The Buddha (English Wikipedia)

Bopearachchi, Osmund (1 January 2021). "GREEK HELIOS OR INDIAN SŪRYA? THE SPREAD OF THE SUN GOD IMAGERY FROM INDIA TO GANDHĀRA". Connecting the Ancient West and East. Studies Presented to Prof. Gocha R. Tsetskhladze, Edited by J. Boardman, J. Hargrave, A. Avram and A. Podossinov, Monographs in Antiquity: 946. Archived from the original on 13 September 2022. Retrieved 18 August 2022.
Bronkhorst, Johannes (2016). "Appendix X Was there Buddhism in Gandhāra at the Time of Alexander?". How the Brahmins Won: Appendix X Was there Buddhism in Gandhāra at the Time of Alexander?. Brill. pp. 483–489, page 6 of the appendix. doi:10.1163/9789004315518_016. ISBN 978-90-04-31551-8. Archived from the original on 24 April 2022. Retrieved 1 May 2022. {{cite book}}: |journal= ignored (help)
Eiland, Murray (2020). "What the Buddha Thought". Antiqvvs. 3 (1). Interview with Richard Gombrich: 42. Archived from the original on 26 December 2022. Retrieved 26 December 2022.

accesstoinsight.org

According to Mahaparinibbana Sutta (see Äccess to insight, Maha-parinibbana Sutta), Gautama died in Kushinagar, which is located in present-day Uttar Pradesh, India.
Buswell & Lopez 2014, p. entry "Sakyamuni" refer to the Ariyapariyesana Sutta, noting: "Buddha's quest for enlightenment occurs in the ARIYAPARIYESANĀSUTTA. It is noteworthy that many of the most familiar events in the Buddha's life are absent in some of the early accounts."
The Ariyapariyesana Sutta says: "So, at a later time, while still young, a black-haired young man endowed with the blessings of youth in the first stage of life — and while my parents, unwilling, were crying with tears streaming down their faces — I shaved off my hair & beard, put on the ochre robe and went forth from the home life into homelessness. Buswell, Robert E. Jr.; Lopez, Donald S. Jr., eds. (2014), The Princeton Dictionary of Buddhism, Princeton and Oxford: Princeton University Press, ISBN 978-0-691-15786-3
Minor Rock Edict Nb3: "These Dhamma texts – Extracts from the Discipline, the Noble Way of Life, the Fears to Come, the Poem on the Silent Sage, the Discourse on the Pure Life, Upatisa's Questions, and the Advice to Rahula which was spoken by the Buddha concerning false speech – these Dhamma texts, reverend sirs, I desire that all the monks and nuns may constantly listen to and remember. Likewise the laymen and laywomen."^[43]

Dhammika: "There is disagreement amongst scholars concerning which Pali suttas correspond to some of the text. Vinaya samukose: probably the Atthavasa Vagga, Anguttara Nikaya, 1:98–100. Aliya vasani: either the Ariyavasa Sutta, Anguttara Nikaya, V:29, or the Ariyavamsa Sutta, Anguttara Nikaya, II: 27–28. Anagata bhayani: probably the Anagata Sutta, Anguttara Nikaya, III:100. Muni gatha: Muni Sutta, Sutta Nipata 207–21. Upatisa pasine: Sariputta Sutta, Sutta Nipata 955–75. Laghulavade: Rahulavada Sutta, Majjhima Nikaya, I:421."^[43]

See Readings Selected by King Asoka for a translation of these texts.
See the Upaddha Sutta ("Half (of the Holy Life)") Thanissaro Bhikkhu (ytansl.), Sutta Central: "Admirable friendship, admirable companionship, admirable camaraderie is actually the whole of the holy life. When a monk has admirable people as friends, companions, & comrades, he can be expected to develop & pursue the noble eightfold path."
"That the True Dhamma Might Last a Long Time: Readings Selected by King Asoka". Access to Insight. Translated by Bhikkhu, Thanissaro. 1993. Archived from the original on 28 October 2017. Retrieved 8 January 2016.
"A Sketch of the Buddha's Life: Readings from the Pali Canon". Access to Insight. 2005. Archived from the original on 22 December 2010. Retrieved 24 September 2015.
"Maha-Saccaka Sutta: The Longer Discourse to Saccaka". Access to Insight. Translated by Bhikkhu, Thanissaro. 2008. (MN 36). Archived from the original on 29 December 2008. Retrieved 19 May 2007.
"Dhammacakkappavattana Sutta: Setting the Wheel of Dhamma in Motion". Access to Insight. Translated by Bhikkhu, Thanissaro. 1993. Archived from the original on 30 March 2019. Retrieved 25 December 2012.
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archive.org

According to the Buddhist tradition, following the Nidanakatha (Fausböll, Davids & Davids 1878, p. ^{[page needed]}), the introductory to the Jataka tales, the stories of the former lives of the Buddha, Gautama was born in Lumbini, now in modern Nepal, but then part of the territory of the Shakya-clan.^[126]^{[128] Fausböll, V. (1878), Buddhist birth-stories (Jataka tales), translated by T.W. Rhys Davids, (new & rev. ed. by C.A. Rhys Davids), London: George Routledge & Sons Ltd.; New York: E.P. Dutton & Co.}
According to the Buddhist tradition, following the Nidanakatha (Fausböll, Davids & Davids 1878, p. ^{[page needed]}), the introductory to the Jataka tales, the stories of the former lives of the Buddha, Gautama was born in Lumbini, now in modern Nepal, but then part of the territory of the Shakya-clan.^[126]^{[128] Fausböll, V. (1878), Buddhist birth-stories (Jataka tales), translated by T.W. Rhys Davids, (new & rev. ed. by C.A. Rhys Davids), London: George Routledge & Sons Ltd.; New York: E.P. Dutton & Co.}
In Ashoka's Rummindei Edict c. 260 BCE, in Hultzsch (1925, p. 164) Hultzsch, E. (1925). Inscriptions of Asoka (in Sanskrit). p. 164.
Hultzsch (1925), p. 164. Hultzsch, E. (1925). Inscriptions of Asoka (in Sanskrit). p. 164.
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Lopez (1995), p. 4. Lopez, Donald S. (1995), Buddhism in Practice, Princeton University Press, ISBN 978-0-691-04442-2
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Based on stone inscriptions, there is also speculation that Lumbei, Kapileswar village, Odisha, at the east coast of India, was the site of ancient Lumbini.(Mahāpātra 1977 Mohāpātra 2000, p. 114Tripathy 2014) Hartmann 1991, pp. 38–39 discusses the hypothesis and states, "The inscription has generally been considered spurious (...)" He quotes Sircar: "There can hardly be any doubt that the people responsible for the Kapilesvara inscription copied it from the said facsimile not much earlier than 1928." Mahāpātra, Cakradhara (1977), The real birth place of Buddha, Grantha Mandir, archived from the original on 11 January 2023, retrieved 6 May 2020 Mohāpātra, Gopinath (2000), "Two Birth Plates of Buddha" (PDF), Indologica Taurinensia, 26: 113–119, archived from the original (PDF) on 4 October 2012 Tripathy, Ajit Kumar (January 2014), "The Real Birth Place of Buddha. Yesterday's Kapilavastu, Today's Kapileswar" (PDF), The Orissa Historical Research Journal, 47 (1), Orissa State museum, archived from the original (PDF) on 18 March 2012 Hartmann, Jens Uwe. "Research on the date of the Buddha: South Asian Studies Published in Western Languages". In Bechert (1991), pp. 27–45.
Scholars have noted inconsistencies in the presentations of the Buddha's enlightenment, and the Buddhist path to liberation, in the oldest sutras. These inconsistencies show that the Buddhist teachings evolved, either during the lifetime of the Buddha, or thereafter. See:
* Bareau (1963)
* Schmithausen (1981)
* Norman (2003)
* Vetter (1988)
* Gombrich (2006a), Chapter 4
* Bronkhorst (1993), Chapter 7
* Anderson (1999) Bareau, André (1963), Recherches sur la biographie du Buddha dans les Sutrapitaka et les Vinayapitaka anciens (in French), Ecole Francaise d'Extreme-Orient Schmithausen, Lambert (1981), "On some Aspects of Descriptions or Theories of 'Liberating Insight' and 'Enlightenment' in Early Buddhism", in von Klaus, Bruhn; Wezler, Albrecht (eds.), Studien zum Jainismus und Buddhismus (Gedenkschrift für Ludwig Alsdorf) [Studies on Jainism and Buddhism (Schriftfest for Ludwig Alsdorf)] (in German), Wiesbaden, pp. 199–250{{citation}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link) ——— (2003), "The Four Noble Truths", K.R. Norman Collected Papers, vol. II, Oxford: Pali Text Society, pp. 210–223 Vetter, Tilmann (1988), The Ideas and Meditative Practices of Early Buddhism, Brill ——— (2006a). How Buddhism Began: The Conditioned Genesis of the Early Teachings. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-134-19639-5. Archived from the original on 11 January 2023. Retrieved 30 October 2016. Bronkhorst, Johannes (1993), The Two Traditions of Meditation In Ancient India, Motilal Banarsidass Anderson, Carol (1999), Pain and Its Ending: The Four Noble Truths in the Theravada Buddhist Canon, Routledge
*Laumakis, Stephen J. (2023). An Introduction to Buddhist Philosophy. Cambridge University Press. p. xii. ISBN 978-1-009-33708-3. As far as we know, the man who became "the Buddha" or "the Awakened One" was neither a skeptic nor a fideist (i.e. a blind-faith believer) in religious and philosophical matters.
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