "Black Neighbors, Higher Crime? The Role of Racial Stereotypes in Evaluations of Neighborhood Crime" (PDF). American Journal of Sociology. 107 (3): 717. doi:10.1086/338938. S2CID 19532049.
Steffensmeier, D.; Feldmeyer, B.; Harris, C. T.; Ulmer, J. T. (2011). "Reassessing Trends in Black Violent Crime, 1980-2008: Sorting Out the "Hispanic Effect" in Uniform Crime Reports Arrests, National Crime Victimization Survey Offender Estimates, and U.s. Prisoner Counts*". Criminology. 49: 197–251. doi:10.1111/j.1745-9125.2010.00222.x.
J Intravia, KT Wolff, EA Stewart, RL Simons (2014). "Neighborhood-level differences in police discrimination and subcultural violence: A multilevel examination of adopting the code of the street". Journal of Crime and Justice. 37 (1): 42–60. doi:10.1080/0735648X.2013.832480. S2CID 144926935.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
Warren, Patricia Y.; Tomaskovic-Devey, Donald (May 1, 2009). "Racial profiling and searches: Did the politics of racial profiling change police behavior?". Criminology & Public Policy. 8 (2): 343–369. doi:10.1111/j.1745-9133.2009.00556.x.
Donohue III, John J.; Levitt, Steven D. (January 1, 2001). "The Impact of Race on Policing and Arrests". The Journal of Law & Economics. 44 (2): 367–394. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.381.8047. doi:10.1086/322810. JSTOR 10.1086/322810. S2CID 1547854.
Baumgartner, Frank R.; Epp, Derek A.; Shoub, Kelsey (July 10, 2018). Suspect Citizens. Cambridge University Press. doi:10.1017/9781108553599. ISBN 9781108553599. S2CID 158379135.
Braun, Michael; Rosenthal, Jeremy; Therrian, Kyle (2018). "Police Discretion and Racial Disparity in Organized Retail Theft Arrests: Evidence from Texas". Journal of Empirical Legal Studies. 15 (4): 916–950. doi:10.1111/jels.12201. ISSN 1740-1461. S2CID 158361514.
Bulman, George (2019). "Law Enforcement Leaders and the Racial Composition of Arrests". Economic Inquiry. 57 (4): 1842–1858. doi:10.1111/ecin.12800. ISSN 1465-7295. S2CID 3616622.
Hester, Neil; Gray, Kurt (February 21, 2018). "For Black men, being tall increases threat stereotyping and police stops". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 115 (11): 2711–2715. Bibcode:2018PNAS..115.2711H. doi:10.1073/pnas.1714454115. ISSN 0027-8424. PMC 5856523. PMID 29483263.
Aliprantis, Dionissi (September 14, 2016). "Human capital in the inner city". Empirical Economics. 53 (3): 1125–1169. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.309.2417. doi:10.1007/s00181-016-1160-y. ISSN 0377-7332. S2CID 17532623.
Frederick, John; Goddard, Chris (2007). "Exploring the relationship between poverty, childhood adversity and child abuse from the perspective of adulthood". Child Abuse Review. 16 (5): 323–341. doi:10.1002/car.971. ISSN 1099-0852.
Leslie, Emily; Pope, Nolan G. (August 1, 2017). "The Unintended Impact of Pretrial Detention on Case Outcomes: Evidence from New York City Arraignments" (PDF). The Journal of Law and Economics. 60 (3): 529–557. doi:10.1086/695285. ISSN 0022-2186. S2CID 158123897.
Sampson, Robert J. (September 1987). "Urban Black Violence: The Effect of Male Joblessness and Family Disruption". American Journal of Sociology. 93 (2): 348–382. doi:10.1086/228748. JSTOR 2779588. S2CID 144729803.
Sampson, Robert J.; Morenoff, Jeffrey D.; Raudenbush, Stephen (February 2005). "Social Anatomy of Racial and Ethnic Disparities in Violence". American Journal of Public Health. 95 (2): 224–232. doi:10.2105/AJPH.2004.037705. PMC 1449156. PMID 15671454.
Phillips, Julie A. (August 2002). "White, Black, and Latino Homicide Rates: Why the Difference?". Social Problems. 49 (3): 349–373. doi:10.1525/sp.2002.49.3.349.
Kirk, David S. (2008). "The Neighborhood Context of Racial and Ethnic Disparities in Arrest". Demography. 45 (1): 55–77. doi:10.1353/dem.2008.0011. PMC 2831379. PMID 18390291.
Wright, B. R. E.; Younts, C. W. (May 26, 2009). "Reconsidering the Relationship between Race and Crime: Positive and Negative Predictors of Crime among African American Youth". Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency. 46 (3): 327–352. doi:10.1177/0022427809335170. S2CID 145402735.
Vélez, María B.; Krivo, Lauren J.; Peterson, Ruth D. (August 1, 2003). "Structural Inequality and Homicide: An Assessment of the Black-White Gap in Killings*". Criminology. 41 (3): 645–672. doi:10.1111/j.1745-9125.2003.tb01000.x. ISSN 1745-9125.
Dunaway, R. Gregory; Cullen, Francis T.; Burton, Velmer S.; Evans, T. David (March 7, 2006). "The Myth of Social Class and Crime Revisited: An Examination of Class and Adult Criminality". Criminology. 38 (2): 589–632. doi:10.1111/j.1745-9125.2000.tb00900.x.
Krivo, Lauren J.; Peterson, Ruth D. (December 1, 1996). "Extremely Disadvantaged Neighborhoods and Urban Crime". Social Forces. 75 (2): 619–648. doi:10.1093/sf/75.2.619.
McNULTY, THOMAS L.; BELLAIR, PAUL E. (August 2003). "Explaining Racial and Ethnic Differences in Serious Adolescent Violent Behavior". Criminology. 41 (3): 709–747. doi:10.1111/j.1745-9125.2003.tb01002.x.
McNulty, Thomas L.; Bellair, Paul E. (March 2003). "Explaining racial and ethnic differences in adolescent violence: Structural disadvantage, family well-being, and social capital". Justice Quarterly. 20 (1): 1–31. doi:10.1080/07418820300095441. S2CID 146377723.
Shihadeh, E. S.; Flynn, N. (June 1, 1996). "Segregation and Crime: The Effect of Black Social Isolation on the Rates of Black Urban Violence". Social Forces. 74 (4): 1325–1352. doi:10.1093/sf/74.4.1325.
Eitle, David (January 2009). "Dimensions of racial segregation, hypersegregation, and Black homicide rates". Journal of Criminal Justice. 37 (1): 28–36. doi:10.1016/j.jcrimjus.2008.12.005.
Lee, Matthew R.; Ousey, Graham C. (February 2005). "Institutional Access, Residential Segregation, and Urban Black Homicide*". Sociological Inquiry. 75 (1): 31–54. doi:10.1111/j.1475-682X.2005.00111.x.
Peterson, Ruth D.; Krivo, Lauren J. (September 1, 1999). "Racial Segregation, the Concentration of Disadvantage, and Black and White Homicide Victimization". Sociological Forum. 14 (3): 465–493. doi:10.1023/A:1021451703612. ISSN 0884-8971. S2CID 142664553.
Feldmeyer, Ben (September 1, 2010). "The Effects of Racial/Ethnic Segregation on Latino and Black Homicide". Sociological Quarterly. 51 (4): 600–623. doi:10.1111/j.1533-8525.2010.01185.x. ISSN 1533-8525. PMID 20939127. S2CID 19551967.
Jarjoura, Roger (June 2002). "Growing Up Poor: Examining the Link Between Persistent Childhood Poverty and Delinquency". Journal of Quantitative Criminology. 18 (2): 159–187. doi:10.1023/A:1015206715838. S2CID 140734860.
Haggerty, Kevin P.; Skinner, Martie L.; McGlynn, Anne; Catalano, Richard F.; Crutchfield, Robert D. (2013). "Parent and Peer Predictors of Violent Behavior of Black and White Teens". Violence and Victims. 28 (1): 145–160. doi:10.1891/0886-6708.28.1.145. ISSN 0886-6708. PMC 3767568. PMID 23520837.
Jang, Sung Joon; Johnson, Byron R. (2003). "Strain, Negative Emotions, and Deviant Coping Among African Americans: A Test of General Strain Theory". Journal of Quantitative Criminology. 19 (1): 79–105. doi:10.1023/A:1022570729068. S2CID 73553646.
Leeper Piquero, N.; Sealock, M. D. (April 22, 2010). "Race, Crime, and General Strain Theory". Youth Violence and Juvenile Justice. 8 (3): 170–186. doi:10.1177/1541204009361174. S2CID 144621182.
Piquero, Nicole Leeper; Sealock, Miriam D. (August 22, 2006). "Generalizing general strain theory: An examination of an offending population". Justice Quarterly. 17 (3): 449–484. doi:10.1080/07418820000094631. S2CID 144477992.

ebscohost.com

web.a.ebscohost.com

Cazenave, Noel A.; Straus, Murray A. (2019). Race, Class, Network Embeddedness and Family Violence: A Search for Potent Support Systems. EBSCO Industries, Inc. pp. 281–300.

fbi.gov

ucr.fbi.gov

"About the Uniform Crime Reporting (UCR) Program". Federal Bureau of Investigation. Retrieved October 14, 2022.
"Expanded Homicide Data Table 3: Murder Offenders by Age, Sex, Race, and Ethnicity, 2019". FBI.gov. 2020. Retrieved September 11, 2022.
"Expanded Homicide Data 2019". FBI.
"Expanded Homicide Data Table 2: Murder Victims by Age, Sex, Race, and Ethnicity, 2019". FBI.gov. 2020. Retrieved August 4, 2021.
"Expanded Homicide Data Table 6: Race, Sex, and Ethnicity of Victim by Race, Sex, and Ethnicity of Offender, 2019". FBI.gov. 2020. Retrieved March 21, 2021.
"Table 43". FBI.
"Known Offender's Race, Ethnicity, and Age, 2019". FBI.gov. FBI.
"Offense Type by Bias Motivation, 2019". fbi.gov. Retrieved October 14, 2022.

fbi.gov

"FBI — Table 43a". Fbi.gov. September 19, 2011. Retrieved August 15, 2013.
"Hate Crime Statistics". .fbi.gov. Retrieved October 14, 2022.

harvard.edu

nrs.harvard.edu

Sampson, Robert J. (September 1987). "Urban Black Violence: The Effect of Male Joblessness and Family Disruption". American Journal of Sociology. 93 (2): 348–382. doi:10.1086/228748. JSTOR 2779588. S2CID 144729803.
Sampson, Robert J.; Lauritsen, Janet L. (1997). "Racial and Ethnic Disparities in Crime and Criminal Justice in the United States". Crime and Justice. 21: 311–374. doi:10.1086/449253. JSTOR 1147634. S2CID 215513875.
Sampson, Robert J. (September 1987). "Urban Black Violence: The Effect of Male Joblessness and Family Disruption". American Journal of Sociology. 93 (2): 348–382. doi:10.1086/228748. JSTOR 2779588. S2CID 144729803.

ui.adsabs.harvard.edu

Boutwell, Brian B.; Nelson, Erik J.; Emo, Brett; Vaughn, Michael G.; Schootman, Mario; Rosenfeld, Richard; Lewis, Roger (July 1, 2016). "The intersection of aggregate-level lead exposure and crime". Environmental Research. 148: 79–85. Bibcode:2016ER....148...79B. doi:10.1016/j.envres.2016.03.023. ISSN 0013-9351. PMID 27035924.
Hester, Neil; Gray, Kurt (February 21, 2018). "For Black men, being tall increases threat stereotyping and police stops". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 115 (11): 2711–2715. Bibcode:2018PNAS..115.2711H. doi:10.1073/pnas.1714454115. ISSN 0027-8424. PMC 5856523. PMID 29483263.

hks.harvard.edu

Smith, Troy L. "The Police and Public Discourse on "Black-on-Black" Violence" (PDF). Harvard Kennedy School. Retrieved June 16, 2020.

scholar.harvard.edu

Quillian, Lillian; Pager, Devah (November 2001). "Black Neighbors, Higher Crime? The Role of Racial Stereotypes in Evaluations of Neighborhood Crime" (PDF). American Journal of Sociology. 107 (3): 717. doi:10.1086/338938. S2CID 19532049.

hoplofobia.info

Latzer, Barry. Subcultures of violence and African American crime rates. Journal of Criminal Justice 54 (2018): 41–49.

hrw.org

"Archived copy" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on June 10, 2021. Retrieved February 8, 2021.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link)

jstor.org

Krivo, Lauren J.; Peterson, Ruth D. (2000). "The Structural Context of Homicide: Accounting for Racial Differences in Process". American Sociological Review. 65 (4): 547–559. doi:10.2307/2657382. ISSN 0003-1224. JSTOR 2657382.
Sampson, Robert J. (September 1987). "Urban Black Violence: The Effect of Male Joblessness and Family Disruption". American Journal of Sociology. 93 (2): 348–382. doi:10.1086/228748. JSTOR 2779588. S2CID 144729803.
Hindelang, Michael J. (February 1978). "Race and Involvement in Common Law Personal Crimes". American Sociological Review. 43 (1): 93–109. doi:10.2307/2094764. JSTOR 2094764.
Sampson, Robert J.; Lauritsen, Janet L. (1997). "Racial and Ethnic Disparities in Crime and Criminal Justice in the United States". Crime and Justice. 21: 311–374. doi:10.1086/449253. JSTOR 1147634. S2CID 215513875.
Donohue III, John J.; Levitt, Steven D. (January 1, 2001). "The Impact of Race on Policing and Arrests". The Journal of Law & Economics. 44 (2): 367–394. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.381.8047. doi:10.1086/322810. JSTOR 10.1086/322810. S2CID 1547854.
Sampson, Robert J. (September 1987). "Urban Black Violence: The Effect of Male Joblessness and Family Disruption". American Journal of Sociology. 93 (2): 348–382. doi:10.1086/228748. JSTOR 2779588. S2CID 144729803.

murderdata.org

"Supplementary Homicide Report 1976-2018". Murder Accountability Project. Retrieved May 31, 2020.

nber.org

Aizer, Anna (February 2008). "Neighborhood Violence and Urban Youth" (PDF). The National Bureau of Economic Research.

nih.gov

pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov

Ulmer, Jeffery T.; Harris, Casey T.; Steffensmeier, Darrell (2012). "Racial and Ethnic Disparities in Structural Disadvantage and Crime: White, Black, and Hispanic Comparisons*". Social Science Quarterly. 93 (3): 799–819. doi:10.1111/j.1540-6237.2012.00868.x. ISSN 1540-6237. PMC 4097310. PMID 25035523.
Boutwell, Brian B.; Nelson, Erik J.; Emo, Brett; Vaughn, Michael G.; Schootman, Mario; Rosenfeld, Richard; Lewis, Roger (July 1, 2016). "The intersection of aggregate-level lead exposure and crime". Environmental Research. 148: 79–85. Bibcode:2016ER....148...79B. doi:10.1016/j.envres.2016.03.023. ISSN 0013-9351. PMID 27035924.
Feldmeyer, Ben (September 1, 2010). "The Effects of Racial/Ethnic Segregation on Latino and Black Homicide". The Sociological Quarterly. 51 (4): 600–623. doi:10.1111/j.1533-8525.2010.01185.x. ISSN 0038-0253. PMID 20939127. S2CID 19551967.
Pierson, Emma; Simoiu, Camelia; Overgoor, Jan; Corbett-Davies, Sam; Jenson, Daniel; Shoemaker, Amy; Ramachandran, Vignesh; Barghouty, Phoebe; Phillips, Cheryl; Shroff, Ravi; Goel, Sharad (May 4, 2020). "A large-scale analysis of racial disparities in police stops across the United States". Nature Human Behaviour. 4 (7): 736–745. arXiv:1706.05678. doi:10.1038/s41562-020-0858-1. ISSN 2397-3374. PMID 32367028.
Hester, Neil; Gray, Kurt (February 21, 2018). "For Black men, being tall increases threat stereotyping and police stops". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 115 (11): 2711–2715. Bibcode:2018PNAS..115.2711H. doi:10.1073/pnas.1714454115. ISSN 0027-8424. PMC 5856523. PMID 29483263.
Sampson, Robert J.; Morenoff, Jeffrey D.; Raudenbush, Stephen (February 2005). "Social Anatomy of Racial and Ethnic Disparities in Violence". American Journal of Public Health. 95 (2): 224–232. doi:10.2105/AJPH.2004.037705. PMC 1449156. PMID 15671454.
Kirk, David S. (2008). "The Neighborhood Context of Racial and Ethnic Disparities in Arrest". Demography. 45 (1): 55–77. doi:10.1353/dem.2008.0011. PMC 2831379. PMID 18390291.
Feldmeyer, Ben (September 1, 2010). "The Effects of Racial/Ethnic Segregation on Latino and Black Homicide". Sociological Quarterly. 51 (4): 600–623. doi:10.1111/j.1533-8525.2010.01185.x. ISSN 1533-8525. PMID 20939127. S2CID 19551967.
Haggerty, Kevin P.; Skinner, Martie L.; McGlynn, Anne; Catalano, Richard F.; Crutchfield, Robert D. (2013). "Parent and Peer Predictors of Violent Behavior of Black and White Teens". Violence and Victims. 28 (1): 145–160. doi:10.1891/0886-6708.28.1.145. ISSN 0886-6708. PMC 3767568. PMID 23520837.

ncbi.nlm.nih.gov

Ulmer, Jeffery T.; Harris, Casey T.; Steffensmeier, Darrell (2012). "Racial and Ethnic Disparities in Structural Disadvantage and Crime: White, Black, and Hispanic Comparisons*". Social Science Quarterly. 93 (3): 799–819. doi:10.1111/j.1540-6237.2012.00868.x. ISSN 1540-6237. PMC 4097310. PMID 25035523.
Hester, Neil; Gray, Kurt (February 21, 2018). "For Black men, being tall increases threat stereotyping and police stops". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 115 (11): 2711–2715. Bibcode:2018PNAS..115.2711H. doi:10.1073/pnas.1714454115. ISSN 0027-8424. PMC 5856523. PMID 29483263.
Sampson, Robert J.; Morenoff, Jeffrey D.; Raudenbush, Stephen (February 2005). "Social Anatomy of Racial and Ethnic Disparities in Violence". American Journal of Public Health. 95 (2): 224–232. doi:10.2105/AJPH.2004.037705. PMC 1449156. PMID 15671454.
Kirk, David S. (2008). "The Neighborhood Context of Racial and Ethnic Disparities in Arrest". Demography. 45 (1): 55–77. doi:10.1353/dem.2008.0011. PMC 2831379. PMID 18390291.
Haggerty, Kevin P.; Skinner, Martie L.; McGlynn, Anne; Catalano, Richard F.; Crutchfield, Robert D. (2013). "Parent and Peer Predictors of Violent Behavior of Black and White Teens". Violence and Victims. 28 (1): 145–160. doi:10.1891/0886-6708.28.1.145. ISSN 0886-6708. PMC 3767568. PMID 23520837.

nmcsap.org

"Rape and Sexual Assault Statistics. Extracted from Criminal Victimization in the United States, 1994 Report Summarized by Betty Caponera, Ph.D. Director, NMCSAAS". Nmcsap.org. Archived from the original on October 11, 2014. Retrieved October 8, 2014.

ojjdp.gov

Justice, National Center for Juvenile. "Crosstabulations of Known Murder Offenders". www.ojjdp.gov. Retrieved September 27, 2020.

ojp.gov

"Black-on-Black Homicide - A Psychological-Political Perspective | Office of Justice Programs". www.ojp.gov. Retrieved April 8, 2024.
Exposed to Violence Retrieved 11 October 2023
and Race - Conceptions and Misconceptions Retrieved 14 October 2023

nationalgangcenter.ojp.gov

"National Gang Center". Retrieved October 14, 2022.
"National Youth Gang Survey Analysis: Demographics". ojp.gov. Retrieved October 14, 2022.

oup.com

academic.oup.com

Shihadeh, Edward S.; Flynn, Nicole (June 1, 1996). "Segregation and Crime: The Effect of Black Social Isolation on the Rates of Black Urban Violence". Social Forces. 74 (4): 1325–1352. doi:10.1093/sf/74.4.1325. ISSN 0037-7732.

psu.edu

citeseerx.ist.psu.edu

Donohue III, John J.; Levitt, Steven D. (January 1, 2001). "The Impact of Race on Policing and Arrests". The Journal of Law & Economics. 44 (2): 367–394. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.381.8047. doi:10.1086/322810. JSTOR 10.1086/322810. S2CID 1547854.
Aliprantis, Dionissi (September 14, 2016). "Human capital in the inner city". Empirical Economics. 53 (3): 1125–1169. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.309.2417. doi:10.1007/s00181-016-1160-y. ISSN 0377-7332. S2CID 17532623.

news.psu.edu

"Demographics cloud optimism on black violent crime decrease". Penn State News. Retrieved March 28, 2011.

researchgate.net

Jarjoura, Roger (June 2002). "Growing Up Poor: Examining the Link Between Persistent Childhood Poverty and Delinquency". Journal of Quantitative Criminology. 18 (2): 159–187. doi:10.1023/A:1015206715838. S2CID 140734860.

sciencedirect.com

Boutwell, Brian B.; Nelson, Erik J.; Emo, Brett; Vaughn, Michael G.; Schootman, Mario; Rosenfeld, Richard; Lewis, Roger (July 1, 2016). "The intersection of aggregate-level lead exposure and crime". Environmental Research. 148: 79–85. Bibcode:2016ER....148...79B. doi:10.1016/j.envres.2016.03.023. ISSN 0013-9351. PMID 27035924.
O’Flaherty, Brendan; Sethi, Rajiv (November 1, 2007). "Crime and segregation". Journal of Economic Behavior & Organization. 64 (3): 391–405. doi:10.1016/j.jebo.2006.07.005. ISSN 0167-2681.

semanticscholar.org

api.semanticscholar.org

Brown, Elizabeth; Males, Mike A. (2011). "Does Age or Poverty Level Best Predict Criminal Arrest and Homicide Rates? A Preliminary Investigation". S2CID 14751824. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
Sampson, Robert J. (September 1987). "Urban Black Violence: The Effect of Male Joblessness and Family Disruption". American Journal of Sociology. 93 (2): 348–382. doi:10.1086/228748. JSTOR 2779588. S2CID 144729803.
Shihadeh, Edward S.; Shrum, Wesley (July 1, 2004). "Serious Crime in Urban Neighborhoods: Is There a Race Effect?". Sociological Spectrum. 24 (4): 507–533. doi:10.1080/02732170490459502. ISSN 0273-2173. S2CID 145654909.
Light, Michael T.; Ulmer, Jeffery T. (April 1, 2016). "Explaining the Gaps in White, Black, and Hispanic Violence since 1990: Accounting for Immigration, Incarceration, and Inequality". American Sociological Review. 81 (2): 290–315. doi:10.1177/0003122416635667. ISSN 0003-1224. S2CID 53346960.
Feldmeyer, Ben (September 1, 2010). "The Effects of Racial/Ethnic Segregation on Latino and Black Homicide". The Sociological Quarterly. 51 (4): 600–623. doi:10.1111/j.1533-8525.2010.01185.x. ISSN 0038-0253. PMID 20939127. S2CID 19551967.
Drakulich, Kevin; Rodriguez-Whitney, Eric (June 22, 2018), "Intentional Inequalities and Compounding Effects", The Handbook of Race, Ethnicity, Crime, and Justice, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., pp. 17–38, doi:10.1002/9781119113799.ch1, ISBN 9781119113799, S2CID 158214425
Rehavi, M. Marit; Starr, Sonja B. (2014). "Racial Disparity in Federal Criminal Sentences". Journal of Political Economy. 122 (6): 1320–1354. doi:10.1086/677255. ISSN 0022-3808. S2CID 3348344.
Arnold, David; Dobbie, Will; Yang, Crystal S. (2018). "Racial Bias in Bail Decisions". The Quarterly Journal of Economics. 133 (4): 1885–1932. doi:10.1093/qje/qjy012. S2CID 13703268.
Balto, Simon (2019). Occupied Territory: Policing Black Chicago from Red Summer to Black Power. University of North Carolina Press. doi:10.5149/northcarolina/9781469649597.001.0001. ISBN 9781469649597. S2CID 242994510.
Ralph, Laurence (2020). The Torture Letters. University of Chicago Press. doi:10.7208/chicago/9780226650128.001.0001. ISBN 978-0-226-65012-8. S2CID 166340526.
Felker-Kantor, Max (2018). Policing Los Angeles: Race, Resistance, and the Rise of the LAPD. University of North Carolina Press. doi:10.5149/northcarolina/9781469646831.001.0001. ISBN 9781469646831. S2CID 239813851.
Sampson, Robert J.; Lauritsen, Janet L. (1997). "Racial and Ethnic Disparities in Crime and Criminal Justice in the United States". Crime and Justice. 21: 311–374. doi:10.1086/449253. JSTOR 1147634. S2CID 215513875.
Quillian, Lillian; Pager, Devah (November 2001). "Black Neighbors, Higher Crime? The Role of Racial Stereotypes in Evaluations of Neighborhood Crime" (PDF). American Journal of Sociology. 107 (3): 717. doi:10.1086/338938. S2CID 19532049.
J Intravia, KT Wolff, EA Stewart, RL Simons (2014). "Neighborhood-level differences in police discrimination and subcultural violence: A multilevel examination of adopting the code of the street". Journal of Crime and Justice. 37 (1): 42–60. doi:10.1080/0735648X.2013.832480. S2CID 144926935.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
Donohue III, John J.; Levitt, Steven D. (January 1, 2001). "The Impact of Race on Policing and Arrests". The Journal of Law & Economics. 44 (2): 367–394. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.381.8047. doi:10.1086/322810. JSTOR 10.1086/322810. S2CID 1547854.
Baumgartner, Frank R.; Epp, Derek A.; Shoub, Kelsey (July 10, 2018). Suspect Citizens. Cambridge University Press. doi:10.1017/9781108553599. ISBN 9781108553599. S2CID 158379135.
Braun, Michael; Rosenthal, Jeremy; Therrian, Kyle (2018). "Police Discretion and Racial Disparity in Organized Retail Theft Arrests: Evidence from Texas". Journal of Empirical Legal Studies. 15 (4): 916–950. doi:10.1111/jels.12201. ISSN 1740-1461. S2CID 158361514.
Bulman, George (2019). "Law Enforcement Leaders and the Racial Composition of Arrests". Economic Inquiry. 57 (4): 1842–1858. doi:10.1111/ecin.12800. ISSN 1465-7295. S2CID 3616622.
Aliprantis, Dionissi (September 14, 2016). "Human capital in the inner city". Empirical Economics. 53 (3): 1125–1169. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.309.2417. doi:10.1007/s00181-016-1160-y. ISSN 0377-7332. S2CID 17532623.
Leslie, Emily; Pope, Nolan G. (August 1, 2017). "The Unintended Impact of Pretrial Detention on Case Outcomes: Evidence from New York City Arraignments" (PDF). The Journal of Law and Economics. 60 (3): 529–557. doi:10.1086/695285. ISSN 0022-2186. S2CID 158123897.
Sampson, Robert J. (September 1987). "Urban Black Violence: The Effect of Male Joblessness and Family Disruption". American Journal of Sociology. 93 (2): 348–382. doi:10.1086/228748. JSTOR 2779588. S2CID 144729803.
Wright, B. R. E.; Younts, C. W. (May 26, 2009). "Reconsidering the Relationship between Race and Crime: Positive and Negative Predictors of Crime among African American Youth". Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency. 46 (3): 327–352. doi:10.1177/0022427809335170. S2CID 145402735.
McNulty, Thomas L.; Bellair, Paul E. (March 2003). "Explaining racial and ethnic differences in adolescent violence: Structural disadvantage, family well-being, and social capital". Justice Quarterly. 20 (1): 1–31. doi:10.1080/07418820300095441. S2CID 146377723.
Peterson, Ruth D.; Krivo, Lauren J. (September 1, 1999). "Racial Segregation, the Concentration of Disadvantage, and Black and White Homicide Victimization". Sociological Forum. 14 (3): 465–493. doi:10.1023/A:1021451703612. ISSN 0884-8971. S2CID 142664553.
Feldmeyer, Ben (September 1, 2010). "The Effects of Racial/Ethnic Segregation on Latino and Black Homicide". Sociological Quarterly. 51 (4): 600–623. doi:10.1111/j.1533-8525.2010.01185.x. ISSN 1533-8525. PMID 20939127. S2CID 19551967.
Jarjoura, Roger (June 2002). "Growing Up Poor: Examining the Link Between Persistent Childhood Poverty and Delinquency". Journal of Quantitative Criminology. 18 (2): 159–187. doi:10.1023/A:1015206715838. S2CID 140734860.
Jang, Sung Joon; Johnson, Byron R. (2003). "Strain, Negative Emotions, and Deviant Coping Among African Americans: A Test of General Strain Theory". Journal of Quantitative Criminology. 19 (1): 79–105. doi:10.1023/A:1022570729068. S2CID 73553646.
Leeper Piquero, N.; Sealock, M. D. (April 22, 2010). "Race, Crime, and General Strain Theory". Youth Violence and Juvenile Justice. 8 (3): 170–186. doi:10.1177/1541204009361174. S2CID 144621182.
Piquero, Nicole Leeper; Sealock, Miriam D. (August 22, 2006). "Generalizing general strain theory: An examination of an offending population". Justice Quarterly. 17 (3): 449–484. doi:10.1080/07418820000094631. S2CID 144477992.

ssrn.com

papers.ssrn.com

SpearIt (April 2, 2015). "How Mass Incarceration Underdevelops Latino Communities". Rochester, NY: Social Science Research Network. SSRN 2589112. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)

tandfonline.com

J Intravia, KT Wolff, EA Stewart, RL Simons (2014). "Neighborhood-level differences in police discrimination and subcultural violence: A multilevel examination of adopting the code of the street". Journal of Crime and Justice. 37 (1): 42–60. doi:10.1080/0735648X.2013.832480. S2CID 144926935.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)

ucsc.edu

people.ucsc.edu

West, Jeremy (February 2018). "Racial Bias in Police Investigations" (PDF). Working Paper.

umd.edu

econweb.umd.edu

Leslie, Emily; Pope, Nolan G. (August 1, 2017). "The Unintended Impact of Pretrial Detention on Case Outcomes: Evidence from New York City Arraignments" (PDF). The Journal of Law and Economics. 60 (3): 529–557. doi:10.1086/695285. ISSN 0022-2186. S2CID 158123897.

umich.edu

repository.law.umich.edu

Rehavi, M. Marit; Starr, Sonja B. (2014). "Racial Disparity in Federal Criminal Sentences". Journal of Political Economy. 122 (6): 1320–1354. doi:10.1086/677255. ISSN 0022-3808. S2CID 3348344.

icpsr.umich.edu

United States Department of Justice. Office of Justice Programs. Bureau of Justice Statistics. "National Crime Victimization Survey: Unbounded Data, 2002". umich.edu.

upenn.edu

scholarship.law.upenn.edu

Massey, Douglas. "GETTING AWAY WITH MURDER: SEGREGATION AND VIOLENT CRIME IN URBAN AMERICA".

vox.com

Lopez, German Confronting the myth that "black culture" is responsible for violent crime in America, Vox, September 1, 2016

washingtonpost.com

"Black men sentenced to more time for committing the exact same crime as a white person, study finds". washingtonpost.com. Archived from the original on November 16, 2017. Retrieved November 23, 2017.
"Gary Johnson's bungled claims about racial disparities in crime". Washington Post. Retrieved January 21, 2017.
"Analysis | What data on 20 million traffic stops can tell us about 'driving while black'". Washington Post. Retrieved July 17, 2018.
"Federal study confirms racial bias of many facial-recognition systems, casts doubt on their expanding use". The Washington Post. 2019.

web.archive.org

"Black men sentenced to more time for committing the exact same crime as a white person, study finds". washingtonpost.com. Archived from the original on November 16, 2017. Retrieved November 23, 2017.
Holms, Maahs & Vito (2007:35-36). See also Gabbidon & Greene (2005a:35–38). For more information on the UCR program, see: "UCR Data Quality Guidelines" at www.fbi.gov.
"Archived copy" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on June 10, 2021. Retrieved February 8, 2021.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link)
"Rape and Sexual Assault Statistics. Extracted from Criminal Victimization in the United States, 1994 Report Summarized by Betty Caponera, Ph.D. Director, NMCSAAS". Nmcsap.org. Archived from the original on October 11, 2014. Retrieved October 8, 2014.

worldcat.org

Krivo, Lauren J.; Peterson, Ruth D. (2000). "The Structural Context of Homicide: Accounting for Racial Differences in Process". American Sociological Review. 65 (4): 547–559. doi:10.2307/2657382. ISSN 0003-1224. JSTOR 2657382.
Ulmer, Jeffery T.; Harris, Casey T.; Steffensmeier, Darrell (2012). "Racial and Ethnic Disparities in Structural Disadvantage and Crime: White, Black, and Hispanic Comparisons*". Social Science Quarterly. 93 (3): 799–819. doi:10.1111/j.1540-6237.2012.00868.x. ISSN 1540-6237. PMC 4097310. PMID 25035523.
Shihadeh, Edward S.; Shrum, Wesley (July 1, 2004). "Serious Crime in Urban Neighborhoods: Is There a Race Effect?". Sociological Spectrum. 24 (4): 507–533. doi:10.1080/02732170490459502. ISSN 0273-2173. S2CID 145654909.
Light, Michael T.; Ulmer, Jeffery T. (April 1, 2016). "Explaining the Gaps in White, Black, and Hispanic Violence since 1990: Accounting for Immigration, Incarceration, and Inequality". American Sociological Review. 81 (2): 290–315. doi:10.1177/0003122416635667. ISSN 0003-1224. S2CID 53346960.
Boutwell, Brian B.; Nelson, Erik J.; Emo, Brett; Vaughn, Michael G.; Schootman, Mario; Rosenfeld, Richard; Lewis, Roger (July 1, 2016). "The intersection of aggregate-level lead exposure and crime". Environmental Research. 148: 79–85. Bibcode:2016ER....148...79B. doi:10.1016/j.envres.2016.03.023. ISSN 0013-9351. PMID 27035924.
Feldmeyer, Ben (September 1, 2010). "The Effects of Racial/Ethnic Segregation on Latino and Black Homicide". The Sociological Quarterly. 51 (4): 600–623. doi:10.1111/j.1533-8525.2010.01185.x. ISSN 0038-0253. PMID 20939127. S2CID 19551967.
O’Flaherty, Brendan; Sethi, Rajiv (November 1, 2007). "Crime and segregation". Journal of Economic Behavior & Organization. 64 (3): 391–405. doi:10.1016/j.jebo.2006.07.005. ISSN 0167-2681.
Shihadeh, Edward S.; Flynn, Nicole (June 1, 1996). "Segregation and Crime: The Effect of Black Social Isolation on the Rates of Black Urban Violence". Social Forces. 74 (4): 1325–1352. doi:10.1093/sf/74.4.1325. ISSN 0037-7732.
Hinton, Elizabeth; Cook, DeAnza (2021). "The Mass Criminalization of Black Americans: A Historical Overview". Annual Review of Criminology. 4 (1): annurev–criminol–060520-033306. doi:10.1146/annurev-criminol-060520-033306. ISSN 2572-4568.
Hinton, Elizabeth; Cook, DeAnza (June 29, 2020). "The Mass Criminalization of Black Americans: A Historical Overview". Annual Review of Criminology. 4: 261–286. doi:10.1146/annurev-criminol-060520-033306. ISSN 2572-4568.
Rehavi, M. Marit; Starr, Sonja B. (2014). "Racial Disparity in Federal Criminal Sentences". Journal of Political Economy. 122 (6): 1320–1354. doi:10.1086/677255. ISSN 0022-3808. S2CID 3348344.
Pierson, Emma; Simoiu, Camelia; Overgoor, Jan; Corbett-Davies, Sam; Jenson, Daniel; Shoemaker, Amy; Ramachandran, Vignesh; Barghouty, Phoebe; Phillips, Cheryl; Shroff, Ravi; Goel, Sharad (May 4, 2020). "A large-scale analysis of racial disparities in police stops across the United States". Nature Human Behaviour. 4 (7): 736–745. arXiv:1706.05678. doi:10.1038/s41562-020-0858-1. ISSN 2397-3374. PMID 32367028.
Williams, Suzanne Ife. Police brutality : case study of Philadelphia/Move. OCLC 84480572.
Braun, Michael; Rosenthal, Jeremy; Therrian, Kyle (2018). "Police Discretion and Racial Disparity in Organized Retail Theft Arrests: Evidence from Texas". Journal of Empirical Legal Studies. 15 (4): 916–950. doi:10.1111/jels.12201. ISSN 1740-1461. S2CID 158361514.
Bulman, George (2019). "Law Enforcement Leaders and the Racial Composition of Arrests". Economic Inquiry. 57 (4): 1842–1858. doi:10.1111/ecin.12800. ISSN 1465-7295. S2CID 3616622.
Hester, Neil; Gray, Kurt (February 21, 2018). "For Black men, being tall increases threat stereotyping and police stops". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 115 (11): 2711–2715. Bibcode:2018PNAS..115.2711H. doi:10.1073/pnas.1714454115. ISSN 0027-8424. PMC 5856523. PMID 29483263.
Aliprantis, Dionissi (September 14, 2016). "Human capital in the inner city". Empirical Economics. 53 (3): 1125–1169. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.309.2417. doi:10.1007/s00181-016-1160-y. ISSN 0377-7332. S2CID 17532623.
Frederick, John; Goddard, Chris (2007). "Exploring the relationship between poverty, childhood adversity and child abuse from the perspective of adulthood". Child Abuse Review. 16 (5): 323–341. doi:10.1002/car.971. ISSN 1099-0852.
Leslie, Emily; Pope, Nolan G. (August 1, 2017). "The Unintended Impact of Pretrial Detention on Case Outcomes: Evidence from New York City Arraignments" (PDF). The Journal of Law and Economics. 60 (3): 529–557. doi:10.1086/695285. ISSN 0022-2186. S2CID 158123897.
Vélez, María B.; Krivo, Lauren J.; Peterson, Ruth D. (August 1, 2003). "Structural Inequality and Homicide: An Assessment of the Black-White Gap in Killings*". Criminology. 41 (3): 645–672. doi:10.1111/j.1745-9125.2003.tb01000.x. ISSN 1745-9125.
Peterson, Ruth D.; Krivo, Lauren J. (September 1, 1999). "Racial Segregation, the Concentration of Disadvantage, and Black and White Homicide Victimization". Sociological Forum. 14 (3): 465–493. doi:10.1023/A:1021451703612. ISSN 0884-8971. S2CID 142664553.
Feldmeyer, Ben (September 1, 2010). "The Effects of Racial/Ethnic Segregation on Latino and Black Homicide". Sociological Quarterly. 51 (4): 600–623. doi:10.1111/j.1533-8525.2010.01185.x. ISSN 1533-8525. PMID 20939127. S2CID 19551967.
Haggerty, Kevin P.; Skinner, Martie L.; McGlynn, Anne; Catalano, Richard F.; Crutchfield, Robert D. (2013). "Parent and Peer Predictors of Violent Behavior of Black and White Teens". Violence and Victims. 28 (1): 145–160. doi:10.1891/0886-6708.28.1.145. ISSN 0886-6708. PMC 3767568. PMID 23520837.