Temperature (English Wikipedia)

Analysis of information sources in references of the Wikipedia article "Temperature" in English language version.

Last modified: 14:02:41, 2 July 2026 (UTC)

Ref.Un. Ref.Website

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3221doi.org

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66semanticscholar.org

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22books.google.com

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adsabs.harvard.edu (Global: 14^th place; English: 9^th place)

ui.adsabs.harvard.edu

Based on a computer model that predicted a peak internal temperature of 30 MeV (350 GK) during the merger of a binary neutron star system (which produces a gamma–ray burst). The neutron stars in the model were 1.2 and 1.6 solar masses respectively, were roughly 20 km in diameter, and were orbiting around their barycenter (common center of mass) at about 390 Hz during the last several milliseconds before they completely merged. The 350 GK portion was a small volume located at the pair's developing common core and varied from roughly 1 to 7 km across over a time span of around 5 ms. Imagine two city-sized objects of unimaginable density orbiting each other at the same frequency as the G4 musical note (the 28th white key on a piano). It's also noteworthy that at 350 GK, the average neutron has a vibrational speed of 30% the speed of light and a relativistic mass (m) 5% greater than its rest mass (m₀). Oechslin, R.; Janka, H.- T. (2006). "Torus formation in neutron star mergers and well-localized short gamma-ray bursts". Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society. 368 (4): 1489–1499. arXiv:astro-ph/0507099. Bibcode:2006MNRAS.368.1489O. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2966.2006.10238.x..
Germer, L. H. (June 1925). "The Distribution of Initial Velocities Among Thermionic Electrons". Physical Review. 25 (6): 795–807. Bibcode:1925PhRv...25..795G. doi:10.1103/PhysRev.25.795.
Turvey, K (January 1990). "Test of validity of Maxwellian statistics for electrons thermionically emitted from an oxide cathode". European Journal of Physics. 11 (1): 51–59. Bibcode:1990EJPh...11...51T. doi:10.1088/0143-0807/11/1/010.
Zeppenfeld, Martin; Englert, Barbara G. U.; Glöckner, Rosa; Prehn, Alexander; Mielenz, Manuel; Sommer, Christian; van Buuren, Laurens D.; Motsch, Michael; Rempe, Gerhard (November 2012). "Sisyphus cooling of electrically trapped polyatomic molecules". Nature. 491 (7425): 570–573. arXiv:1208.0046. Bibcode:2012Natur.491..570Z. doi:10.1038/nature11595. PMID 23151480.
Podesta, Michael de; Underwood, Robin; Sutton, Gavin; Morantz, Paul; Harris, Peter; Mark, Darren F; Stuart, Finlay M; Vargha, Gergely; Machin, Graham (August 2013). "A low-uncertainty measurement of the Boltzmann constant". Metrologia. 50 (4): 354–376. Bibcode:2013Metro..50..354D. doi:10.1088/0026-1394/50/4/354.
Milne, E. A. (1928). "The effect of collisions on monochromatic radiative equilibrium". Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society. 88 (6): 493. Bibcode:1928MNRAS..88..493M. doi:10.1093/mnras/88.6.493.
Thomsen, J.S. (1962). "A restatement of the zeroth law of thermodynamics". Am. J. Phys. 30 (4): 294–296. Bibcode:1962AmJPh..30..294T. doi:10.1119/1.1941991.
Jha, Aditya; Campbell, Douglas; Montelle, Clemency; Wilson, Phillip L. (2023-07-30). "On the Continuum Fallacy: Is Temperature a Continuous Function?". Foundations of Physics. 53 (4): 69. Bibcode:2023FoPh...53...69J. doi:10.1007/s10701-023-00713-x. hdl:1721.1/152272. ISSN 1572-9516.
Fang, G.; Ward, C. A. (January 1999). "Temperature measured close to the interface of an evaporating liquid". Physical Review E. 59 (1): 417–428. Bibcode:1999PhRvE..59..417F. doi:10.1103/PhysRevE.59.417.
Chen, Gang (August 2022). "On the molecular picture and interfacial temperature discontinuity during evaporation and condensation". International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer. 191 122845. arXiv:2201.07318. Bibcode:2022IJHMT.19122845C. doi:10.1016/j.ijheatmasstransfer.2022.122845.
Cahill, David G.; Ford, Wayne K.; Goodson, Kenneth E.; Mahan, Gerald D.; Majumdar, Arun; Maris, Humphrey J.; Merlin, Roberto; Phillpot, Simon R. (15 January 2003). "Nanoscale thermal transport". Journal of Applied Physics. 93 (2): 793–818. Bibcode:2003JAP....93..793C. doi:10.1063/1.1524305. hdl:2027.42/70161.
Chen, Jie; Xu, Xiangfan; Zhou, Jun; Li, Baowen (22 April 2022). "Interfacial thermal resistance: Past, present, and future". Reviews of Modern Physics. 94 (2) 025002. Bibcode:2022RvMP...94b5002C. doi:10.1103/RevModPhys.94.025002.
Aursand, Eskil; Ytrehus, Tor (July 2019). "Comparison of kinetic theory evaporation models for liquid thin-films". International Journal of Multiphase Flow. 116: 67–79. Bibcode:2019IJMF..116...67A. doi:10.1016/j.ijmultiphaseflow.2019.04.007. hdl:11250/2594950.
C. Carathéodory (1909). "Untersuchungen über die Grundlagen der Thermodynamik". Mathematische Annalen. 67 (3): 355–386. Bibcode:1909MatAn..67..355C. doi:10.1007/BF01450409. S2CID 118230148.
Swendsen, Robert (March 2006). "Statistical mechanics of colloids and Boltzmann's definition of entropy" (PDF). American Journal of Physics. 74 (3): 187–190. Bibcode:2006AmJPh..74..187S. doi:10.1119/1.2174962. S2CID 59471273. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2020-02-28.
Kondepudi, D.K. (1987). "Microscopic aspects implied by the second law". Foundations of Physics. 17 (7): 713–722. Bibcode:1987FoPh...17..713K. doi:10.1007/BF01889544. S2CID 120576357.
Prati, E. (2010). "The finite quantum grand canonical ensemble and temperature from single-electron statistics for a mesoscopic device". J. Stat. Mech. 1 (1) P01003. arXiv:1001.2342. Bibcode:2010JSMTE..01..003P. doi:10.1088/1742-5468/2010/01/P01003. S2CID 118339343.
Prati, Enrico; Belli, Matteo; Fanciulli, Marco; Ferrari, Giorgio (15 March 2010). "Measuring the temperature of a mesoscopic electron system by means of single electron statistics". Applied Physics Letters. 96 (11) 113109. arXiv:1002.0037. Bibcode:2010ApPhL..96k3109P. doi:10.1063/1.3365204.

archive.org (Global: 6^th place; English: 6^th place)

F. Reif (1965). Fundamentals of Statistical and Thermal Physics. McGraw-Hill. p. 102. ISBN 978-0-07-051800-1.

arxiv.org (Global: 49^th place; English: 31^st place)

Based on a computer model that predicted a peak internal temperature of 30 MeV (350 GK) during the merger of a binary neutron star system (which produces a gamma–ray burst). The neutron stars in the model were 1.2 and 1.6 solar masses respectively, were roughly 20 km in diameter, and were orbiting around their barycenter (common center of mass) at about 390 Hz during the last several milliseconds before they completely merged. The 350 GK portion was a small volume located at the pair's developing common core and varied from roughly 1 to 7 km across over a time span of around 5 ms. Imagine two city-sized objects of unimaginable density orbiting each other at the same frequency as the G4 musical note (the 28th white key on a piano). It's also noteworthy that at 350 GK, the average neutron has a vibrational speed of 30% the speed of light and a relativistic mass (m) 5% greater than its rest mass (m₀). Oechslin, R.; Janka, H.- T. (2006). "Torus formation in neutron star mergers and well-localized short gamma-ray bursts". Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society. 368 (4): 1489–1499. arXiv:astro-ph/0507099. Bibcode:2006MNRAS.368.1489O. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2966.2006.10238.x..
Zeppenfeld, Martin; Englert, Barbara G. U.; Glöckner, Rosa; Prehn, Alexander; Mielenz, Manuel; Sommer, Christian; van Buuren, Laurens D.; Motsch, Michael; Rempe, Gerhard (November 2012). "Sisyphus cooling of electrically trapped polyatomic molecules". Nature. 491 (7425): 570–573. arXiv:1208.0046. Bibcode:2012Natur.491..570Z. doi:10.1038/nature11595. PMID 23151480.
Chen, Gang (August 2022). "On the molecular picture and interfacial temperature discontinuity during evaporation and condensation". International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer. 191 122845. arXiv:2201.07318. Bibcode:2022IJHMT.19122845C. doi:10.1016/j.ijheatmasstransfer.2022.122845.
Prati, E. (2010). "The finite quantum grand canonical ensemble and temperature from single-electron statistics for a mesoscopic device". J. Stat. Mech. 1 (1) P01003. arXiv:1001.2342. Bibcode:2010JSMTE..01..003P. doi:10.1088/1742-5468/2010/01/P01003. S2CID 118339343.
Prati, Enrico; Belli, Matteo; Fanciulli, Marco; Ferrari, Giorgio (15 March 2010). "Measuring the temperature of a mesoscopic electron system by means of single electron statistics". Applied Physics Letters. 96 (11) 113109. arXiv:1002.0037. Bibcode:2010ApPhL..96k3109P. doi:10.1063/1.3365204.

bipm.org (Global: 1,781^st place; English: 2,481^st place)

bipm.org

Draft Resolution A "On the revision of the International System of Units (SI)" to be submitted to the CGPM at its 26th meeting (2018) (PDF), archived from the original (PDF) on 2018-04-29, retrieved 2019-10-20
Definition agreed by the 26th General Conference on Weights and Measures (CGPM) Archived 2020-10-09 at the Wayback Machine in November 2018, implemented 20 May 2019

www1.bipm.org

The kelvin in the SI Brochure Archived 2007-09-26 at the Wayback Machine

bnl.gov (Global: 6,608^th place; English: 7,961^st place)

phenix.bnl.gov

Results of research by Stefan Bathe using the PHENIX Archived 2008-11-20 at the Wayback Machine detector on the Relativistic Heavy Ion Collider Archived 2016-03-03 at the Wayback Machine at Brookhaven National Laboratory Archived 2012-06-24 at the Wayback Machine in Upton, New York. Bathe has studied gold-gold, deuteron-gold, and proton-proton collisions to test the theory of quantum chromodynamics, the theory of the strong force that holds atomic nuclei together. Link to news release. Archived 2009-02-11 at the Wayback Machine

bnl.gov

Results of research by Stefan Bathe using the PHENIX Archived 2008-11-20 at the Wayback Machine detector on the Relativistic Heavy Ion Collider Archived 2016-03-03 at the Wayback Machine at Brookhaven National Laboratory Archived 2012-06-24 at the Wayback Machine in Upton, New York. Bathe has studied gold-gold, deuteron-gold, and proton-proton collisions to test the theory of quantum chromodynamics, the theory of the strong force that holds atomic nuclei together. Link to news release. Archived 2009-02-11 at the Wayback Machine

books.google.com (Global: 3^rd place; English: 3^rd place)

Agency, International Atomic Energy (1974). Thermal discharges at nuclear power stations: their management and environmental impacts: a report prepared by a group of experts as the result of a panel meeting held in Vienna, 23–27 October 1972. International Atomic Energy Agency.
Watkinson, John (2001). The Art of Digital Audio. Taylor & Francis. ISBN 978-0-240-51587-8.

calphad.com (Global: low place; English: low place)

"Absolute Zero". Calphad.com. Archived from the original on 2011-07-08. Retrieved 2010-09-16.

caltech.edu (Global: 240^th place; English: 473^rd place)

feynmanlectures.caltech.edu

The Feynman Lectures on Physics. 39–5 The ideal gas law

cern.ch (Global: 2,552^nd place; English: 2,008^th place)

public.web.cern.ch

How do physicists study particles? Archived 2007-10-11 at the Wayback Machine by CERN Archived 2012-07-07 at the Wayback Machine.

cryogenicsociety.org (Global: low place; English: low place)

Cryogenic Society Archived 2020-11-07 at the Wayback Machine (2019).

doi.org (Global: 2^nd place; English: 2^nd place)

Peak temperature for a bulk quantity of matter was achieved by a pulsed-power machine used in fusion physics experiments. The term bulk quantity draws a distinction from collisions in particle accelerators wherein high temperature applies only to the debris from two subatomic particles or nuclei at any given instant. The >2 GK temperature was achieved over a period of about ten nanoseconds during shot Z1137. In fact, the iron and manganese ions in the plasma averaged 3.58±0.41 GK (309±35 keV) for 3 ns (ns 112 through 115). Haines, M. G.; LePell, P. D.; Coverdale, C. A.; Jones, B.; Deeney, C.; Apruzese, J. P. (23 February 2006). "Ion Viscous Heating in a Magnetohydrodynamically Unstable Z Pinch at Over 2 × 10 9 Kelvin". Physical Review Letters. 96 (7) 075003. doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.96.075003. PMID 16606100. Link to Sandia's news release. Archived 2010-05-30 at the Wayback Machine
Based on a computer model that predicted a peak internal temperature of 30 MeV (350 GK) during the merger of a binary neutron star system (which produces a gamma–ray burst). The neutron stars in the model were 1.2 and 1.6 solar masses respectively, were roughly 20 km in diameter, and were orbiting around their barycenter (common center of mass) at about 390 Hz during the last several milliseconds before they completely merged. The 350 GK portion was a small volume located at the pair's developing common core and varied from roughly 1 to 7 km across over a time span of around 5 ms. Imagine two city-sized objects of unimaginable density orbiting each other at the same frequency as the G4 musical note (the 28th white key on a piano). It's also noteworthy that at 350 GK, the average neutron has a vibrational speed of 30% the speed of light and a relativistic mass (m) 5% greater than its rest mass (m₀). Oechslin, R.; Janka, H.- T. (2006). "Torus formation in neutron star mergers and well-localized short gamma-ray bursts". Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society. 368 (4): 1489–1499. arXiv:astro-ph/0507099. Bibcode:2006MNRAS.368.1489O. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2966.2006.10238.x..
Germer, L. H. (June 1925). "The Distribution of Initial Velocities Among Thermionic Electrons". Physical Review. 25 (6): 795–807. Bibcode:1925PhRv...25..795G. doi:10.1103/PhysRev.25.795.
Turvey, K (January 1990). "Test of validity of Maxwellian statistics for electrons thermionically emitted from an oxide cathode". European Journal of Physics. 11 (1): 51–59. Bibcode:1990EJPh...11...51T. doi:10.1088/0143-0807/11/1/010.
Zeppenfeld, Martin; Englert, Barbara G. U.; Glöckner, Rosa; Prehn, Alexander; Mielenz, Manuel; Sommer, Christian; van Buuren, Laurens D.; Motsch, Michael; Rempe, Gerhard (November 2012). "Sisyphus cooling of electrically trapped polyatomic molecules". Nature. 491 (7425): 570–573. arXiv:1208.0046. Bibcode:2012Natur.491..570Z. doi:10.1038/nature11595. PMID 23151480.
Podesta, Michael de; Underwood, Robin; Sutton, Gavin; Morantz, Paul; Harris, Peter; Mark, Darren F; Stuart, Finlay M; Vargha, Gergely; Machin, Graham (August 2013). "A low-uncertainty measurement of the Boltzmann constant". Metrologia. 50 (4): 354–376. Bibcode:2013Metro..50..354D. doi:10.1088/0026-1394/50/4/354.
Milne, E. A. (1928). "The effect of collisions on monochromatic radiative equilibrium". Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society. 88 (6): 493. Bibcode:1928MNRAS..88..493M. doi:10.1093/mnras/88.6.493.
Thomsen, J.S. (1962). "A restatement of the zeroth law of thermodynamics". Am. J. Phys. 30 (4): 294–296. Bibcode:1962AmJPh..30..294T. doi:10.1119/1.1941991.
Jha, Aditya; Campbell, Douglas; Montelle, Clemency; Wilson, Phillip L. (2023-07-30). "On the Continuum Fallacy: Is Temperature a Continuous Function?". Foundations of Physics. 53 (4): 69. Bibcode:2023FoPh...53...69J. doi:10.1007/s10701-023-00713-x. hdl:1721.1/152272. ISSN 1572-9516.
van Strien, Marij (2015-10-01). "Continuity in nature and in mathematics: Boltzmann and Poincaré". Synthese. 192 (10): 3275–3295. doi:10.1007/s11229-015-0701-9. ISSN 1573-0964. S2CID 255075377.
Fang, G.; Ward, C. A. (January 1999). "Temperature measured close to the interface of an evaporating liquid". Physical Review E. 59 (1): 417–428. Bibcode:1999PhRvE..59..417F. doi:10.1103/PhysRevE.59.417.
Newell, Homer E. (12 February 1960). "The Space Environment: As man looks forward to flight into space, he finds the outer regions not completely unknown". Science. 131 (3398): 385–390. doi:10.1126/science.131.3398.385. PMID 14426791.
Chen, Gang (August 2022). "On the molecular picture and interfacial temperature discontinuity during evaporation and condensation". International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer. 191 122845. arXiv:2201.07318. Bibcode:2022IJHMT.19122845C. doi:10.1016/j.ijheatmasstransfer.2022.122845.
Cahill, David G.; Ford, Wayne K.; Goodson, Kenneth E.; Mahan, Gerald D.; Majumdar, Arun; Maris, Humphrey J.; Merlin, Roberto; Phillpot, Simon R. (15 January 2003). "Nanoscale thermal transport". Journal of Applied Physics. 93 (2): 793–818. Bibcode:2003JAP....93..793C. doi:10.1063/1.1524305. hdl:2027.42/70161.
Chen, Jie; Xu, Xiangfan; Zhou, Jun; Li, Baowen (22 April 2022). "Interfacial thermal resistance: Past, present, and future". Reviews of Modern Physics. 94 (2) 025002. Bibcode:2022RvMP...94b5002C. doi:10.1103/RevModPhys.94.025002.
Aursand, Eskil; Ytrehus, Tor (July 2019). "Comparison of kinetic theory evaporation models for liquid thin-films". International Journal of Multiphase Flow. 116: 67–79. Bibcode:2019IJMF..116...67A. doi:10.1016/j.ijmultiphaseflow.2019.04.007. hdl:11250/2594950.
C. Carathéodory (1909). "Untersuchungen über die Grundlagen der Thermodynamik". Mathematische Annalen. 67 (3): 355–386. Bibcode:1909MatAn..67..355C. doi:10.1007/BF01450409. S2CID 118230148.
Swendsen, Robert (March 2006). "Statistical mechanics of colloids and Boltzmann's definition of entropy" (PDF). American Journal of Physics. 74 (3): 187–190. Bibcode:2006AmJPh..74..187S. doi:10.1119/1.2174962. S2CID 59471273. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2020-02-28.
Kondepudi, D.K. (1987). "Microscopic aspects implied by the second law". Foundations of Physics. 17 (7): 713–722. Bibcode:1987FoPh...17..713K. doi:10.1007/BF01889544. S2CID 120576357.
Prati, E. (2010). "The finite quantum grand canonical ensemble and temperature from single-electron statistics for a mesoscopic device". J. Stat. Mech. 1 (1) P01003. arXiv:1001.2342. Bibcode:2010JSMTE..01..003P. doi:10.1088/1742-5468/2010/01/P01003. S2CID 118339343.
Prati, Enrico; Belli, Matteo; Fanciulli, Marco; Ferrari, Giorgio (15 March 2010). "Measuring the temperature of a mesoscopic electron system by means of single electron statistics". Applied Physics Letters. 96 (11) 113109. arXiv:1002.0037. Bibcode:2010ApPhL..96k3109P. doi:10.1063/1.3365204.

e-booksdirectory.com (Global: low place; English: low place)

Bryan, G.H. (1907). Thermodynamics. An Introductory Treatise dealing mainly with First Principles and their Direct Applications, B.G. Teubner, Leipzig, p. 3. "Thermodynamics by George Hartley Bryan". Archived from the original on 2011-11-18. Retrieved 2011-10-02.
Bryan, G.H. (1907). Thermodynamics. An Introductory Treatise dealing mainly with First Principles and their Direct Applications, B.G. Teubner, Leipzig, p. 5: "... when a body is spoken of as growing hotter or colder an increase of temperature is always implied, for the hotness and coldness of a body are qualitative terms which can only refer to temperature." "Thermodynamics by George Hartley Bryan". Archived from the original on 2011-11-18. Retrieved 2011-10-02.

fau.edu (Global: 9,139^th place; English: 6,441^st place)

cosserv3.fau.edu

Core temperature of a high–mass (>8–11 solar masses) star after it leaves the main sequence on the Hertzsprung–Russell diagram and begins the alpha process (which lasts one day) of fusing silicon–28 into heavier elements in the following steps: sulfur–32 → argon–36 → calcium–40 → titanium–44 → chromium–48 → iron–52 → nickel–56. Within minutes of finishing the sequence, the star explodes as a Type II supernova. Citation: Holland, Arthur; Williams, Mark. "Stellar Evolution: The Life and Death of Our Luminous Neighbors". GS265. University of Michigan. Archived from the original on 2009-01-16. More informative links can be found here "Chapter 21 Stellar Explosions". Archived from the original on 2013-04-11. Retrieved 2016-02-08., and here "Trans". Archived from the original on 2011-08-14. Retrieved 2016-02-08., and a concise treatise on stars by NASA is here "NASA - Star". Archived from the original on 2010-10-24. Retrieved 2010-10-12..

hdl.handle.net (Global: 66^th place; English: 34^th place)

Jha, Aditya; Campbell, Douglas; Montelle, Clemency; Wilson, Phillip L. (2023-07-30). "On the Continuum Fallacy: Is Temperature a Continuous Function?". Foundations of Physics. 53 (4): 69. Bibcode:2023FoPh...53...69J. doi:10.1007/s10701-023-00713-x. hdl:1721.1/152272. ISSN 1572-9516.
Cahill, David G.; Ford, Wayne K.; Goodson, Kenneth E.; Mahan, Gerald D.; Majumdar, Arun; Maris, Humphrey J.; Merlin, Roberto; Phillpot, Simon R. (15 January 2003). "Nanoscale thermal transport". Journal of Applied Physics. 93 (2): 793–818. Bibcode:2003JAP....93..793C. doi:10.1063/1.1524305. hdl:2027.42/70161.
Aursand, Eskil; Ytrehus, Tor (July 2019). "Comparison of kinetic theory evaporation models for liquid thin-films". International Journal of Multiphase Flow. 116: 67–79. Bibcode:2019IJMF..116...67A. doi:10.1016/j.ijmultiphaseflow.2019.04.007. hdl:11250/2594950.

livescience.com (Global: 1,726^th place; English: 1,417^th place)

Joanna Thompson (2021-10-14). "Scientists just broke the record for the coldest temperature ever recorded in a lab". Live Science. Retrieved 2023-04-28.

nasa.gov (Global: 12^th place; English: 73^rd place)

nasa.gov

Core temperature of a high–mass (>8–11 solar masses) star after it leaves the main sequence on the Hertzsprung–Russell diagram and begins the alpha process (which lasts one day) of fusing silicon–28 into heavier elements in the following steps: sulfur–32 → argon–36 → calcium–40 → titanium–44 → chromium–48 → iron–52 → nickel–56. Within minutes of finishing the sequence, the star explodes as a Type II supernova. Citation: Holland, Arthur; Williams, Mark. "Stellar Evolution: The Life and Death of Our Luminous Neighbors". GS265. University of Michigan. Archived from the original on 2009-01-16. More informative links can be found here "Chapter 21 Stellar Explosions". Archived from the original on 2013-04-11. Retrieved 2016-02-08., and here "Trans". Archived from the original on 2011-08-14. Retrieved 2016-02-08., and a concise treatise on stars by NASA is here "NASA - Star". Archived from the original on 2010-10-24. Retrieved 2010-10-12..

svs.gsfc.nasa.gov

SVS (2023-08-03). "NASA Scientific Visualization Studio | A Guide to Cosmic Temperatures". SVS. Retrieved 2023-08-06.

nih.gov (Global: 5^th place; English: 5^th place)

pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov

Peak temperature for a bulk quantity of matter was achieved by a pulsed-power machine used in fusion physics experiments. The term bulk quantity draws a distinction from collisions in particle accelerators wherein high temperature applies only to the debris from two subatomic particles or nuclei at any given instant. The >2 GK temperature was achieved over a period of about ten nanoseconds during shot Z1137. In fact, the iron and manganese ions in the plasma averaged 3.58±0.41 GK (309±35 keV) for 3 ns (ns 112 through 115). Haines, M. G.; LePell, P. D.; Coverdale, C. A.; Jones, B.; Deeney, C.; Apruzese, J. P. (23 February 2006). "Ion Viscous Heating in a Magnetohydrodynamically Unstable Z Pinch at Over 2 × 10 9 Kelvin". Physical Review Letters. 96 (7) 075003. doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.96.075003. PMID 16606100. Link to Sandia's news release. Archived 2010-05-30 at the Wayback Machine
Zeppenfeld, Martin; Englert, Barbara G. U.; Glöckner, Rosa; Prehn, Alexander; Mielenz, Manuel; Sommer, Christian; van Buuren, Laurens D.; Motsch, Michael; Rempe, Gerhard (November 2012). "Sisyphus cooling of electrically trapped polyatomic molecules". Nature. 491 (7425): 570–573. arXiv:1208.0046. Bibcode:2012Natur.491..570Z. doi:10.1038/nature11595. PMID 23151480.
Newell, Homer E. (12 February 1960). "The Space Environment: As man looks forward to flight into space, he finds the outer regions not completely unknown". Science. 131 (3398): 385–390. doi:10.1126/science.131.3398.385. PMID 14426791.

nist.gov (Global: 708^th place; English: 742^nd place)

physics.nist.gov

"2022 CODATA Value: molar gas constant". The NIST Reference on Constants, Units, and Uncertainty. NIST. May 2024. Retrieved 2024-05-18.

nuclearweaponarchive.org (Global: 4,373^rd place; English: 3,351^st place)

The 350 MK value is the maximum peak fusion fuel temperature in a thermonuclear weapon of the Teller–Ulam configuration (commonly known as a hydrogen bomb). Peak temperatures in Gadget-style fission bomb cores (commonly known as an atomic bomb) are in the range of 50 to 100 MK. Citation: Nuclear Weapons Frequently Asked Questions, 3.2.5 Matter At High Temperatures. Link to relevant Web page. Archived 2007-05-03 at the Wayback Machine All referenced data was compiled from publicly available sources.

openlibrary.org (Global: 185^th place; English: 154^th place)

Planck, M. (1914), The Theory of Heat Radiation Archived 2011-11-18 at the Wayback Machine, second edition, translated into English by M. Masius, Blakiston's Son & Co., Philadelphia, reprinted by Kessinger.

qps.org (Global: low place; English: low place)

schools.qps.org

Core temperature of a high–mass (>8–11 solar masses) star after it leaves the main sequence on the Hertzsprung–Russell diagram and begins the alpha process (which lasts one day) of fusing silicon–28 into heavier elements in the following steps: sulfur–32 → argon–36 → calcium–40 → titanium–44 → chromium–48 → iron–52 → nickel–56. Within minutes of finishing the sequence, the star explodes as a Type II supernova. Citation: Holland, Arthur; Williams, Mark. "Stellar Evolution: The Life and Death of Our Luminous Neighbors". GS265. University of Michigan. Archived from the original on 2009-01-16. More informative links can be found here "Chapter 21 Stellar Explosions". Archived from the original on 2013-04-11. Retrieved 2016-02-08., and here "Trans". Archived from the original on 2011-08-14. Retrieved 2016-02-08., and a concise treatise on stars by NASA is here "NASA - Star". Archived from the original on 2010-10-24. Retrieved 2010-10-12..

sandia.gov (Global: low place; English: low place)

Peak temperature for a bulk quantity of matter was achieved by a pulsed-power machine used in fusion physics experiments. The term bulk quantity draws a distinction from collisions in particle accelerators wherein high temperature applies only to the debris from two subatomic particles or nuclei at any given instant. The >2 GK temperature was achieved over a period of about ten nanoseconds during shot Z1137. In fact, the iron and manganese ions in the plasma averaged 3.58±0.41 GK (309±35 keV) for 3 ns (ns 112 through 115). Haines, M. G.; LePell, P. D.; Coverdale, C. A.; Jones, B.; Deeney, C.; Apruzese, J. P. (23 February 2006). "Ion Viscous Heating in a Magnetohydrodynamically Unstable Z Pinch at Over 2 × 10 9 Kelvin". Physical Review Letters. 96 (7) 075003. doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.96.075003. PMID 16606100. Link to Sandia's news release. Archived 2010-05-30 at the Wayback Machine

semanticscholar.org (Global: 15^th place; English: 8^th place)

api.semanticscholar.org

van Strien, Marij (2015-10-01). "Continuity in nature and in mathematics: Boltzmann and Poincaré". Synthese. 192 (10): 3275–3295. doi:10.1007/s11229-015-0701-9. ISSN 1573-0964. S2CID 255075377.
C. Carathéodory (1909). "Untersuchungen über die Grundlagen der Thermodynamik". Mathematische Annalen. 67 (3): 355–386. Bibcode:1909MatAn..67..355C. doi:10.1007/BF01450409. S2CID 118230148.
Swendsen, Robert (March 2006). "Statistical mechanics of colloids and Boltzmann's definition of entropy" (PDF). American Journal of Physics. 74 (3): 187–190. Bibcode:2006AmJPh..74..187S. doi:10.1119/1.2174962. S2CID 59471273. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2020-02-28.
Kondepudi, D.K. (1987). "Microscopic aspects implied by the second law". Foundations of Physics. 17 (7): 713–722. Bibcode:1987FoPh...17..713K. doi:10.1007/BF01889544. S2CID 120576357.
Prati, E. (2010). "The finite quantum grand canonical ensemble and temperature from single-electron statistics for a mesoscopic device". J. Stat. Mech. 1 (1) P01003. arXiv:1001.2342. Bibcode:2010JSMTE..01..003P. doi:10.1088/1742-5468/2010/01/P01003. S2CID 118339343.

pdfs.semanticscholar.org

Swendsen, Robert (March 2006). "Statistical mechanics of colloids and Boltzmann's definition of entropy" (PDF). American Journal of Physics. 74 (3): 187–190. Bibcode:2006AmJPh..74..187S. doi:10.1119/1.2174962. S2CID 59471273. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2020-02-28.

uic.edu (Global: 6,212^th place; English: 3,934^th place)

T.W. Leland, Jr. "Basic Principles of Classical and Statistical Thermodynamics" (PDF). p. 14. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2011-09-28. Consequently we identify temperature as a driving force which causes something called heat to be transferred.

umich.edu (Global: 429^th place; English: 307^th place)

Core temperature of a high–mass (>8–11 solar masses) star after it leaves the main sequence on the Hertzsprung–Russell diagram and begins the alpha process (which lasts one day) of fusing silicon–28 into heavier elements in the following steps: sulfur–32 → argon–36 → calcium–40 → titanium–44 → chromium–48 → iron–52 → nickel–56. Within minutes of finishing the sequence, the star explodes as a Type II supernova. Citation: Holland, Arthur; Williams, Mark. "Stellar Evolution: The Life and Death of Our Luminous Neighbors". GS265. University of Michigan. Archived from the original on 2009-01-16. More informative links can be found here "Chapter 21 Stellar Explosions". Archived from the original on 2013-04-11. Retrieved 2016-02-08., and here "Trans". Archived from the original on 2011-08-14. Retrieved 2016-02-08., and a concise treatise on stars by NASA is here "NASA - Star". Archived from the original on 2010-10-24. Retrieved 2010-10-12..

uni-freiburg.de (Global: 5,193^rd place; English: 9,449^th place)

kis.uni-freiburg.de

Measurement was made in 2002 and has an uncertainty of ±3 kelvins. A 1989 measurement Archived 2010-02-11 at the Wayback Machine produced a value of 5,777.0±2.5 K. Citation: Overview of the Sun (Chapter 1 lecture notes on Solar Physics by Division of Theoretical Physics, Dept. of Physical Sciences, University of Helsinki).

uniroma1.it (Global: 9,508^th place; English: low place)

tnt.phys.uniroma1.it

"Realizing Boltzmann's dream: computer simulations in modern statistical mechanics" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 2014-04-13. Retrieved 2014-04-11.

usgs.gov (Global: 119^th place; English: 145^th place)

Water Science School (29 August 2019). "Frozen carbon dioxide (dry ice) sublimates directly into a vapor". USGS.

virginia.edu (Global: 1,203^rd place; English: 734^th place)

galileo.phys.virginia.edu

"Kinetic Theory". galileo.phys.virginia.edu. Archived from the original on 16 July 2017. Retrieved 27 January 2018.

web.archive.org (Global: 1^st place; English: 1^st place)

Measurement was made in 2002 and has an uncertainty of ±3 kelvins. A 1989 measurement Archived 2010-02-11 at the Wayback Machine produced a value of 5,777.0±2.5 K. Citation: Overview of the Sun (Chapter 1 lecture notes on Solar Physics by Division of Theoretical Physics, Dept. of Physical Sciences, University of Helsinki).
The 350 MK value is the maximum peak fusion fuel temperature in a thermonuclear weapon of the Teller–Ulam configuration (commonly known as a hydrogen bomb). Peak temperatures in Gadget-style fission bomb cores (commonly known as an atomic bomb) are in the range of 50 to 100 MK. Citation: Nuclear Weapons Frequently Asked Questions, 3.2.5 Matter At High Temperatures. Link to relevant Web page. Archived 2007-05-03 at the Wayback Machine All referenced data was compiled from publicly available sources.
Peak temperature for a bulk quantity of matter was achieved by a pulsed-power machine used in fusion physics experiments. The term bulk quantity draws a distinction from collisions in particle accelerators wherein high temperature applies only to the debris from two subatomic particles or nuclei at any given instant. The >2 GK temperature was achieved over a period of about ten nanoseconds during shot Z1137. In fact, the iron and manganese ions in the plasma averaged 3.58±0.41 GK (309±35 keV) for 3 ns (ns 112 through 115). Haines, M. G.; LePell, P. D.; Coverdale, C. A.; Jones, B.; Deeney, C.; Apruzese, J. P. (23 February 2006). "Ion Viscous Heating in a Magnetohydrodynamically Unstable Z Pinch at Over 2 × 10 9 Kelvin". Physical Review Letters. 96 (7) 075003. doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.96.075003. PMID 16606100. Link to Sandia's news release. Archived 2010-05-30 at the Wayback Machine
Core temperature of a high–mass (>8–11 solar masses) star after it leaves the main sequence on the Hertzsprung–Russell diagram and begins the alpha process (which lasts one day) of fusing silicon–28 into heavier elements in the following steps: sulfur–32 → argon–36 → calcium–40 → titanium–44 → chromium–48 → iron–52 → nickel–56. Within minutes of finishing the sequence, the star explodes as a Type II supernova. Citation: Holland, Arthur; Williams, Mark. "Stellar Evolution: The Life and Death of Our Luminous Neighbors". GS265. University of Michigan. Archived from the original on 2009-01-16. More informative links can be found here "Chapter 21 Stellar Explosions". Archived from the original on 2013-04-11. Retrieved 2016-02-08., and here "Trans". Archived from the original on 2011-08-14. Retrieved 2016-02-08., and a concise treatise on stars by NASA is here "NASA - Star". Archived from the original on 2010-10-24. Retrieved 2010-10-12..
Cryogenic Society Archived 2020-11-07 at the Wayback Machine (2019).
Draft Resolution A "On the revision of the International System of Units (SI)" to be submitted to the CGPM at its 26th meeting (2018) (PDF), archived from the original (PDF) on 2018-04-29, retrieved 2019-10-20
Bryan, G.H. (1907). Thermodynamics. An Introductory Treatise dealing mainly with First Principles and their Direct Applications, B.G. Teubner, Leipzig, p. 3. "Thermodynamics by George Hartley Bryan". Archived from the original on 2011-11-18. Retrieved 2011-10-02.
Bryan, G.H. (1907). Thermodynamics. An Introductory Treatise dealing mainly with First Principles and their Direct Applications, B.G. Teubner, Leipzig, p. 5: "... when a body is spoken of as growing hotter or colder an increase of temperature is always implied, for the hotness and coldness of a body are qualitative terms which can only refer to temperature." "Thermodynamics by George Hartley Bryan". Archived from the original on 2011-11-18. Retrieved 2011-10-02.
Planck, M. (1914), The Theory of Heat Radiation Archived 2011-11-18 at the Wayback Machine, second edition, translated into English by M. Masius, Blakiston's Son & Co., Philadelphia, reprinted by Kessinger.
T.W. Leland, Jr. "Basic Principles of Classical and Statistical Thermodynamics" (PDF). p. 14. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2011-09-28. Consequently we identify temperature as a driving force which causes something called heat to be transferred.
The kelvin in the SI Brochure Archived 2007-09-26 at the Wayback Machine
"Absolute Zero". Calphad.com. Archived from the original on 2011-07-08. Retrieved 2010-09-16.
Definition agreed by the 26th General Conference on Weights and Measures (CGPM) Archived 2020-10-09 at the Wayback Machine in November 2018, implemented 20 May 2019
Swendsen, Robert (March 2006). "Statistical mechanics of colloids and Boltzmann's definition of entropy" (PDF). American Journal of Physics. 74 (3): 187–190. Bibcode:2006AmJPh..74..187S. doi:10.1119/1.2174962. S2CID 59471273. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2020-02-28.
"Kinetic Theory". galileo.phys.virginia.edu. Archived from the original on 16 July 2017. Retrieved 27 January 2018.
"Realizing Boltzmann's dream: computer simulations in modern statistical mechanics" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 2014-04-13. Retrieved 2014-04-11.
Results of research by Stefan Bathe using the PHENIX Archived 2008-11-20 at the Wayback Machine detector on the Relativistic Heavy Ion Collider Archived 2016-03-03 at the Wayback Machine at Brookhaven National Laboratory Archived 2012-06-24 at the Wayback Machine in Upton, New York. Bathe has studied gold-gold, deuteron-gold, and proton-proton collisions to test the theory of quantum chromodynamics, the theory of the strong force that holds atomic nuclei together. Link to news release. Archived 2009-02-11 at the Wayback Machine
How do physicists study particles? Archived 2007-10-11 at the Wayback Machine by CERN Archived 2012-07-07 at the Wayback Machine.

worldcat.org (Global: 4^th place; English: 4^th place)

search.worldcat.org

Jha, Aditya; Campbell, Douglas; Montelle, Clemency; Wilson, Phillip L. (2023-07-30). "On the Continuum Fallacy: Is Temperature a Continuous Function?". Foundations of Physics. 53 (4): 69. Bibcode:2023FoPh...53...69J. doi:10.1007/s10701-023-00713-x. hdl:1721.1/152272. ISSN 1572-9516.
van Strien, Marij (2015-10-01). "Continuity in nature and in mathematics: Boltzmann and Poincaré". Synthese. 192 (10): 3275–3295. doi:10.1007/s11229-015-0701-9. ISSN 1573-0964. S2CID 255075377.

zenodo.org (Global: 737^th place; English: 426^th place)

C. Carathéodory (1909). "Untersuchungen über die Grundlagen der Thermodynamik". Mathematische Annalen. 67 (3): 355–386. Bibcode:1909MatAn..67..355C. doi:10.1007/BF01450409. S2CID 118230148.

Temperature (English Wikipedia)

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