Timeline of computing hardware before 1950 (English Wikipedia)

David Smith, pp. 173–181 (1929) Smith, David Eugene (1929). A Source Book in Mathematics. New York and London: McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc.
Felt, Dorr E. (1916). Mechanical arithmetic, or The history of the counting machine. Chicago: Washington Institute. p. 4.

bbk.ac.uk (Global: low place; English: 7,925^th place)

dcs.bbk.ac.uk

Johnson, Roger (April 2008). "School of Computer Science & Information Systems: A Short History" (PDF). Birkbeck College. University of London. Retrieved 23 July 2017.

bnf.fr (Global: 124^th place; English: 544^th place)

gallica.bnf.fr

(fr) Rapport du jury central sur les produits de l'agriculture et de l'industrie exposés en 1849, Tome II, page 542 - 548, Imprimerie Nationale, 1850 Gallica

books.google.com (Global: 3^rd place; English: 3^rd place)

Babbage, Charles (2011-10-12). Passages from the Life of a Philosopher. Cambridge University Press. p. 154. ISBN 9781108037884.
Snyder, Laura J. (2011-02-22). The Philosophical Breakfast Club: Four Remarkable Friends Who Transformed Science and Changed the World. Crown/Archetype. p. 192. ISBN 9780307716170.
Dubbey, J. M.; Dubbey, John Michael (2004-02-12). The Mathematical Work of Charles Babbage. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9780521524766.
Weld, Charles Richard (1848). A History of the Royal Society: With Memoirs of the Presidents. J. W. Parker. pp. 387–390.
Morris, Charles R. (2014-03-04). The Dawn of Innovation: The First American Industrial Revolution. PublicAffairs. p. 63. ISBN 9781610393577.
Gilbert, William J.; Nicholson, W. Keith (2004-01-30). Modern Algebra with Applications. John Wiley & Sons. p. 7. ISBN 9780471469896.
New Scientist. Inside the world's first computers - Allan Bromley. Reed Business Information. 1983-09-15. p. 784.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: others (link)

cnam.fr (Global: low place; English: low place)

cnum.cnam.fr

(fr) Le calcul simplifié Maurice d'Ocagne, page 269, Bibliothèque numérique du CNAM

columbia.edu (Global: 488^th place; English: 374^th place)

computerhistory.org (Global: 2,213^th place; English: 1,495^th place)

- "The Jacquard Loom: A Driver of the Industrial Revolution". computerhistory.org. Computer History Museum. In Lyon, France, Joseph Marie Jacquard (1752-1834) demonstrated in 1801 a loom that enabled unskilled workers to weave complex patterns in silk.

doi.org (Global: 2^nd place; English: 2^nd place)

Fowler, Charles B. (October 1967). "The Museum of Music: A History of Mechanical Instruments". Music Educators Journal. 54 (2): 45–49. doi:10.2307/3391092. JSTOR 3391092. S2CID 190524140.
Koetsier, Teun (2001). "On the prehistory of programmable machines: musical automata, looms, calculators". Mechanism and Machine Theory. 36 (5): 589–603. doi:10.1016/S0094-114X(01)00005-2.
Hill, Donald (1985). "Al-Bīrūnī's mechanical calendar". Annals of Science. 42 (2): 139–163. doi:10.1080/00033798500200141. ISSN 0003-3790.
Lorch, R. P. (1976). "The Astronomical Instruments of Jabir ibn Aflah and the Torquetum". Centaurus. 20 (1): 11–34. Bibcode:1976Cent...20...11L. doi:10.1111/j.1600-0498.1976.tb00214.x.
Bedini, Silvio A.; Maddison, Francis R. (1966). "Mechanical Universe: The Astrarium of Giovanni de' Dondi". Transactions of the American Philosophical Society. 56 (5): 1–69. doi:10.2307/1006002. JSTOR 1006002.
Kennedy, E. S. (November 1947). "Al-Kāshī's "Plate of Conjunctions"". Isis. 38 (1/2): 56–59. doi:10.1086/348036. ISSN 0021-1753. JSTOR 225450. S2CID 143993402.
Kennedy, Edward S. (1950). "A Fifteenth-Century Planetary Computer: al-Kashi's "Tabaq al-Manateq" I. Motion of the Sun and Moon in Longitude". Isis. 41 (2): 180–183. doi:10.1086/349146. PMID 15436217. S2CID 43217299.
Kennedy, Edward S. (1952). "A Fifteenth-Century Planetary Computer: al-Kashi's "Tabaq al-Maneteq" II: Longitudes, Distances, and Equations of the Planets". Isis. 43 (1): 42–50. doi:10.1086/349363. S2CID 123582209.
Kennedy, Edward S. (1951). "An Islamic Computer for Planetary Latitudes". Journal of the American Oriental Society. 71 (1): 13–21. doi:10.2307/595221. JSTOR 595221.
Rutherford, Ernest; Wynn-Williams, C. E.; Lewis, W. B. (October 1931), "Analysis of the α-Particles Emitted from Thorium C and Actinium C", Proceedings of the Royal Society A, 133 (822): 351–366, Bibcode:1931RSPSA.133..351R, doi:10.1098/rspa.1931.0155
Turing, Alan M. (1936), "On Computable Numbers, with an Application to the Entscheidungsproblem", Proceedings of the London Mathematical Society, 2, vol. 42 (published 1937), pp. 230–265, doi:10.1112/plms/s2-42.1.230, S2CID 73712 (and Turing, Alan M. (1938), "On Computable Numbers, with an Application to the Entscheidungsproblem. A correction", Proceedings of the London Mathematical Society, 2, vol. 43, no. 6 (published 1937), pp. 544–546, doi:10.1112/plms/s2-43.6.544)
Rojas, R. (1998). "How to make Zuse's Z3 a universal computer". IEEE Annals of the History of Computing. 20 (3): 51–54. doi:10.1109/85.707574. S2CID 14606587.
Tomayko, James E. (1985). "Helmut Hoelzer's Fully Electronic Analog Computer". IEEE Annals of the History of Computing. 7 (3): 227–240. doi:10.1109/MAHC.1985.10025. S2CID 15986944.
Tomayko, James E. (1985). "Helmut Hoelzer's Fully Electronic Analog Computer". IEEE Annals of the History of Computing. 7 (3): 227–240. doi:10.1109/MAHC.1985.10025. S2CID 15986944.
Campbell-Kelly, Martin (April 1982). "The Development of Computer Programming in Britain (1945 to 1955)". IEEE Annals of the History of Computing. 4 (2): 121–139. doi:10.1109/MAHC.1982.10016. S2CID 14861159.

fano.co.uk (Global: low place; English: low place)

"Percy Ludgate's Analytical Machine". fano.co.uk. From Analytical Engine to Electronic Digital Computer: The Contributions of Ludgate, Torres, and Bush by Brian Randell, 1982, Ludgate: pp. 4–5, Quevedo: pp. 6, 11–13, Bush: pp. 13, 16–17. Retrieved 29 October 2018.

handle.net (Global: 102^nd place; English: 76^th place)

hdl.handle.net

"In future will sell adding machines". Chicago Lumberman. Vol. 31. p. 34. hdl:2027/uc1.c2647428.

harvard.edu (Global: 18^th place; English: 17^th place)

ui.adsabs.harvard.edu

Lorch, R. P. (1976). "The Astronomical Instruments of Jabir ibn Aflah and the Torquetum". Centaurus. 20 (1): 11–34. Bibcode:1976Cent...20...11L. doi:10.1111/j.1600-0498.1976.tb00214.x.
Rutherford, Ernest; Wynn-Williams, C. E.; Lewis, W. B. (October 1931), "Analysis of the α-Particles Emitted from Thorium C and Actinium C", Proceedings of the Royal Society A, 133 (822): 351–366, Bibcode:1931RSPSA.133..351R, doi:10.1098/rspa.1931.0155

history-computer.com (Global: low place; English: low place)

"History of Computers and Computing, Mechanical calculators, Pioneers, Leonardo da Vinci". history-computer.com. Retrieved 2017-07-06.

history-science-technology.com (Global: low place; English: low place)

Hassan, Ahmad Y. "Transfer of Islamic Technology to the West, Part II: Transmission Of Islamic Engineering". Retrieved 2008-01-22.

ieeeghn.org (Global: low place; English: 8,044^th place)

Hill, Peter C. J. (2005-09-16). "RALPH BENJAMIN: An Interview Conducted by Peter C. J. Hill" (Interview). Interview #465. IEEE History Center, The Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, Inc. Retrieved 2013-07-18.

ipsj.or.jp (Global: low place; English: low place)

museum.ipsj.or.jp

Early Computers, IPSJ Computer Museum, Information Processing Society of Japan
"Automatic Abacus】 Mechanical Calculating Machine". Mechanical Calculating Machine-Computer Museum. Retrieved 2022-07-15.
"Early Computers: Brief History". museum.ipsj.or.jp. Retrieved 2022-07-15.
"【Kawaguchi Ichitaro (Ministry of Communications and Transportation) 】Kawaguchi Electric Tabulation Machine". museum.ipsj.or.jp. Retrieved 2022-07-15.
Switching Theory/Relay Circuit Network Theory/Theory of Logical Mathematics, IPSJ Computer Museum, Information Processing Society of Japan

jst.go.jp (Global: 1,903^rd place; English: 2,346^th place)

jstage.jst.go.jp

History of Research on Switching Theory in Japan, IEEJ Transactions on Fundamentals and Materials, vol. 124 (2004) no. 8, pp. 720–726, Institute of Electrical Engineers of Japan

jstor.org (Global: 26^th place; English: 20^th place)

Fowler, Charles B. (October 1967). "The Museum of Music: A History of Mechanical Instruments". Music Educators Journal. 54 (2): 45–49. doi:10.2307/3391092. JSTOR 3391092. S2CID 190524140.
Bedini, Silvio A.; Maddison, Francis R. (1966). "Mechanical Universe: The Astrarium of Giovanni de' Dondi". Transactions of the American Philosophical Society. 56 (5): 1–69. doi:10.2307/1006002. JSTOR 1006002.
Kennedy, E. S. (November 1947). "Al-Kāshī's "Plate of Conjunctions"". Isis. 38 (1/2): 56–59. doi:10.1086/348036. ISSN 0021-1753. JSTOR 225450. S2CID 143993402.
Kennedy, Edward S. (1951). "An Islamic Computer for Planetary Latitudes". Journal of the American Oriental Society. 71 (1): 13–21. doi:10.2307/595221. JSTOR 595221.

mt-archive.info (Global: low place; English: low place)

Booth, A.D.; Britten, K.H.V. (September 1947). "Coding for the ARC" (PDF). Birkbeck College, London. Archived from the original (PDF) on 24 March 2020. Retrieved 23 July 2017.

museoscienza.org (Global: low place; English: low place)

Copy of Poleni's machine (it) Museo Nazionale Della Scienza E Della Tecnologia Leonardo Da Vinci. Retrieved 2010-10-04

nih.gov (Global: 4^th place; English: 4^th place)

pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov

Kennedy, Edward S. (1950). "A Fifteenth-Century Planetary Computer: al-Kashi's "Tabaq al-Manateq" I. Motion of the Sun and Moon in Longitude". Isis. 41 (2): 180–183. doi:10.1086/349146. PMID 15436217. S2CID 43217299.

nytimes.com (Global: 7^th place; English: 7^th place)

H. Otto Hirschler, 87, Aided Space Program

officemuseum.com (Global: low place; English: low place)

"Key-Driven Calculators". www.officemuseum.com. Retrieved 2017-09-05.

ox.ac.uk (Global: 613^th place; English: 456^th place)

mhs.ox.ac.uk

"Astrolabe gearing". Museum of the History of Science, Oxford. 2005. Retrieved 2008-01-22.
"History of the Astrolabe". Museum of the History of Science, Oxford.

psu.edu (Global: 207^th place; English: 136^th place)

citeseerx.ist.psu.edu

Radomir S. Stanković (University of Niš), Jaakko T. Astola (Tampere University of Technology), Mark G. Karpovsky (Boston University), Some Historical Remarks on Switching Theory, 2007, DOI 10.1.1.66.1248

rechenmaschinen-illustrated.com (Global: low place; English: low place)

"Odhner Pictures". www.rechenmaschinen-illustrated.com. Leipälä, Timo; Turku, Finland. "The Life and Works of WT Odhner (Part II).". pp. 69–70, 72. Retrieved 2017-09-04.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: others (link)

semanticscholar.org (Global: 11^th place; English: 8^th place)

api.semanticscholar.org

Fowler, Charles B. (October 1967). "The Museum of Music: A History of Mechanical Instruments". Music Educators Journal. 54 (2): 45–49. doi:10.2307/3391092. JSTOR 3391092. S2CID 190524140.
Kennedy, E. S. (November 1947). "Al-Kāshī's "Plate of Conjunctions"". Isis. 38 (1/2): 56–59. doi:10.1086/348036. ISSN 0021-1753. JSTOR 225450. S2CID 143993402.
Kennedy, Edward S. (1950). "A Fifteenth-Century Planetary Computer: al-Kashi's "Tabaq al-Manateq" I. Motion of the Sun and Moon in Longitude". Isis. 41 (2): 180–183. doi:10.1086/349146. PMID 15436217. S2CID 43217299.
Kennedy, Edward S. (1952). "A Fifteenth-Century Planetary Computer: al-Kashi's "Tabaq al-Maneteq" II: Longitudes, Distances, and Equations of the Planets". Isis. 43 (1): 42–50. doi:10.1086/349363. S2CID 123582209.
Turing, Alan M. (1936), "On Computable Numbers, with an Application to the Entscheidungsproblem", Proceedings of the London Mathematical Society, 2, vol. 42 (published 1937), pp. 230–265, doi:10.1112/plms/s2-42.1.230, S2CID 73712 (and Turing, Alan M. (1938), "On Computable Numbers, with an Application to the Entscheidungsproblem. A correction", Proceedings of the London Mathematical Society, 2, vol. 43, no. 6 (published 1937), pp. 544–546, doi:10.1112/plms/s2-43.6.544)
Rojas, R. (1998). "How to make Zuse's Z3 a universal computer". IEEE Annals of the History of Computing. 20 (3): 51–54. doi:10.1109/85.707574. S2CID 14606587.
Tomayko, James E. (1985). "Helmut Hoelzer's Fully Electronic Analog Computer". IEEE Annals of the History of Computing. 7 (3): 227–240. doi:10.1109/MAHC.1985.10025. S2CID 15986944.
Tomayko, James E. (1985). "Helmut Hoelzer's Fully Electronic Analog Computer". IEEE Annals of the History of Computing. 7 (3): 227–240. doi:10.1109/MAHC.1985.10025. S2CID 15986944.
Campbell-Kelly, Martin (April 1982). "The Development of Computer Programming in Britain (1945 to 1955)". IEEE Annals of the History of Computing. 4 (2): 121–139. doi:10.1109/MAHC.1982.10016. S2CID 14861159.

shef.ac.uk (Global: 9,301^st place; English: 6,104^th place)

A 13th Century Programmable Robot Archived 2007-06-29 at the Wayback Machine, University of Sheffield

swipnet.se (Global: low place; English: low place)

home.swipnet.se

Donald Routledge Hill, "Mechanical Engineering in the Medieval Near East", Scientific American, May 1991, pp. 64–9 (cf. Donald Routledge Hill, Mechanical Engineering Archived 2007-12-25 at the Wayback Machine)

tcd.ie (Global: 5,099^th place; English: 3,425^th place)

scss.tcd.ie

"Percy E. Ludgate Prize in Computer Science" (PDF). The John Gabriel Byrne Computer Science Collection. Retrieved 2020-01-15.

telegraph.co.uk (Global: 30^th place; English: 24^th place)

Copping, Jasper (2013-07-11). "Briton: 'I invented the computer mouse 20 years before the Americans'". The Telegraph. Retrieved 2013-07-18.

tut.fi (Global: low place; English: low place)

ticsp.cs.tut.fi

Stanković, Radomir S. [in German]; Astola, Jaakko Tapio [in Finnish], eds. (2008). Reprints from the Early Days of Information Sciences: TICSP Series On the Contributions of Akira Nakashima to Switching Theory (PDF). Tampere International Center for Signal Processing (TICSP) Series. Vol. 40. Tampere University of Technology, Tampere, Finland. ISBN 978-952-15-1980-2. ISSN 1456-2774. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2021-03-08.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link) (3+207+1 pages) 10:00 min

web.archive.org (Global: 1^st place; English: 1^st place)

A 13th Century Programmable Robot Archived 2007-06-29 at the Wayback Machine, University of Sheffield
Donald Routledge Hill, "Mechanical Engineering in the Medieval Near East", Scientific American, May 1991, pp. 64–9 (cf. Donald Routledge Hill, Mechanical Engineering Archived 2007-12-25 at the Wayback Machine)
"Ancient Discoveries, Episode 11: Ancient Robots". History Channel. Archived from the original on 2014-03-01. Retrieved 2008-09-06. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
Stanković, Radomir S. [in German]; Astola, Jaakko Tapio [in Finnish], eds. (2008). Reprints from the Early Days of Information Sciences: TICSP Series On the Contributions of Akira Nakashima to Switching Theory (PDF). Tampere International Center for Signal Processing (TICSP) Series. Vol. 40. Tampere University of Technology, Tampere, Finland. ISBN 978-952-15-1980-2. ISSN 1456-2774. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2021-03-08.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link) (3+207+1 pages) 10:00 min
Rojas, Raúl. "How to Make Zuse's Z3 a Universal Computer". Archived from the original on 2009-11-02.
Booth, A.D.; Britten, K.H.V. (September 1947). "Coding for the ARC" (PDF). Birkbeck College, London. Archived from the original (PDF) on 24 March 2020. Retrieved 23 July 2017.

wikipedia.org (Global: low place; English: low place)

de.wikipedia.org

Stanković, Radomir S. [in German]; Astola, Jaakko Tapio [in Finnish], eds. (2008). Reprints from the Early Days of Information Sciences: TICSP Series On the Contributions of Akira Nakashima to Switching Theory (PDF). Tampere International Center for Signal Processing (TICSP) Series. Vol. 40. Tampere University of Technology, Tampere, Finland. ISBN 978-952-15-1980-2. ISSN 1456-2774. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2021-03-08.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link) (3+207+1 pages) 10:00 min

fi.wikipedia.org

Stanković, Radomir S. [in German]; Astola, Jaakko Tapio [in Finnish], eds. (2008). Reprints from the Early Days of Information Sciences: TICSP Series On the Contributions of Akira Nakashima to Switching Theory (PDF). Tampere International Center for Signal Processing (TICSP) Series. Vol. 40. Tampere University of Technology, Tampere, Finland. ISBN 978-952-15-1980-2. ISSN 1456-2774. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2021-03-08.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link) (3+207+1 pages) 10:00 min

worldcat.org (Global: 5^th place; English: 5^th place)

search.worldcat.org

Hill, Donald (1985). "Al-Bīrūnī's mechanical calendar". Annals of Science. 42 (2): 139–163. doi:10.1080/00033798500200141. ISSN 0003-3790.
Kennedy, E. S. (November 1947). "Al-Kāshī's "Plate of Conjunctions"". Isis. 38 (1/2): 56–59. doi:10.1086/348036. ISSN 0021-1753. JSTOR 225450. S2CID 143993402.
Stanković, Radomir S. [in German]; Astola, Jaakko Tapio [in Finnish], eds. (2008). Reprints from the Early Days of Information Sciences: TICSP Series On the Contributions of Akira Nakashima to Switching Theory (PDF). Tampere International Center for Signal Processing (TICSP) Series. Vol. 40. Tampere University of Technology, Tampere, Finland. ISBN 978-952-15-1980-2. ISSN 1456-2774. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2021-03-08.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link) (3+207+1 pages) 10:00 min

youtube.com (Global: 9^th place; English: 13^th place)

"Ancient Discoveries, Episode 11: Ancient Robots". History Channel. Archived from the original on 2014-03-01. Retrieved 2008-09-06. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)

zib.de (Global: low place; English: low place)

Rojas, Raúl. "How to Make Zuse's Z3 a Universal Computer". Archived from the original on 2009-11-02.

Timeline of computing hardware before 1950 (English Wikipedia)

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